10/14/2007

Chapter 2
Data Manipulation

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All rights reserved

Chapter 2: Data Manipulation

• 2.1 Computer Architecture

• 2.2 Machine Language
• 2.3 Program Execution
• 2.4 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
• 2.5 Communicating with Other Devices
• 2.6 Other Architectures

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Computer Architecture

• Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor

– Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit
– Registers
• General purpose
• Special purpose
• Bus
• Motherboard

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Figure 2.1 CPU and main

memory connected via a bus

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Stored Program Concept

A program can be encoded as bit patterns and

stored in main memory. From there, the CPU
can then extract the instructions and execute
them. In turn, the program to be executed can
be altered easily.

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Terminology

• Machine instruction: An instruction (or

command) encoded as a bit pattern
recognizable by the CPU
• Machine language: The set of all instructions
recognized by a machine

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Machine Language Philosophies

• Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)

– Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions
– Example: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola
• Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)
– Many, convenient, and powerful instructions
– Example: Pentium from Intel

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Machine Instruction Types

• Data Transfer: copy data from one location to

another
• Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns to
compute a new bit patterns
• Control: direct the execution of the program

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Figure 2.2 Adding values stored

in memory

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Figure 2.3 Dividing values stored

in memory

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Figure 2.4 The architecture of the

machine described in Appendix C

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Parts of a Machine Instruction

• Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute

• Operand: Gives more detailed information
about the operation
– Interpretation of operand varies depending on op-
code

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Figure 2.5 The composition of an

instruction for the machine in
Appendix C

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Figure 2.6 Decoding the

instruction 35A7

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Figure 2.7 An encoded version of

the instructions in Figure 2.2

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Program Execution

• Controlled by two special-purpose registers

– Program counter: address of next instruction
– Instruction register: current instruction
• Machine Cycle
– Fetch
– Decode
– Execute

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Figure 2.8 The machine cycle

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Figure 2.9 Decoding the

instruction B258

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Figure 2.10 The program from Figure

2.7 stored in main memory ready for
execution

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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch

step of the machine cycle

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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch

step of the machine cycle (cont’d)

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Arithmetic/Logic Operations

• Logic: AND, OR, XOR

– Masking
• Rotate and Shift: circular shift, logical shift,
arithmetic shift
• Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
– Precise action depends on how the values are
encoded (two’s complement versus floating-point).

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Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit

pattern A3 one bit to the right

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Communicating with Other Devices

• Controller: An intermediary apparatus that handles

communication between the computer and a device
– Specialized controllers for each type of device
– General purpose controllers (USB and FireWire)
• Port: The point at which a device connects to a
computer
• Memory-mapped I/O: CPU communicates with
peripheral devices as though they were memory cells

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Figure 2.13 Controllers attached

to a machine’s bus

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Figure 2.14 A conceptual

representation of memory-mapped I/O

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Communicating with Other Devices

(continued)

• Direct memory access (DMA): Main memory

access by a controller over the bus
• Von Neumann Bottleneck: Insufficient bus
speed impedes performance
• Handshaking: The process of coordinating the
transfer of data between components

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Communicating with Other Devices

(continued)

• Parallel Communication: Several

communication paths transfer bits
simultaneously.
• Serial Communication: Bits are transferred
one after the other over a single communication
path.

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Data Communication Rates

• Measurement units
– Bps: Bits per second
– Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
– Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
– Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
• Bandwidth: Maximum available rate

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Other Architectures

• Technologies to increase throughput:

– Pipelining: Overlap steps of the machine cycle
– Parallel Processing: Use multiple processors
simultaneously
• SISD: No parallel processing
• MIMD: Different programs, different data
• SIMD: Same program, different data

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