Underground Cable Fault Detection Using Arduino

Microcontroller
Abstract:

In urban areas, electrical cables run underground instead of running over, because it does
not affected by any adverse effect of weather such as heavy rainfall, snow, thunder storm.
Whenever a fault occurs within the underground cable, it is difficult to detect the exact
location of the fault for the repair process of particular cable. The proposed system found
the point of the exact location of fault. The paper uses the standard concept of Ohm’s law
i.e. when a low dc voltage is applied at the end of feeder through series resister (cable lines)
then the current will vary depending on the location of the fault. Short in the cable. This
system uses an Arduino microcontroller and a rectified power supply. In this case, the
current detection circuit in combination with the resister is connected to the microcontroller
with the aid of an ADC device to represent the length of wire in Km. Error creation is
performed by a set of switches. The relays are controlled by a relay exciter IC, which is used
to check cable line. A 16x2 LCD is used to display information. Also one more feature is that
using GSM the message of fault detection, location of fault and distance of fault from base
station in kilometers this all information is send to base station. As soon as a fault occurs in a
cable the buzzer produce the alarm to alert and to take an immediate action by field
workers.

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In chapter 1 we discuss about introduction of Embedded Systems,
Problem Statement, Project Objective, Project Scope and Project Outline

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Even the last cables of the decades where made to put the overhead and is currently put
to the underground cable that is superior to the previous method. Because the
underground cable are not affected by adverse weather conditions, such as storm, snow,
heavy rain as well as pollution. But when any fault occurs in the cable, then it is difficult
to locate fault. When it is
easy to detect and correct the faults in overhead line by mere observation, it is not
possible to do so in an underground cable. As they are buried deep in the soil it is not
easy to detect the abnormalities in them. Even when a fault is found to be present it is
very difficult to detect the exact location of the fault. Due to which dugging of entire
area has to do, for detecting and correcting the fault which in turn causes wastage of
moneyand manpower. So it is necessary to know the exact location of faults in the
underground cables . So we will move to find the exact location of fault. Now world has
been digitalized so the paper is intended to detect the location of fault in digitalform. The
underground cable system is the most common practiced followed in many urban areas.
While the fault occurs for some reason at that time the repair process related to that
particular cable is difficult due to not knowing the exact location of fault . In the event of
short circuit (Line to Earth) fault, the voltage accordingly. It is then fed to an ADC to
develop precise digital data that is directed to the programmed Arduino to display the
same in kilometers. Hence this paper is very helpful for determining exact location of
short circuit fault. How to send this message to the base station, how the system works
and alerts the field workers

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 PROBLEM STATEMENT
TYPES OF CABLE FAULTS These are the types of Cable Faults Commonly Found
in the underground Cables. A. Open-Circuit Fault Open circuit fault is a kind of fault that
occurs as a result of the conductor breaking or the conductor being pulled out of its joint. In
such instances, current will not flow there at all, as the conductor is broken (conveyor of
electric current) . B. Short-circuit or cross fault This kind of fault occurs when the insulation
between two cables or between two multicore cables gets damaged. In such instances,
through the main core the current will not flow which is connected to load but will flow
directly from one cable to another or from one core or multi-core cable to the other instead.
The load will be short circuited . C. Ground or earth faults This kind of faults occurs when
the insulation of the cable is damaged. The current will flow through the faulty cablestarts
flowing from core of the cable to earth or the sheath of the cable. Current will not flow
through the load [

1.2 PROJECT SCOPE

Underground cable fault detector deals with finding of exact fault location from the base station
itself. The proposed system finds the exact location of the fault. This paper uses the standard
concept of Ohm’s law i.e. As soon as a low DC voltage is applied at the feeder end through a series
resister, the current would vary depending upon the location of fault in the cable. Cables have some
resistance. We are mainly focusing on the resistance. Resistance can vary with respect to the length
of the cable. If the length of the cable is increase, the value of the resistance will also increase. If any
deviation occurs in the value of resistance, we will call that is fault point and finding that place
through Arduino technology. The standard of distance (kilometer) from the base station is
represented by the fault point. This value displayed by display unit LCD. Also one more feature is

that using GSM the message of fault detection, location of fault and distance of fault from

Methodology: Advanced Methods like Fault Detection, Fault Diagnosis have Become
Important for Many Technical processes for the Improvement of Reliability, Safety and Efficiency.
There are Two Types of Fault location Methods namely Online and Offline methods. [

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 1) Online Method:-To determine the fault points this method utilizes & processes the sampled
voltages & current. Online method for underground cable is less than overhead lines.

2) Offline Method:-This method uses special instrument to test out Service of cable in the field. The
offline Methods are as follows, Tracer Method:-In this Method Fault Point in the Cable lines is
detected by walking on Ground. The Fault point is indicated from Audible signal or Electromagnetic
signal. It is used to Point out Fault location Very Accurately. Example:-A] Tracing Current Method B]
Sheath Coil Method Terminal method:-This Technique is used to Detect Fault Location of Cable from
one or both ends without Tracing. The General Area of Fault is located by the use of this Method,
to Expedite tracing on buried cable. Example:-A] Murray Loop Method B] Impulse Current Method

Proposed System:
Underground cable fault detector deals with finding of exact fault location from the base station
itself. The proposed system finds the exact location of the fault. This paper uses the standard
concept of Ohm’s law i.e. As soon as a low DC voltage is applied at the feeder end through a series
resister, the current would vary depending upon the location of fault in the cable. Cables have some
resistance. We are mainly focusing on the resistance. Resistance can vary with respect to the length
of the cable. If the length of the cable is increase, the value of the resistance will also increase. If any
deviation occurs in the value of resistance, we will call that is fault point and finding that place
through Arduino technology. The standard of distance (kilometre) from the base station is
represented by the fault point. This value displayed by display unit LCD. Also one more feature is
that using GSM the message of fault detection, location of fault and distance of fault from base
station in kilometres this all information is send to base station. Whenever a fault occurs in a cable
the buzzer produces the alarm to alert and to take an immediate action by field workers.

1.5 PROJECT OUTLINE

The project is organized into 5 chapters, namely introduction, Literature

Review, Design approach, Result analysis and conclusion.Chapter2 contains the
complete details about the Introduction of Embedded Systems and Microcontroller.
Chapter 3 describes about the design issues, software and hardware requirements for
the Implementation of sensor interfacing.Chapter 4 consists of the result analysis,

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applications and advantages. Chapter 5 contains conclusion and proposed works to
enhance the project in the future.

CHAPTER2
LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter we discuss about EMBEDDED SYSTEMS and about the

ATmega328p microcontroller.

2.1 INTRODUCTION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Embedded systems are self-contained devices that combine computer

hardware and software designed for a specific purpose within a larger system. In
contrast to general-purpose computers for wide usage, embedded devices provide
efficient and dedicated functionality through customized hardware and software.
Automobiles are one example that contain multiple embedded systems to
independently handle tasks like braking, emissions control, and information display.
This project involved developing an embedded device focused on wireless charging
for electric vehicles through inductive power transfer.

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 Electric vehicles have gained popularity as an eco-friendly transportation
option. However, range anxiety and charging logistics remain barriers to mass
adoption. Inductive or wireless charging allows EV batteries to be charged by parking
over transmitter coils connected to the grid. This requires the vehicle to be stationary
during charging. The aim of this project was to demonstrate an embedded system that
enables wireless charging for EVs while driving, eliminating the need to stop.

The key components developed include an infrared (IR) sensor, relay,

microcontroller, inductor coil, and interface with a solar panel power source. The IR
sensor is used to detect when a vehicle is present over the embedded roadway
transmitter coils. It sends a signal to the microcontroller, which triggers the relay to
activate power flow from the solar panel to the inductor coil. This enables wireless
power transfer to the receiver coil installed on the EV to charge its batteries while in
motion. The embedded system executes this focused task automatically and
seamlessly without user intervention.

This report presents the design, implementation, and testing of the functional
embedded prototype for solar-powered wireless EV charging using IR vehicle
detection. Results validate the wireless charging operation. Further development
could integrate more advanced power management and charging control mechanisms.
The embedded system demonstrates a building block for sustainable transportation
infrastructure with automated wireless charging capabilities.

2.1.1 History and Feature

Given the definition of embedded systems earlier is this chapter; the first such
systems could not possibly have appeared before 1971. That was the year Intel
introduced the world's first microprocessor. This chip, the 4004, was designed for use
in a line of business calculators produced by the Japanese Company Busicom. In
1969, Busicom asked Intel to design a set of custom integrated circuits-one for each

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of their new calculator models. The 4004 was Intel's response rather than design
custom hardware for each calculator, Intel proposed a general-purpose circuit that
could be used throughout the entire line of calculators. Intel's idea was that the
software would give each calculator its unique set of features.
The microcontroller was an overnight success, and its use increased steadily
over the next decade. Early embedded applications included unmanned space probes,
computerized traffic lights, and aircraft flight control systems. In the 1980s,
embedded systems quietly rode the waves of the microcomputer age and brought
microprocessors into every part of our kitchens (bread machines, food processors, and
microwave ovens), living rooms (televisions, stereos, and remote controls), and
workplaces (fax machines, pagers, laser printers, cash registers, and credit card
readers).

It seems inevitable that the number of embedded systems will continue to

increase rapidly. Already there are promising new embedded devices that have
enormous market potential; light switches and thermostats that can be central
computer, intelligent air-bag systems that don't inflate when children or small adults
are present, pal-sized electronic organizers and personal digital assistants (PDAs),
digital cameras, and dashboard navigation systems. Clearly, individuals who possess
the skills and desire to design the next generation of embedded systems will be in
demand for quite some time.

2.1.2 Real Time Systems

One subclass of embedded is worthy of an introduction at this point. As
commonly defined, a real-time system is a computer system that has timing
constraints. In other words, a real-time system is partly specified in terms of its ability
to make certain calculations or decisions in a timely manner. These important
calculations are said to have deadlines for completion. And, for all practical purposes,
a missed deadline is just as bad as a wrong answer.
The issue of what if a deadline is missed is a crucial one. For example, if the
real-time system is part of an airplane's flight control system, it is possible for the
lives of the passengers and crew to be endangered by a single missed deadline.
However, if instead the system is involved in satellite communication, the damage
could be limited to a single corrupt data packet. The more severe the consequences,

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the more likely it will be said that the deadline is "hard" and thus, the system is a hard
real-time system. Real-time systems at the other end of this discussion are said to
have "soft" deadlines.

All of the topics and examples presented in this book are applicable to the
designers of real-time system who is more delight in his work. He must guarantee
reliable operation of the software and hardware under all the possible conditions and
to the degree that human lives depend upon three system's proper execution,
engineering calculations and descriptive paperwork.

2.1.3 Application Areas

Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded

systems. The embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these
systems are used in very market segment- consumer electronics, office automation,
industrial automation, biomedical engineering, wireless communication, data
communication, telecommunications, transportation, military and so on.

2.1.3.1 Consumer appliances

At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital camera,

digital diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV
and air-conditioner, VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders etc. Today’s
high-tech car has about 20 embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark
control, air-conditioning, navigation etc. Even wristwatches are now becoming
embedded systems. The palmtops are powerful embedded systems using which we
can carry out many general-purpose tasks such as playing games and word
processing.

2.1.3.2 Office automation

The office automation products using embedded systems are copying machine,
fax machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.

2.1.3.3 Industrial automation

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 Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process control. These
include pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy, electricity
generation and transmission. The embedded systems for industrial use are designed to
carry out specific tasks such as monitoring the temperature, pressure, humidity,
voltage, current etc., and then take appropriate action based on the monitored levels to
control other devices or to send information to a centralized monitoring station. In
hazardous industrial environment, where human presence has to be avoided, robots
are used, which are programmed to do specific jobs. The robots are now becoming
very powerful and carry out many interesting and complicated tasks such as hardware
assembly.

2.1.3.4 Medical electronics

Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded system. These

equipments include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure measuring
devices, X-ray scanners; equipment used in blood analysis, radiation, colonoscopy,
endoscopy etc. Developments in medical electronics have paved way for more
accurate diagnosis of diseases.

2.1.3.5 Computer networking

Computer networking products such as bridges, routers, Integrated Services

Digital Networks (ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame
relay switches are embedded systems which implement the necessary data
communication protocols. For example, a router interconnects two networks. The two
networks may be running different protocol stacks. The router’s function is to obtain
the data packets from incoming pores, analyze the packets and send them towards the
destination after doing necessary protocol conversion. Most networking equipments,
other than the end systems (desktop computers) we use to access the networks, are
embedded systems

2.1.3.6 Telecommunications

In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be categorized

as subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key
telephones, ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The

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network equipment includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet
Assemblers Dissemblers (PADs), sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP
gatekeeper etc. are the latest embedded systems that provide very low-cost voice
communication over the Internet.

2.1.3.7 Wireless technologies

Advances in mobile communications are paving way for many interesting

applications using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of the
last decade of the 20’h century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides
voice communication while we are on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and
the palmtops can now be used to access multimedia services over the Internet. Mobile
communication infrastructure such as base station controllers, mobile switching
centers are also powerful embedded systems.

2.1.3.8 Security

Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need
to protect our homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store.
Developing embedded systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative
businesses nowadays. Security devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for
authentication and verification are embedded systems. Encryption devices are nearly
99 per cent of the processors that are manufactured end up in~ embedded systems.
Embedded systems find applications in every industrial segment-consumer
electronics, transportation, avionics, biomedical engineering, manufacturing, process
control and industrial automation, data communication, telecommunication, defense,
security etc., used to encrypt the data/voice being transmitted on communication links
such as telephone lines. Biometric systems using fingerprint and face recognition are
now being extensively used for user authentication in banking applications as well as
for access control in high security buildings.

2.1.4 Overview of Embedded System Architecture

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 Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a
Central Processing Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto
which the software is loaded. The software residing on the memory chip is also called
the ‘firmware’. The operating
Figure 2.1: Layered architecture of an embedded system

System runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above the
operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a
desktop computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to
have an operating system in every embedded system. For small appliances such as
remote control units, air conditioners, toys etc., there is no need foran operating
system and you can write only the software specific to that application. For
applications involving complex processing, it is advisable to have an operating
system. In such a case, you need to integrate the application software with the
operating system and then transfer the entire software on to the memory chip.Once the
software is transferred to the memory chip, the software will continue to run fora long
time you don’t need to reload new software.
Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an
embedded system. As shown in Fig 2.2 the building blocks are:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)
 Input Devices
 Output devices

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  Communication interfaces
 Application-specific circuitry

Figure 2.2: A building blocks of an embedded system

2.1.4.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
microcontroller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-
controller is a low-cost processor. Its main attraction is that on the chip itself, there
will be many other components such as memory, serial communication interface,
analog-to digital converter etc. So, for small applications, a micro-controller is the
best choice as the number of external components required will be very less. On the
other hand, microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use many external
components with them. D5P is used mainly for applications in which signal
processing is involved such as audio and video processing.

2.1.4.2 Memory

The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read

Only Memory (ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched
off to the chip, whereas ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off.
So, the firmware is stored in the ROM. When power is switched on, the processor
reads the ROM; the program is program is executed.

2.1.4.3 Input devices

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 Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very
limited capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with
the embedded system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small
keypad-you press one key to give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input
only the digits. Many embedded systems used in process control do not have any
input device foruser interaction; they take inputs fromsensors or transducers 1’fnd
produce electrical signals that are in turn fed to other systems.

2.1.4.4 Output devices

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability.
Some embedded systems will have a fewLight Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the
health status of the system modules, orforvisual indication of alarms. A small Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) may also be used to display someimportant parameters.

2.1.4.5 Communication interfaces

The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at
they may have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems
are provided with one or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422,
RS485, Universal Serial Bus (USB), and IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.

2.1.4.6 Application-specific circuitry

Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required

fat an embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the
processor to carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power
supply either through the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware
has to design in such a way that the power consumption is minimized.

2.1.4.7 Conclusions
Embedded Systems plays a vital role in our day today life. They are used for
household appliances like microwave oven to the satellite applications. They provide
good man to machine interface.

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 Automation is the further step in the world of Embedded Systems, which
includes the elimination of the human being in the mundane applications. They are
cost effective, accurate and can work in any conditions and round the clock.

2.2 Microcontroller

Microcontrollers as the name suggests are small controllers. They are like
single chip computers that are often embedded into other systems to function as
processing/controlling unit. For example the remote control you are using probably
has microcontrollers inside that do decoding and other controlling functions. They are
also used in automobiles, washing machines, microwave ovens, toys ... etc, where
automation is needed.
Micro-controllers are useful to the extent that they communicate with other
devices, such as sensors, motors, switches, keypads, displays, memory and even other
micro-controllers. Many interface methods have been developed over the years to
solve the complex problem of balancing circuit design criteria such as features, cost,
size, weight, power consumption, reliability, availability, manufacturability. Many
microcontroller designs typically mix multiple interfacing methods. In a very
simplistic form, a micro-controller system can be viewed as a system that reads from
(monitors) inputs, performs processing and writes to (controls) outputs.
Embedded system means the processor is embedded into the required
application. An embedded product uses a microprocessor or microcontroller to do one
task only. In an embedded system, there is only one application software that is
typically burned into ROM. Example: printer, keyboard, video game player
Microprocessor - A single chip that contains the CPU or most of the computer
Microcontroller - A single chip used to control other devices

Microcontroller differs from a microprocessor in many ways. First and the

most important is its functionality. In order for a microprocessor to be used, other
components such as memory, or components for receiving and sending data must be
added to it. In short that means that microprocessor is the very heart of the computer.
On the other hand, microcontroller is designed to be all of that in one. No other
external components are needed for its application because all necessary peripherals
are already built into it. Thus, we save the time and space needed to construct devices.

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2.2.1 Advantages of using a Microcontroller over Microprocessor
 Microprocessors are single-chip CPUs used in microcomputers.
 Microcontrollers and microprocessors are different in three main aspects:
hardware architecture, applications, and instruction set features.
 Applications: Microprocessors are commonly used as a CPU in computers
while microcontrollers are found in small, minimum component designs
performing control oriented activities.
 Hardware architecture: A microprocessor is a single chip CPU while a
microcontroller is a single IC contains a CPU and much of remaining circuitry
of a complete computer (e.g., RAM, ROM, serial interface, parallel interface,
timer, and interrupt handling circuit).
 Microprocessor instruction sets are processing Intensive.
 Their instructions operate on nibbles, bytes, words, or even double words.
 Addressing modes provide access to large arrays of data using pointers and
offsets.
 They have instructions to set and clear individual bits and perform bit
operations.
 They have instructions for input/output operations, event timing, enabling and
setting priority levels for interrupts caused by external stimuli.
 Processing power of a microcontroller is much less than a microprocessor.

2.2.2 Applications

Micro controller applications are

 Cell phones.
 Computers.
 Robots.
 Interfacing to two pc.
 Laptops

2.3 ATmega 328p MICROCONTROLLER

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 The Atmel® ATmega328P is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the
AVR® enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single
clock cycle, the ATmega328P achieves throughputs approaching 1MIPS per MHz
allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus processing
speed.

History and Development:

 The ATmega328P is part of the AVR line of microcontrollers developed by Atmel

starting in 1996. The AVR architecture was designed to be a low-power, high-
performance alternative to existing microcontrollers at the time.
 The 'mega' series of AVR microcontrollers were developed in the early 2000s,
offering more memory and peripherals than earlier models. The mega328 variant
launched around 2005.
 The ATmega328P specifically built upon earlier variants like the mega168 with
features like more flash memory (32KB vs 16KB), higher speed 16MHz crystal
oscillator, and lower power consumption.
 In 2009, Atmel released the 328P model (the P standing for picoPower) that could
operate on lower voltages than prior models. This opened its use in more low
power applications.
 The ATmega328P became immensely popular as the microcontroller used in
open-source Arduino boards starting with the Arduino Uno in 2010. This drove
broad adoption by hobbyists and for educational purposes.

2.3.1 Functional Block Diagram of ATmega 328p Microcontroller

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Figure 2.3: Functional Diagram of ATmega 328p

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 2.3.2 Pin configuration of ATmega 328p Microcontroller

Figure 2.4: PIN Diagram of ATmega 328p

Pin Pin name Description Secondary Function

No.

1 PC6 (RESET) Pin6 of Pin by default is used as RESET pin. PC6 can only be used
PORTC when RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed.

2 PD0 (RXD) Pin0 of RXD (Data Input Pin for USART)

PORTD
USART Serial Communication Interface

[Can be used for programming]

3 PD1 (TXD) Pin1 of TXD (Data Output Pin for USART)

PORTD
USART Serial Communication Interface

[Can be used for programming]

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 INT2( External Interrupt 2 Input)

4 PD2 (INT0) Pin2 of External Interrupt source 0

PORTD

5 PD3 (INT1/OC2B) Pin3 of External Interrupt source1

PORTD

OC2B(PWM - Timer/Counter2 Output Compare Match B Ou

6 PD4 (XCK/T0) Pin4 of T0( Timer0 External Counter Input)

PORTD
XCK ( USART External Clock I/O)

7 VCC Connected to positive voltage

8 GND Connected to ground

9 PB6 Pin6 of XTAL1 (Chip Clock Oscillator pin 1 or External clock input)
(XTAL1/TOSC1) PORTB
TOSC1 (Timer Oscillator pin 1)

10 PB7 Pin7 of XTAL2 (Chip Clock Oscillator pin 2)

(XTAL2/TOSC2) PORTB
TOSC2 (Timer Oscillator pin 2)

11 PD5 Pin5 of T1(Timer1 External Counter Input)

PORTD
(T1/OC0B)

OC0B(PWM - Timer/Counter0 Output Compare Match B Ou

12 PD6 (AIN0/OC0A) Pin6 of AIN0(Analog Comparator Positive I/P)

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 PORTD

OC0A(PWM - Timer/Counter0 Output Compare Match A Ou

13 PD7 (AIN1) Pin7 of AIN1(Analog Comparator Negative I/P)

PORTD

14 PB0 (ICP1/CLKO) Pin0 of ICP1(Timer/Counter1 Input Capture Pin)

PORTB

CLKO (Divided System Clock. The divided system cloc

output on the PB0 pin)

15 PB1 (OC1A) Pin1 of OC1A (Timer/Counter1 Output Compare Match A Output)

PORTB

16 PB2 (SS/OC1B) Pin2 of SS (SPI Slave Select Input). This pin is low when controll
PORTB slave.

[Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for programming]

OC1B (Timer/Counter1 Output Compare Match B Output)

17 PB3 Pin3 of MOSI (Master Output Slave Input). When controller acts as
(MOSI/OC2A) PORTB data is received by this pin. [Serial Peripheral Interface
programming]

OC2 (Timer/Counter2 Output Compare Match Output)

18 PB4 (MISO) Pin4 of MISO (Master Input Slave Output). When controller acts as
PORTB data is sent to master by this controller through this pin.

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 [Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for programming]

19 PB5 (SCK) Pin5 of SCK (SPI Bus Serial Clock). This is the clock shared bet
PORTB controller and other system for accurate data transfer.

[Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) for programming]

20 AVCC Power for Internal ADC Converter

21 AREF Analog Reference Pin for ADC

22 GND GROUND

23 PC0 (ADC0) Pin0 of ADC0 (ADC Input Channel 0)

PORTC

24 PC1 (ADC1) Pin1 of ADC1 (ADC Input Channel 1)

PORTC

25 PC2 (ADC2) Pin2 of ADC2 (ADC Input Channel 2)

PORTC

26 PC3 (ADC3) Pin3 of ADC3 (ADC Input Channel 3)

PORTC

27 PC4 (ADC4/SDA) Pin4 of ADC4 (ADC Input Channel 4)

PORTC
SDA (Two-wire Serial Bus Data Input/output Line)

28 PC5 (ADC5/SCL) Pin5 of ADC5 (ADC Input Channel 5)

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 PORTC SCL (Two-wire Serial Bus Clock Line)

2.3.3 KEY FEATURES:

● High performance, low power AVR® 8-bit microcontroller
● I/O and packages
23 programmable I/O lines
32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF
● Operating voltage:
2.7V to 5.5V for ATmega328P
● Temperature range:
Automotive temperature range: –40°C to +125°C
● Speed grade:
0 to 8MHz at 2.7 to 5.5V (automotive temperature range: –40°C to +125°C)
0 to 16MHz at 4.5 to 5.5V (automotive temperature range: –40°C to +125°C)
● Low power consumption
Active mode: 1.5mA at 3V - 4MHz
Power-down mode: 1µA at 3V

CHAPTER 3
DESIGN APPROACH

In this chapter, we discuss the block diagram of the implementation of the embedded technology for
the Underground Cable Fault Distance Locator, including the hardware and software requirements.

22
 3.1 Block diagramof the implementation of the embedded technology for the
Underground Cable Fault Distance Locator, including the hardware and software
requirements.

Switches array Power supply

Arduino uno

Load1 Relay 1 Lcd disply

Load2 Relay2
Gsm

Relay3
Load3 Gps

Figure 3.1: Implementation block diagram

Figure 3.2: Power supply block diagram

The wireless electric vehicle charging system is comprised of several main components that
work together to enable charging on the move. The block diagram depicts the arrangement
and flow of these key components. The detection module, which includes the IR sensor, picks
up when a vehicle is present and sends a detection signal to the microcontroller. The
microcontroller processes this input and controls the relay, switching it on when a vehicle is
detected. The relay activation allows power to flow from the solar panel to the inductor coil
mounted under the roadway. This enables wireless power transfer to occur from the roadway

23
coil to the EV receiver coil for charging the battery. The microcontroller also monitors the
charging process and can provide outputs like charging status on a display. The modular
layout of the detection module, processor, switch, wireless power transfer coils, and power
source provides the core functionality to demonstrate wireless EV charging triggered by the
presence of a vehicle.

3.2 HARDWARE TOOLS

In this project the hardware requirements are following:
 POWER SUPPLY
 Switches
 RELAY
 LCD
 Gsm
 ARDUINO UNO
 Gps
 Esp8266
3.2.1 Power supply unit
The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e.,
230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier.
The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c
voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components
present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a
pure constant dc voltage.

Figure 3.3: Circuit Diagram of Power Supply

Power Supply Unit Consists Of Following Units

 Step down transformer

24
  Rectifier unit
 Filter
 Regulator unit

 3.2.1.1 Step-down Transformer

Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and
these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly.
Thus the a.c input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to
the required voltage level. This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down
transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a required level.

Figure 3.4: Step-down Transformers

 3.2.1.2 Rectifier
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into
pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project,
a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave
rectification.
The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage
using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in
the figure.

 Figure 3.5: Bridge Wave Rectifier Circuit

25
 For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series
with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.
 For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series
with the load resistance R L and hence the current flows through R L in the same
direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a
unidirectional wave.

Figure 3.6: Output Voltage/Current Waveforms of Bridge Rectifier

 3.2.1.3 Filter

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of
rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the
mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied,
D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the
output stage.

 3.2.1.4 Voltage regulator

26
 As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage
regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant
voltage level. In this project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to
obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first
number 78 represents positive supply and the numbers 05, 12 represent the required
output voltage levels. The L78xx series of three-terminal positive regulators is
available in TO-220, TO-220FP, TO-3, D2PAK and DPAK packages and several
fixed output voltages, making it useful in a wide range of applications. These
regulators can provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems
associated with single point regulation. Each type employs internal current limiting,
thermal shut-down and safe area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If
adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1 A output current. Although
designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external
components to obtain adjustable voltage and currents.

Figure 3.7: 7805 RegulatorsFigure 3.8: Regulators

3.2.2IR Sensor

Figure 3.9: IR sensor

27
Sensors, mostly robotic and digitalization, are a crucial part of electronics.
Electronic device sensors make our society simpler, without operator interaction,
by automatically sensing and controlling the devices. The sensors, such as fire
sensors, rain sensors, user inputs, heat sensors, IR sensors, etc. are various. This
blog entry will explain how the IR sensor works and how the IR sensor module is
built.

Hardware Component

The following components are required to make IR Sensor Module Circuit

S.no Component Value Qty

1. IR pair (IR LED and Photodiode) – 1

2. Resistor 10K, 100K, 330 Ohm, 10K Var 1, 1, 1, 1

3. IC LM358 1

4. LED – 1

28
Figure 3.9: LM358 Pinout

Applications and Uses

Detector infrasound emits or senses infrared radiation to get its setting. There was a
mistake. The basic idea for an infrared sensor used to send an infrared signal is to
transfer this simple pleasure signal from an image, and the signal is received in an
indirect receiver.

3.2.3DC Relay

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Figure 3.12: DC Relay

The electromagnetic induction principle governs the operation of a relay. When we

apply a current to an electromagnet, it creates a magnet around it. The copper coil
and iron core operate as electromagnets in the relay. When DC is introduced to the
coil, it begins to attract the contact as indicated. We call this relay energizing.
When you remove the supply, it returns to its original position. This is referred to
as relay de-energization.

Hardware Components

The following components are required to make the Relay Switch Driver Circuit

S.no Component Value Qty

1. Relay SPDT – 1

2. Diode 1N4007 1

3. Transistor SL100 4

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 S.no Component Value Qty

4. Resistor 1KΩ, 10KΩ 1,1

5. Battery 12V 1

6. 2-Pin Connector – 1

Figure 3.13: SL 100 Pinout

For a detailed description of pinout, dimension features, and specifications

download the datasheet of SL100

31
Figure 3.14:Relay Switch Driver

Working Explanation

Here we are providing a common application circuit for a DC Relay switch.

Through a switching transistor, the magnetic coil is wired to the bias. To shield the
coil from back emf, we use a reverse bias flywheel diode across the coil. The coil
is immediately connected to bias via the input Vin to the transistor base, which
causes conduction through the transistor. It energizes the coil when Vin lowers the
transistor to cut and disconnects the relay coil from the bias.

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Application and Uses

Relays have a wide range of applications, which include:

 Different DIY projects.

 Industrial applications
 Home automation systems.

3.3.2 Liquid Crystal Display

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use
replacing LEDs. It displays all the alphabets, Greek letters, punctuation marks,
mathematical symbols etc
3.3.2.1 Pins Functions
There are the pins used for connection to the microcontroller.
Table 3.1: LCD pins description
Pin
Function Name Logic State Description
Number
Ground 1 Vss - 0V

Power supply 2 Vdd - +5V

Contrast 3 Vee - 0 - Vdd

0 D0 – D7 are interpreted as commands
4 RS
1 D0 – D7 are interpreted as data

0 Write data (from controller to LCD)

5 R/W
1 Read data (from LCD to controller)
Control of
0
operation Access to LCD disabled
1
6 E Normal operating
From 1 to
Data/commands are transferred to LCD
0
Data / 7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB
commands
8 D1 0/1 Bit 1

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 9 D2 0/1 Bit 2

10 D3 0/1 Bit 3

11 D4 0/1 Bit 4

12 D5 0/1 Bit 5

13 D6 0/1 Bit 6

14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB

3.3.2.2 LCD BASIC COMMANDS

All data transferred to LCD through outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as

commands or as data, which depends on logic state on pin RS:RS = 1 - Bits D0 - D7
are addresses of characters that should be displayed. Built in processor addresses built
in “map of characters” and displays corresponding symbols. Displaying position is
determined by DDRAM address. This address is either previously defined or the
address of previously transferred character is automatically incremented

Table 3.2: LCD basic commands

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 Execution
I/D Command
1 = Increment (by 1) RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
Time
Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.64mS

Cursor
R/L home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x 1.64mS
1 = Shift right I/
Entry mode set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S 40uS
D
Display on/off control 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D U B 40uS

Cursor/Display Shift 0 0 0 0 0 1 D/C R/L x x 40uS

Function set 0 0 0 0 1 DL N F x x 40uS

Set CGRAM address 0 0 0 1 CGRAM address 40uS

Set DDRAM address 0 0 1 DDRAM address 40uS

Read “BUSY” flag (BF) 0 1 BF DDRAM address -

Write to CGRAM or DDRAM 1 0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS

Read from CGRAM or
1 1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS
DDRAM

0 = Decrement (by 1) 0 = Shift left

S 1 = Display shift on DL 1 = 8-bit interface

0 = Display shift off 0 = 4-bit interface

D 1 = Display on N 1 = Display in two lines

0 = Display off 0 = Display in one line

U 1 = Cursor on F 1 = Character format 5x10 dots

0 = Cursor off 0 = Character format 5x7 dots

B 1 = Cursor blink on D/C 1 = Display shift

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 0 = Cursor blink off 0 = Cursor shift

3.3.2.3 LCD CONNECTION

Depending on how many lines are used for connection to the microcontroller,
there are 8-bit and 4-bit LCD modes. The appropriate mode is determined at the
beginning of the process in a phase called “initialization”. In the first case, the data
are transferred through outputs D0-D7 as it has been already explained. In case of 4-
bit LED mode, for the sake of saving valuable I/O pins of the microcontroller, there
are only 4 higher bits (D4-D7) used for communication, while other may be left
unconnected.

Consequently, each data is sent to LCD in two steps: four higher bits are sent
first (that normally would be sent through lines D4-D7), four lower bits are sent
afterwards. With the help of initialization, LCD will correctly connect and interpret
each data received. Besides, with regards to the fact that data are rarely read from
LCD (data mainly are transferred from microcontroller to LCD) one more I/O pin
may be saved by simple connecting R/W pin to the Ground. Such saving has its price.
Even though message displaying will be normally performed, it will not be possible to
read from busy flag since it is not possible to read from display.

3.3.2.4 LCD INITIALIZATION

Once the power supply is turned on, LCD is automatically cleared. This
process lasts for approximately 15mS. After that, display is ready to operate. The
mode of operating is set by default. This means that:
1. Display is cleared
2. Mode
DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface
N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line
F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots
3. Display/Cursor on/off
D = 0 Display off
U = 0 Cursor off
B = 0 Cursor blink off

36
 4. Character entry
ID = 1 Addresses on display are automatically incremented by 1
S = 0 Display shift off
Automatic reset is mainly performed without any problems. Mainly but not
always! If for any reason power supply voltage does not reach full value in the course
of 10mS, display will start perform completely unpredictable? If voltage supply unit
can not meet this condition or if it is needed to provide completely safe operating, the
process of initialization by which a new reset enabling display to operate normally
must be applied.

Algorithm according to the initialization is being performed depends on

whether connection to the microcontroller is through 4- or 8-bit interface. All left over
to be done after that is to give basic commands and of course- to display messages.

Contrast control

To have a clear view of the characters on the LCD, contrast should be

adjusted. To adjust the contrast, the voltage should be varied. For this, a preset is used
which can behave like a variable voltage device. As the voltage of this preset is

varied, the contrast of the LCD can be adjusted.

Figure 3.11: Variable resistors

Potentiometer

Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected.

This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching
point of a circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier
circuit. If the terminals at the ends of the track are connected across the power supply,
then the wiper terminal will provide a voltage which can be varied from zero up to the
maximum of the supply.

Presets

37
 These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be
mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For
example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A
small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets. Presets are much cheaper than
standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable
resistor would normally be used.

3.2.3

3.2.3 Arduino
We can directly connect the board to the computer via a USB Cable which performs the function of
supplying the power as well as acting as a serial port.

38
 

Figure 3.17: Arduino Pin diagram

Vin: This is the input voltage pin of the Arduino board used to provide input
supply from an external power source.

5V: This pin of the Arduino board is used as a regulated power supply voltage
and it is used to give supply to the board as well as onboard components.

3.3V: This pin of the board is used to provide a supply of 3.3V which is
generated from a voltage regulator on the board

GND: This pin of the board is used to ground the Arduino board.

39
Reset: This pin of the board is used to reset the microcontroller. It is used to
Resets the microcontroller.

Analog Pins: The pins A0 to A5 are used as an analog input and it is in the range
of 0-5V.

Digital Pins: The pins 0 to 13 are used as a digital input or output for the
Arduino board.

Serial Pins: These pins are also known as a UART pin. It is used for
communication between the Arduino board and a computer or other devices. The
transmitter pin number 1 and receiver pin number 0 is used to transmit and
receive the data resp.

External Interrupt Pins: This pin of the Arduino board is used to produce the
External interrupt and it is done by pin numbers 2 and 3.

PWM Pins: This pins of the board is used to convert the digital signal into an
analog by varying the width of the Pulse. The pin numbers 3,5,6,9,10 and 11 are
used as a PWM pin.

SPI Pins: This is the Serial Peripheral Interface pin, it is used to maintain SPI
communication with the help of the SPI library. SPI pins include:

1. SS: Pin number 10 is used as a Slave Select

2. MOSI: Pin number 11 is used as a Master Out Slave In
3. MISO: Pin number 12 is used as a Master In Slave Out
4. SCK: Pin number 13 is used as a Serial Clock

LED Pin: The board has an inbuilt LED using digital pin-13. The LED glows
only when the digital pin becomes high.

40
AREF Pin: This is an analog reference pin of the Arduino board. It is used to
provide a reference voltage from an external power supply.

3.2.3 Buck boost converter

Buck Converter is a type of chopper circuit that is designed to p

zerform step-down conversion of the applied dc input signal. In the case of buck
converters, the fixed dc input signal is changed into another dc signal at the
output which is of lower value. This means it is designed to produce a dc signal
as its output that possesses a lower magnitude than the applied input.

The list of components required to build the 5A Buck Converter Circuit is shown
below-

41
 Figure 3.18: Buck converter

 XL4015 Buck Converter IC - 1

 78L05 Voltage Regulator - 1

 LM358 op-amp - 1

 SS54 Schottky Diode- 1

 TL431 Programmable Reference - 1

 470uF,35V Capacitor - 2

 10uF 0805 Capacitor -2

 10K Ten Turns Trim Pot - 2

 0.1uF Capacitor - 3

 270R Resistor - 1

 1K Resistor - 2
42
  2.2K Resistor - 1

 10K Resistor - 1

 71.5K Resistor - 1

 90.9K Resistor - 1

 LED 0805 - 3

 Screw Terminal - 2

3.4 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

The software’s used for this project are:

3.4.1 EMBEDDED C

HI-TECH Software makes industrial-strength software development tools and C

compilers that help software developers write compact, efficient embedded processor
code.

For over two decades HI-TECH Software has delivered the industry's most reliable
embedded software development tools and compilers for writing efficient and compact
code to run on the most popular embedded processors. Used by tens of thousands of
customers including General Motors, Whirlpool, Qualcomm, John Deere and many
others, HI-TECH's reliable development tools and C compilers, combined with world-
class support have helped serious embedded software programmers to create hundreds of
breakthrough new solutions.

Whichever embedded processor family you are targeting with your software,
whether it is the ARM, PICC or 8051 series, HI-TECH tools and C compilers can
help you write better code and bring it to market faster.

HI-TECH PICC is a high-performance C compiler for the Microchip PIC

micro 10/12/14/16/17 series of microcontrollers. HI-TECH PICC is an industrial-

43
strength ANSI C compiler - not a subset implementation like some other PIC
compilers. The PICC compiler implements full ISO/ANSI C, with the exception of
recursion. All data types are supported including 24 and 32 bit IEEE standard floating
point. HI-TECH PICC makes full use of specific PIC features and using an intelligent
optimizer, can generate high-quality code easily rivaling hand-written assembler.
Automatic handling of page and bank selection frees the programmer from the trivial
details of assembler code.

3.4.1.1 EMBEDDED C COMPILER

 ANSI C - full featured and portable

 Reliable - mature, field-proven technology

 Multiple C optimization levels

 Full linker, with overlaying of local variables to minimize RAM usage

 Comprehensive C library with all source code provided

 Includes support for 24-bit and 32-bit IEEE floating point and 32-bit long data
types

 Mixed C and assembler programming

 Listings showing generated assembler

 Compatible - integrates into the MPLAB IDE, MPLAB ICD and most 3rd-
party development tools

 Runs on multiple platforms: Windows, Linux, UNIX, Mac OS X, Solaris

Embedded Development Environment

PICC can be run entirely from the. This environment allows you to manage all
of your PIC projects. You can compile, assemble and link your embedded application
with a single step.

Optionally, the compiler may be run directly from the command line, allowing
you to compile, assemble and link using one command. This enables the compiler to
be integrated into third party development environments, such as Microchip's
MPLAB IDE.

3.4.1.2 EMBEDDED SYSTEM TOOLS

44
ASSEMBLER

An assembler is a computer program for translating assembly language — essentially,

a mnemonic representation of machine language — into object code. A cross
assembler (see cross compiler) produces code for one type of processor, but runs on
another. The computational step where an assembler is run is known as assembly
time. Translating assembly instruction mnemonics into opcodes, assemblers provide
the ability to use symbolic names for memory locations (saving tedious calculations
and manually updating addresses when a program is slightly modified), and macro
facilities for performing textual substitution — typically used to encode common
short sequences of instructions to run inline instead of in a subroutine. Assemblers are
far simpler to write than compilers for high-level languages.

Assembly language has several benefits:

 Speed: Assembly language programs are generally the fastest programs

around.

 Space: Assembly language programs are often the smallest.

 Capability: You can do things in assembly which are difficult or impossible

in High level languages.

 Knowledge: Your knowledge of assembly language will help you write better
programs, even when using High level languages. An example of an assembler
we use in our project is RAD 51.

3.4.2Arduino IDE
 It provides a user-friendly interface for writing, compiling and
uploading code to Arduino boards. This includes features like text
editing, cutting/pasting, automatic formatting etc.
 It includes pre-configured settings and libraries for different
Arduino boards to make coding and uploading sketches simpler.
Users don't have to manually configure low-level details.

45
  It allows managing sketches with features like opening, closing,
saving and renaming. Multiple sketches can be kept in one
window.
 The IDE links the code to the Arduino compilers and upload tools
behind the scenes. This handles translation of code to machine
instructions and deployment to the board.
 It provides built-in serial monitors to communicate with Arduino
boards for debugging and sending/receiving data.
 It integrates with extension libraries that can be added to provide
extra functionality for different sensors, displays, communication
protocols etc.
 The interface allows managing multiple Arduino boards connected
to the computer and uploading sketches separately to each one.
 It provides sample code and examples as a starting point for
common Arduino projects.

To dump the code

1. Open Arduino IDE

If you haven’t done so already, download Arduino IDE from the software page.

46
2. Connect the board to your computer

Next, connect to board to your computer with a USB cable. This will both power the board and
allow the IDE to send instructions to the board. You’ll need a data USB cable (a charge-only
cable will not work), with connectors that fit both the board and your computer.

Arduino boards use different USB connectors:

 USB-B (UNO Rev3, UNO WiFi Rev2, Mega boards)

 Mini-B USB (Nano)
 Micro-B (Nano Family boards (except the classic Nano), MKR Family boards)
 USB-C (Portenta boards, UNO Mini Limited Edition)

The most common USB connector is USB-A, but newer laptop computers may only have USB-
C.

47
3. Install board package

To compile and upload sketches for your board Arduino IDE needs a collection of files for that
board called a board package.

When Arduino IDE detects a board with a missing board package, it may ask you to install the
missing files:

 In IDE 2, click Yes.

 In IDE 1, click Install this package:

If no prompt appears, proceed with the next step. If you at any point need to manually find and
add a missing board package, see Add boards to Arduino IDE.

4. Select board and port

Port and board selection can be managed in two ways:

 Using the board selector (requires IDE 2)

 Using the Tools menu

Using the board selector

Follow these steps to use a connected board:

1. Find the board selector and click to open.

2. A list of ports will be displayed. If a board could be identified, the board name will be
displayed, otherwise, it will display “Unknown”.

48
 3. Click on a port to select it.

When you select a board, the following may occur:

 If it is unknown, the “Select Other board and port” dialog will open. See Select board
and port in Arduino IDE for details.

 If the board could be identified, but you are missing the board platform, you may be
asked to install it:

 Select Yes to automatically install the board package in the background.

 Select Install manually to view the package in the Board Manager.

To learn more about installing boards, see Add a board to Arduino IDE.

49
Using the Tools menu

Select board:

1. Click on Tools in the menu bar and find the Board row. If a board is currently selected
it will be displayed here.

2. Hover over the Board row to reveal the installed board packages. These packages
contain some popular boards:

Package Boards

Arduino Uno, Arduino Mega, Arduino Nano

Arduino AVR boards
(classic)

Arduino megaAVR boards Arduino Uno WiFi Rev2, Arduino Nano Every

50
 Package Boards

Arduino SAMD (32-bits ARM MKR Zero, MKR WiFi 1000, MKR WiFi 1010, and
Cortex-M0+) Boards other MKR boards

Arduino Nano 33 BLE, Arduino Nano 33 BLE

Mbed OS Nano boards
Sense, Arduino Nano RP2040 Connect

3. Troubleshooting: If you don’t know which package to use, or if it’s missing from the
list, see Add a board to Arduino IDE.

4. Click on a board to select it.

Select port:

1. Click on Tools in the menu bar and find the Port row. If a board is currently selected it
will be displayed here.

2. Hover over the Port to reveal all ports. For Arduino devices, the board name will
typically be displayed after the port, for example:

51
  COM3 (Arduino Uno)
 /dev/cu.usbmodem14101 (Arduino Uno)
 /dev/ttyACM0 (Arduino Uno)

3. Click on a port to select it. If the port with your board is already selected you don’t
have to do anything. If you don’t see your board in the list, see If your board does not
appear in the port menu.

5. Upload a sketch

1. Write a sketch, or use an Example such as Blink (File > Examples >01.Basics>
Blink).

2. Optional: Click the Verify button to try compiling the sketch and check for errors.

3. Click the Upload button to program the board with the sketch.

Your sketch will start running on the board. It will run again each time the board is reset.

Troubleshooting

 Make sure you’ve followed the steps before, especially selecting the board and port
correctly.
 If you can’t find your board in the port menu, or if the Tools > Port port menu is
missing, see If your board does not appear in the port menu.
 If you get an upload error, see Errors when uploading a sketch.

Global Positioning System

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that
provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the
United States government and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver.

52
The GPS program provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around
the world. In addition, GPS is the backbone for modernizing the global air traffic system.

The GPS project was developed in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation
systems,[1] integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a number of classified
engineering design studies from the 1960s. GPS was created and realized by the U.S.
Department of Defense (DoD) and was originally run with 24 satellites. It became fully
operational in 1994.

Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to
modernize the GPS system and implement the next generation of GPS III satellites and Next
Generation Operational Control System (OCX). [2] Announcements from the Vice President
and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, U.S. Congress authorized the
modernization effort, referred to as GPS III.

In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian GLObal
NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was in use by only the Russian military, until it
was made fully available to civilians in 2007. There are also the planned European Union
Galileo positioning system, Chinese Compass navigation system, and Indian Regional
Navigational Satellite System.

History

The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio-navigation systems, such as
LORAN and the Decca Navigator developed in the early 1940s, and used during World War
II. In 1956, Friedwardt Winterberg[3] proposed a test of general relativity (for time slowing in
a strong gravitational field) using accurate atomic clocks placed in orbit inside artificial
satellites. (To achieve accuracy requirements, GPS uses principles of general relativity to
correct the satellites' atomic clocks. [4]) Additional inspiration for GPS came when the Soviet
Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik in 1957. Two American physicists,
William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins's Applied Physics Laboratory
(APL), decided on their own to monitor Sputnik's radio transmissions. [5] Within hours they
realized that, because of the Doppler effect, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along
its orbit from the Doppler shift. The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC
to do the heavy calculations required. When they released the orbit of Sputnik to the media,

53
the Russians were dumbfounded to learn how powerful American computers had become, as
they would not have been able to calculate the orbit themselves. The following spring, Frank
McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to look at the inverse
problem where you know the location of the satellite and you want to find your own location.
(The Navy was developing the submarine-launched Polaris missile, which required them to
know the submarine's location.) This led them and APL to develop the Transit system.[6]

Official logo for Emblem of the

NAVSTAR GPS 50th Space
Wing

The first satellite navigation system, Transit (satellite), used by the United States Navy, was
first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a
navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation
satellite that proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology required by
GPS. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on phase comparison
of signal transmission from pairs of stations, [7] became the first worldwide radio navigation
system. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution
with greater accuracy.

While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost
none of those were seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research,
development, deployment, and operation for a constellation of navigation satellites. During
the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one
need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect
is why GPS was funded. It is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time. The nuclear
triad consisted of the United States Navy's submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs)
along with United States Air Force (USAF) strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic
missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear deterrence posture, accurate determination
of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier.

54
Precise navigation would enable United States submarines to get an accurate fix of their
positions prior to launching their SLBMs. [8] The USAF with two-thirds of the nuclear triad
also had requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system. The Navy and Air
Force were developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the
same problem. To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile
launch platforms (such as Russian SS-24 and SS-25) and so the need to fix the launch
position had similarity to the SLBM situation.

In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (MObile System
for Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3-D LORAN. A follow-on study called
Project 57 was worked in 1963 and it was "in this study that the GPS concept was born." That
same year the concept was pursued as Project 621B, which had "many of the attributes that
you now see in GPS"[9] and promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as
ICBMs. Updates from the Navy Transit system were too slow for the high speeds of Air
Force operation. The Navy Research Laboratory continued advancements with their Timation
(Time Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1967, and with the third one in 1974 carrying
the first atomic clock into orbit.[10]

With these parallel developments in the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be
developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation, and SECOR
in a multi-service program.

During Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about 12 military officers at the Pentagon
discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS). It was at this
meeting that "the real synthesis that became GPS was created." Later that year, the DNSS
program was named Navstar. With the individual satellites being associated with the name
Navstar (as with the predecessors Transit and Timation), a more fully encompassing name
was used to identify the constellation of Navstar satellites, Navstar-GPS, which was later
shortened simply to GPS.[11]

After Korean Air Lines Flight 007, carrying 269 people, was shot down in 1983 after straying
into the USSR's prohibited airspace,[12] in the vicinity of Sakhalin and Moneron Islands,
President Ronald Reagan issued a directive making GPS freely available for civilian use,
once it was sufficiently developed, as a common good.[13] The first satellite was launched in
1989, and the 24th satellite was launched in 1994.

55
Initially, the highest quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for
civilian use was intentionally degraded (Selective Availability). This changed with President
Bill Clinton ordering Selective Availability to be turned off at midnight May 1, 2000,
improving the precision of civilian GPS from 100 meters (330 ft) to 20 meters (66 ft). The
executive order signed in 1996 to turn off Selective Availability in 2000 was proposed by the
US Secretary of Defense, William Perry, because of the widespread growth of differential
GPS services to improve civilian accuracy and eliminate the US military advantage.
Moreover, the US military was actively developing technologies to deny GPS service to
potential adversaries on a regional basis.[14]

Over the last decade, the U.S. has implemented several improvements to the GPS service,
including new signals for civil use and increased accuracy and integrity for all users, all while
maintaining compatibility with existing GPS equipment.

[15]
GPS modernization has now become an ongoing initiative to upgrade the Global
Positioning System with new capabilities to meet growing military, civil, and commercial
needs. The program is being implemented through a series of satellite acquisitions, including
GPS Block III and the Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX). The U.S.
Government continues to improve the GPS space and ground segments to increase
performance and accuracy.

GPS is owned and operated by the United States Government as a national resource.
Department of Defense (DoD) is the steward of GPS. Interagency GPS Executive Board
(IGEB) oversaw GPS policy matters from 1996 to 2004. After that the National Space-Based
Positioning, Navigation and Timing Executive Committee was established by presidential
directive in 2004 to advise and coordinate federal departments and agencies on matters
concerning the GPS and related systems. The executive committee is chaired jointly by the
deputy secretaries of defense and transportation. Its membership includes equivalent-level
officials from the departments of state, commerce, and homeland security, the joint chiefs of
staff, and NASA. Components of the executive office of the president participate as observers
to the executive committee, and the FCC chairman participates as a liaison.

The DoD is required by law to "maintain a Standard Positioning Service (as defined in the
federal radio navigation plan and the standard positioning service signal specification) that

56
will be available on a continuous, worldwide basis," and "develop measures to prevent hostile
use of GPS and its augmentations without unduly disrupting or degrading civilian uses."

 In 1972, the USAF Central Inertial Guidance Test Facility (Holloman AFB), conducted
developmental flight tests of two prototype GPS receivers over White Sands Missile Range,
using ground-based pseudo-satellites.[citation needed]
 In 1978, the first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched.
 In 1983, after Soviet interceptor aircraft shot down the civilian airliner KAL 007 that strayed
into prohibited airspace because of navigational errors, killing all 269 people on board, U.S.
President Ronald Reagan announced that GPS would be made available for civilian uses once
it was completed.,[18][19] although it had been previously published [in Navigation magazine]
that the CA code would be available to civilian users.
 By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the concept.
Command & Control of these satellites had moved from Onizuka AFS, CA and turned over to
the 2nd Satellite Control Squadron (2SCS) located at Falcon Air Force Station in Colorado
Springs, Colorado.[20][21]
 On February 14, 1989, the first modern Block-II satellite was launched.
 The Gulf War from 1990 to 1991, was the first conflict where GPS was widely used. [22]
 In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was de-activated and
replaced by the 50th Space Wing.
 By December 1993, GPS achieved initial operational capability (IOC), indicating a full
constellation (24 satellites) was available and providing the Standard Positioning Service
(SPS).[23]
 Full Operational Capability (FOC) was declared by Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in April
1995, signifying full availability of the military's secure Precise Positioning Service (PPS). [23]
 In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users, U.S.
President Bill Clinton issued a policy directive[24] declaring GPS to be a dual-use system and
establishing an Interagency GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national asset.
 In 1998, United States Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two
new civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to
aviation safety and in 2000 the United States Congress authorized the effort, referring to it
as GPS III.
 On May 2, 2000 "Selective Availability" was discontinued as a result of the 1996 executive
order, allowing users to receive a non-degraded signal globally.

57
  In 2004, the United States Government signed an agreement with the European Community
establishing cooperation related to GPS and Europe's planned Galileo system.
 In 2004, United States President George W. Bush updated the national policy and replaced
the executive board with the National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning,
Navigation, and Timing.[25]
 November 2004, QUALCOMM announced successful tests of assisted GPS for mobile
phones.[26]
 In 2005, the first modernized GPS satellite was launched and began transmitting a second
civilian signal (L2C) for enhanced user performance.
 On September 14, 2007, the aging mainframe-based Ground Segment Control System was
transferred to the new Architecture Evolution Plan.[27]
 On May 19, 2009, the United States Government Accountability Office issued a report
warning that some GPS satellites could fail as soon as 2010.[28]
 On May 21, 2009, the Air Force Space Command allayed fears of GPS failure saying "There's
only a small risk we will not continue to exceed our performance standard."[29]
 On January 11, 2010, an update of ground control systems caused a software incompatibility
with 8000 to 10000 military receivers manufactured by a division of Trimble Navigation
Limited of Sunnyvale, Calif.[30]
 On February 25, 2010,[31] the U.S. Air Force awarded the contract to develop the GPS Next
Generation Operational Control System (OCX) to improve accuracy and availability of GPS
navigation signals, and serve as a critical part of GPS modernization.
 A GPS satellite was launched on May 28, 2010. [32] The oldest GPS satellite still in operation
was launched on November 26, 1990, and became operational on December 10, 1990.[33]
 The GPS satellite, GPS IIF-2, was launched on July 16, 2011 at 06:41 GMT from Space Launch
Complex 37B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.[34]

Awards

On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as
winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the nation's most prestigious aviation award.
This team combines researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the
Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems
Company. The citation honors them "for the most significant development for safe and
efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio
navigation 50 years ago."

58
Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper
Prize for 2003:

 Ivan Getting, emeritus president of The Aerospace Corporation and an engineer at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, established the basis for GPS, improving on the
World War II land-based radio system called LORAN (Long-range Radio Aid to Navigation).
 Bradford Parkinson, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at Stanford University,
conceived the present satellite-based system in the early 1960s and developed it in
conjunction with the U.S. Air Force. Parkinson served twenty-one years in the Air Force, from
1957 to 1978, and retired with the rank of colonel.
 GPS developer Roger L. Easton received the National Medal of Technology on February 13,
2006.[35]

In 1998, GPS technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of
Fame.[36]

Francis X. Kane (Col. USAF, ret.) was inducted into the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile
Pioneers Hall of Fame at Lackland A.F.B., San Antonio, Texas, March 2, 2010 for his role in
space technology development and the engineering design concept of GPS conducted as part
of Project 621B.

On October 4, 2011, the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) awarded the Global
Positioning System (GPS) its 60th Anniversary Award, nominated by IAF member, the
American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). The IAF Honors and Awards
Committee recognized the uniqueness of the GPS program and the exemplary role it has
played in building international collaboration for the benefit of humanity.

Basic concept of GPS

A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS satellites
high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages that include

 the time the message was transmitted

 satellite position at time of message transmission

59
The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each message and
computes the distance to each satellite. These distances along with the satellites' locations are
used with the possible aid of trilateration, depending on which algorithm is used, to compute
the position of the receiver. This position is then displayed, perhaps with a moving map
display or latitude and longitude; elevation information may be included. Many GPS units
show derived information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes.

Three satellites might seem enough to solve for position since space has three dimensions and
a position near the Earth's surface can be assumed. However, even a very small clock error
multiplied by the very large speed of light[37] — the speed at which satellite signals
propagate — results in a large positional error. Therefore receivers use four or more satellites
to solve for both the receiver's location and time. The very accurately computed time is
effectively hidden by most GPS applications, which use only the location. A few specialized
GPS applications do however use the time; these include time transfer, traffic signal timing,
and synchronization of cell phone base stations.

Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one
variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For
example, a ship or aircraft may have known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use
additional clues or assumptions (such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning,
inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer) to give a less
accurate (degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.[38][39][40]

60
Position calculation introduction

Two sphere surfaces intersecting in a circle

Surface of sphere intersecting a circle (not a solid disk) at two points

To provide an introductory description of how a GPS receiver works, error effects are
deferred to a later section. Using messages received from a minimum of four visible
satellites, a GPS receiver is able to determine the times sent and then the satellite positions
corresponding to these times sent. The x, y, and z components of position, and the time sent,
are designated as where the subscript i has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the
indicated time the message was received , the GPS receiver computes the transit time of the

61
message as . A pseudorange, , is computed as an approximation of the
distance from satellite to GPS receiver.

A satellite's position and pseudorange define a sphere, centered on the satellite, with radius
equal to the pseudorange. The position of the receiver is somewhere on the surface of this
sphere. Thus with four satellites, the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the
intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver
would be at a precise intersection of the four surfaces.

If the surfaces of two spheres intersect at more than one point, they intersect in a circle. The
article trilateration shows this mathematically. A figure, Two Sphere Surfaces Intersecting in
a Circle, is shown below. Two points where the surfaces of the spheres intersect are clearly
shown in the figure. The distance between these two points is the diameter of the circle of
intersection. The intersection of a third spherical surface with the first two will be its
intersection with that circle; in most cases of practical interest, this means they intersect at
two points.[41] Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not a solid disk) at
Two Points, illustrates the intersection. The two intersections are marked with dots. Again the
article trilateration clearly shows this mathematically.

For automobiles and other near-earth vehicles, the correct position of the GPS receiver is the
intersection closest to the Earth's surface. [42] For space vehicles, the intersection farthest from
Earth may be the correct one.

The correct position for the GPS receiver is also on the intersection with the surface of the
sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite.

Correcting a GPS receiver's clock

One of the most significant error sources is the GPS receiver's clock. Because of the very
large value of the speed of light, c, the estimated distances from the GPS receiver to the
satellites, the pseudoranges, are very sensitive to errors in the GPS receiver clock; for
example an error of one microsecond (0.000 001 second) corresponds to an error of 300
metres (980 ft). This suggests that an extremely accurate and expensive clock is required for
the GPS receiver to work; however, manufacturers prefer to build inexpensive GPS receivers

62
for mass markets. This dilemma is resolved by taking advantage of the fact that there are four
pseudoranges.

It is likely that the surfaces of the three spheres intersect, because the circle of intersection of
the first two spheres is normally quite large, and thus the third sphere surface is likely to
intersect this large circle. If the clock is wrong, it is very unlikely that the surface of the
sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite will initially intersect either of the two points of
intersection of the first three, because any clock error could cause it to miss intersecting a
point. On the other hand if a solution has been found such that all four sphere surfaces at least
approximately intersect with a small deviation from a perfect intersection then it is quite
likely that an accurate estimation of receiver position will have been found and that the clock
is quite accurate. Methods of solution are discussed in the navigation equations section of this
article.

Structure

The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment (SS), a
control segment (CS), and a user segment (US). [43] The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains,
and operates the space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and
each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude,
longitude, and altitude) and the current time.[44]

The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in medium Earth orbit and also includes
the payload adapters to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The control segment
is composed of a master control station, an alternate master control station, and a host of
dedicated and shared ground antennas and monitor stations. The user segment is composed of
hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning
Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial, and

Space segment

Unlaunched GPS block II-A satellite on display at the San Diego Air & Space Museum

63
A visual example of the GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice how the number
of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface, in this example at 45°N, changes with
time.

The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in
GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three
approximately circular orbits,[45] but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites
each.[46] The orbits are centered on the Earth, not rotating with the Earth, but instead fixed
with respect to the distant stars.[47] The six orbit planes have approximately 55° inclination
(tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending
node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). [48] The orbital
period is one-half a sidereal day, i.e. 11 hours and 58 minutes. [49] The orbits are arranged so
that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from almost everywhere on Earth's
surface.[50] The result of this objective is that the four satellites are not evenly spaced (90
degrees) apart within each orbit. In general terms, the angular difference between satellites in
each orbit is 30, 105, 120, and 105 degrees apart which, of course, sum to 360 degrees.

Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km (12,600 mi); orbital radius of

approximately 26,600 km (16,500 mi), each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day,
repeating the same ground track each day. [51] This was very helpful during development
because even with only four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one
spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to
ensure good coverage in combat zones.

As of March 2008,[52] there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS constellation,
and two older, retired from active service satellites kept in the constellation as orbital spares.
The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing

64
redundant measurements. With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was
changed to a nonuniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve
reliability and availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple
satellites fail.[53] About nine satellites are visible from any point on the ground at any one time
(see animation at right), ensuring considerable redundancy over the minimum four satellites
needed for a position.

Control segment

Ground monitor station used from 1984 to 2007, on display at the Air Force Space & Missile
Museum

The control segment is composed of

1. a master control station (MCS),

2. an alternate master control station,
3. four dedicated ground antennas and
4. six dedicated monitor stations

The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground
antennas (for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-
Intelligence Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by
dedicated U.S. Air Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego
Garcia, Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor
stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC. [54]
The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space Command's MCS at Schriever Air
Force Base 25 km (16 mi) ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space
Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the U.S. Air Force. Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS
satellite regularly with a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground
antennas (GPS dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego
Garcia, and Cape Canaveral). These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the
satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each
satellite's internal orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter that uses inputs
from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs.[55]

65
Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the orbit of a satellite, the
satellite must be marked unhealthy, so receivers will not use it in their calculation. Then the
maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit tracked from the ground. Then the new
ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite marked healthy again.

The Operation Control Segment (OCS) currently serves as the control segment of record. It
provides the operational capability that supports global GPS users and keeps the GPS system
operational and performing within specification.

OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970’s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force
Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable upgrades and provide a
foundation for a new security architecture that supported the U.S. armed forces. OCS will
continue to be the ground control system of record until the new segment, Next Generation
GPS Operation Control System [2] (OCX), is fully developed and functional.

The new capabilities provided by OCX will be the cornerstone for revolutionizing GPS’s
[56]
mission capabilities, and enabling Air Force Space Command to greatly enhance GPS
operational services to U.S. combat forces, civil partners and myriad of domestic and
international users.

The GPS OCX program also will reduce cost, schedule and technical risk. It is designed to
[57]
provide 50% sustainment cost savings through efficient software architecture and
Performance-Based Logistics. In addition, GPS OCX expected to cost millions less than the
cost to upgrade OCS while providing four times the capability.

The GPS OCX program represents a critical part of GPS modernization and provides
significant information assurance improvements over the current GPS OCS program.

 OCX will have the ability to control and manage GPS legacy satellites as well as the next
generation of GPS III satellites, while enabling the full array of military signals.
 Built on a flexible architecture that can rapidly adapt to the changing needs of today’s and
future GPS users allowing immediate access to GPS data and constellations status through
secure, accurate and reliable information.
 Empowers the warfighter with more secure, actionable and predictive information to
enhance situational awareness.

66
  Enables new modernized signals (L1C, L2C, and L5) and has M-code capability, which the
legacy system is unable to do.
 Provides significant information assurance improvements over the current program
including detecting and preventing cyber attacks, while isolating, containing and operating
during such attacks.
 Supports higher volume near real-time command and control capability.

On September 14, 2011,[58] the U.S. Air Force announced the completion of GPS OCX
Preliminary Design Review and confirmed that the OCX program is ready for the next phase
of development.

The GPS OCX program has achieved major milestones and is on track to support the GPS
IIIA launch in May 2014.

User segment

GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and watches,
to dedicated devices such as those shown here from manufacturers Trimble, Garmin and Leica (left
to right).

The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of
the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and
scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service. In general, GPS receivers are composed
of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a
highly stable clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing
location and speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of
channels: this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited
to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so that, as of 2007, receivers
typically have between 12 and 20 channels.[59]

67
A typical OEM GPS receiver module measuring 15×17 mm.

GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM SC-104
format. This is typically in the form of an RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed. Data is actually
sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM [citation needed].
Receivers with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data [citation
needed]
. As of 2006, even low-cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System
(WAAS) receivers.

A typical GPS receiver with integrated antenna.

Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA 0183
protocol. Although this protocol is officially defined by the National Marine Electronics
Association (NMEA),[60] references to this protocol have been compiled from public records,
allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating intellectual
property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the SiRF and MTK
protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial
connection, USB, or Bluetooth.

Further information: GPS navigation device

Applications

While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has
significant military and civilian applications.

GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking,
and surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile
phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-
off switching.[44]

Civilian

This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientific experiment needing precise
timing.

68
Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute
location, relative movement, and time transfer.

 Clock synchronization: The accuracy of GPS time signals (±10 ns) [61] is second only to the
atomic clocks upon which they are based.
 Cellular telephony: Clock synchronization enables time transfer, which is critical for
synchronizing its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell handoff and
support hybrid GPS/cellular position detection for mobile emergency calls and other
applications. The first handsets with integrated GPS launched in the late 1990s. The U.S.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) mandated the feature in either the handset or in
the towers (for use in triangulation) in 2002 so emergency services could locate 911 callers.
Third-party software developers later gained access to GPS APIs from Nextel upon launch,
followed by Sprint in 2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.
 Disaster relief/emergency services: Depend upon GPS for location and timing capabilities.
 Geofencing: Vehicle tracking systems, person tracking systems, and pet tracking systems use
GPS to locate a vehicle, person, or pet. These devices are attached to the vehicle, person, or
the pet collar. The application provides continuous tracking and mobile or Internet updates
should the target leave a designated area.[62]
 Geotagging: Applying location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs and other
documents for purposes such as creating map overlays.
 GPS Aircraft Tracking
 GPS tours: Location determines what content to display; for instance, information about an
approaching point of interest.
 Map-making: Both civilian and military cartographers use GPS extensively.
 Navigation: Navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation measurements.
 Phasor measurements: GPS enables highly accurate timestamping of power system
measurements, making it possible to compute phasors.
 Robotics: Self-navigating, autonomous robots using a GPS sensors, which calculate latitude,
longitude, time, speed, and heading.
 Recreation: For example, geocaching, geodashing, GPS drawing and waymarking.
 Surveying: Surveyors use absolute locations to make maps and determine property
boundaries.
 Tectonics: GPS enables direct fault motion measurement in earthquakes.
 Telematics: GPS technology integrated with computers and mobile communications
technology in automotive navigation systems

69
  Fleet Tracking: The use of GPS technology to identify, locate and maintain contact reports
with one or more fleet vehicles in real-time.

Restrictions on civilian use

The U.S. Government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers
capable of functioning above 18 kilometres (11 mi) altitude and 515 metres per second
(1,001 kn)[63] are classified as munitions (weapons) for which State Department export
licenses are required. These limits attempt to prevent use of a receiver in a ballistic missile.
They would not prevent use in a cruise missile because their altitudes and speeds are similar
to those of ordinary aircraft.

This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency
and the C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code and cannot correct for Selective Availability (SA),
etc.

Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition.
Vendor interpretations differ. The rule targets operation given the combination of altitude and
speed, while some receivers stop operating even when stationary. This has caused problems
with some amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach 30 kilometres (19 mi).

These limits only apply to units exported from (or which have components exported from)
the USA - there is a growing trade in various components, including GPS units, supplied by
other countries, which are expressly sold as ITAR-free.

Military

Attaching a GPS guidance kit to a 'dumb' bomb, March 2003.

As of 2009, military applications of GPS include:

 Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives, even in the dark or in unfamiliar territory,
and to coordinate troop and supply movement. In the United States armed forces,
commanders use the Commanders Digital Assistant and lower ranks use the Soldier Digital
Assistant.[64][65][66][67]

70
  Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential ground and air
targets before flagging them as hostile.[citation needed]
These weapon systems pass target
coordinates to precision-guided munitions to allow them to engage targets accurately.
Military aircraft, particularly in air-to-ground roles, use GPS to find targets (for example, gun
camera video from AH-1 Cobras in Iraq show GPS co-ordinates that can be viewed with
specialized software).
 Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military weapons
including ICBMs, cruise missiles and precision-guided munitions. Artillery projectiles.
Embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of 12,000 g or about 118 km/s2
have been developed for use in 155 millimetres (6.1 in) howitzers.[68]
 Search and Rescue: Downed pilots can be located faster if their position is known.
 Reconnaissance: Patrol movement can be managed more closely.
 GPS satellites carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors consisting of an optical sensor (Y-
sensor), an X-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) sensor (W-
sensor), that form a major portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation Detection
System.[69][70]

Communication

The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites encode a variety of information

including satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network.
These signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all
satellites in the network. Two different encodings are used: a public encoding that enables
lower resolution navigation, and an encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military.

Message format
GPS message format

Subframes Description

Satellite clock,
1
GPS time relationship

Ephemeris
2–3
(precise satellite orbit)

71
 Almanac component
4–5 (satellite network synopsis,
error correction)

Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation message on L1 C/A and L2 P/Y at a
rate of 50 bits per second (see bitrate). Each complete message takes 750 seconds (12 1/2
minutes) to complete. The message structure has a basic format of a 1500-bit-long frame
made up of five subframes, each subframe being 300 bits (6 seconds) long. Subframes 4 and
5 are subcommutated 25 times each, so that a complete data message requires the
transmission of 25 full frames. Each subframe consists of ten words, each 30 bits long. Thus,
with 300 bits in a subframe times 5 subframes in a frame times 25 frames in a message, each
message is 37,500 bits long. At a transmission rate of 50 bps, this gives 750 seconds to
transmit an entire almanac message. Each 30-second frame begins precisely on the minute or
half minute as indicated by the atomic clock on each satellite.[71]

The first part of the message encodes the week number and the time within the week, [72] as
well as the data about the health of the satellite. The second part of the message, the
ephemeris, provides the precise orbit for the satellite. The last part of the message, the
almanac, sub commutated in subframes 4 & 5, contains coarse orbit and status information
for up to 32 satellites in the constellation as well as data related to error correction. Thus, in
order to obtain an accurate satellite location from this transmitted message the receiver must
demodulate the message from each satellite it includes in its solution for 18 to 30 seconds. In
order to collect all the transmitted almanacs the receiver must demodulate the message for
732 to 750 seconds or 12 1/2 minutes.[73]

All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies. Signals are encoded using code division
multiple access (CDMA) allowing messages from individual satellites to be distinguished
from each other based on unique encodings for each satellite (that the receiver must be aware
of). Two distinct types of CDMA encodings are used: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code,
which is accessible by the general public, and the precise (P) code, that is encrypted so that
only the U.S. military can access it.

The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for
updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The almanac is updated typically

72
every 24 hours. Additionally data for a few weeks following is uploaded in case of
transmission updates that delay data upload.

Satellite frequencies
GPS frequency overview

Band Frequency Description

Coarse-acquisition (C/A) and encrypted precision P(Y)

L1 1575.42 MHz codes, plus the L1 civilian (L1C) and military (M) codes on
future Block III satellites.

P(Y) code, plus the L2C and military codes on the Block
L2 1227.60 MHz
IIR-M and newer satellites.

L3 1381.05 MHz Used for nuclear detonation (NUDET) detection.

Being studied for additional ionospheric correction. [citation

L4 1379.913 MHz
needed]

L5 1176.45 MHz Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal.

All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and
1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique
where the low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN)
sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for
each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, transmits
data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at
10.23 million chips per second. The actual internal reference of the satellites is
10.22999999543MHz to compensate for relativistic effects[74] [75]
that make observers on
Earth perceive a different time reference with respect to the transmitters in orbit.

The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only
modulated by the P code.[76] The P code can be encrypted as a so-called P(Y) code that is only
available to military equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the C/A and P(Y) codes
impart the precise time-of-day to the user.

73
The L3 signal at a frequency of 1.38105 GHz is used by the United States Nuclear
Detonation (NUDET) Detection System (USNDS) to detect, locate, and report nuclear
detonations (NUDETs) in the Earth's atmosphere and near space. [77] One usage is the
enforcement of nuclear test ban treaties.

The L4 band at 1.379913 GHz is being studied for additional ionospheric correction. [citation
needed]

The L5 frequency band at 1.17645 GHz was added in the process of GPS modernization.
This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation,
promising little or no interference under all circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite that
would provide this signal is set to be launched in 2009. [78] The L5 consists of two carrier
components that are in phase quadrature with each other. Each carrier component is bi-phase
shift key (BPSK) modulated by a separate bit train. "L5, the third civil GPS signal, will
eventually support safety-of-life applications for aviation and provide improved availability
and accuracy." [79]

A conditional waiver has recently been granted to LightSquared to operate a terrestrial

broadband service near the L1 band. Although LightSquared had applied for a license to
operate in the 1525 to 1559 band as early as 2003 and it was put out for public comment, the
FCC asked LightSquared to form a study group with the GPS community to test GPS
receivers and identify issue that might arise due to the larger signal power from the
LightSquared terrestrial network. The GPS community had not objected to the LightSquared
(formerly MSV and SkyTerra) applications until November 2010, when LightSquared
applied for a modification to its Ancillary Terrestrial Component (ATC) authorization. This
filing (SAT-MOD-20101118-00239) amounted to a request to run several orders of
magnitude more power in the same frequency band for terrestrial base stations, essentially
repurposing what was supposed to be a "quiet neighborhood" for signals from space as the
equivalent of a cellular network. Testing in the first half of 2011 has demonstrated that the
impact of the lower 10 MHz of spectrum is minimal to GPS devices (less than 1% of the total
GPS devices are affected). The upper 10 MHz intended for use by LightSquared may have
some impact on GPS devices. There is some concern that this will seriously degrade the GPS
signal for many consumer uses.[80][81] Aviation Week magazine reports that the latest testing
(June 2011) confirms "significant jamming" of GPS by LightSquared's system.[82]

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Demodulation and decoding

Demodulating and Decoding GPS Satellite Signals using the Coarse/Acquisition Gold code.

Because all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, the
signals must be separated after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a
unique binary sequence known as a Gold code. The signals are decoded after demodulation
using addition of the Gold codes corresponding to the satellites monitored by the receiver. [83]
[84]

If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks the satellites to
listen for by their PRNs, unique numbers in the range 1 through 32. If the almanac
information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search mode until a lock is obtained on
one of the satellites. To obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of
sight from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver can then acquire the almanac and
determine the satellites it should listen for. As it detects each satellite's signal, it identifies it
by its distinct C/A code pattern. There can be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the first
estimate of position because of the need to read the ephemeris data.

Processing of the navigation message enables the determination of the time of transmission
and the satellite position at this time. For more information see Demodulation and Decoding,
Advanced.

75
Navigation equations

The receiver uses messages received from satellites to determine the satellite positions and
time sent. The x, y, and z components of satellite position and the time sent are designated as
[xi, yi, zi, ti] where the subscript i denotes the satellite and has the value 1, 2, ..., n, where
Knowing when the message was received , the receiver computes the message's
transit time as . Note that the receiver indeed knows the reception time indicated by

its on-board clock, rather than . Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light (c)
the distance traveled is (tr − ti)c. Knowing the distance from receiver to satellite and the
satellite's position implies that the receiver is on the surface of a sphere centered at the
satellite's position. Thus the receiver is at or near the intersection of the surfaces of the
spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the receiver is at the intersection of the surfaces of the
spheres.

Let b denote the clock error or bias, the amount that the receiver's clock is off. The receiver
has four unknowns, the three components of GPS receiver position and the clock bias [x, y, z,
b]. The equations of the sphere surfaces are given by:

or in terms of pseudoranges, , as

These equations can be solved by algebraic or numerical methods.

Bancroft's method

Bancroft's method involves an algebraic as opposed to numerical method and can be used for
the case of four satellites or for the case of more than four satellites. [85][86] If there are four
satellites then Bancroft's method provides one or two solutions for the four unknowns. If
there are more than four satellites then Bancroft's method provides the solution which
minimizes the sum of the squares of the errors for the over determined system.

76
Trilateration

[87][88]
The receiver can use trilateration and one dimensional numerical root finding. [89]
Satellite position and pseudorange determines a sphere centered on the satellite with radius
equal to the pseudorange. Trilateration is used to estimate receiver position based on the
intersection of three sphere surfaces so determined. In the usual case of two intersections of
three sphere surfaces, the point nearest the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth
satellite is chosen. Let d denote the signed distance from the current estimate of receiver
position to the sphere around the fourth satellite. The notation, d(correction) denotes this as a
function of the clock correction. The problem is to determine the correction such that
d(correction) = 0. This is the familiar problem of finding the zeroes of a one dimensional
non-linear function of a scalar variable. Iterative numerical methods, such as those found in
the chapter on root finding in Numerical Recipes can solve this type of problem.[89]

Multidimensional Newton-Raphson calculations

Alternatively, multidimensional root finding method such as Newton-Raphson method can be

used.[89] The approach is to linearize around an approximate solution, say

from iteration k, then solve the linear equations derived from the

quadratic equations above to obtain . Although there is no

guarantee that the method always converges due to the fact that multidimensional roots
cannot be bounded, when a neighborhood containing a solution is known as is usually the
case for GPS, it is quite likely that a solution will be found. [89] It has been shown[90] that
results are comparable in accuracy to those of the Bancroft's method.

Additional methods for more than four satellites

When more than four satellites are available, the calculation can use the four best or more
than four, considering number of channels, processing capability, and geometric dilution of
precision (GDOP). Using more than four is an over-determined system of equations with no
unique solution, which must be solved by least-squares or a similar technique.[86] If all visible
satellites are used, the results are as good as or better than using the four best. Errors can be
estimated through the residuals. With each combination of four or more satellites, a GDOP
factor can be calculated, based on the relative sky directions of the satellites used. [91] As more

77
satellites are picked up, pseudoranges from various 4-way combinations can be processed to
add more estimates to the location and clock offset. The receiver then takes the weighted
average of these positions and clock offsets. After the final location and time are calculated,
the location is expressed in a specific coordinate system such as latitude and longitude, using
the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a country-specific system.[92]

Error sources and analysis

GPS error analysis which is found in Error analysis for the Global Positioning System is
an important aspect for determining what errors and their magnitude are to be expected. GPS
errors are affected by geometric dilution of precision and depend on signal arrival time errors,
numerical errors, atmospherics effects, ephemeris errors, multipath errors and other effects.
Variability in solar radiation pressure. [93] has an indirect effect on GPS accuracy due to its
effect on ephemeris errors.

Accuracy enhancement and surveying

Augmentation

Integrating external information into the calculation process can materially improve accuracy.
Such augmentation systems are generally named or described based on how the information
arrives. Some systems transmit additional error information (such as clock drift, ephemera, or
ionospheric delay), others characterize prior errors, while a third group provides additional
navigational or vehicle information.

Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS),
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), Differential GPS, Inertial
Navigation Systems (INS) and Assisted GPS.

Precise monitoring

Accuracy can be improved through precise monitoring and measurement of existing GPS
signals in additional or alternate ways.

The largest remaining error is usually the unpredictable delay through the ionosphere. The
spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model parameters, but errors remain. This is one reason
78
GPS spacecraft transmit on at least two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a well-
defined function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so
measuring the arrival time difference between the frequencies determines TEC and thus the
precise ionospheric delay at each frequency.

Military receivers can decode the P(Y)-code transmitted on both L1 and L2. Without
decryption keys, it is still possible to use a codeless technique to compare the P(Y) codes on
L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error information. However, this technique is slow, so it
is currently available only on specialized surveying equipment. In the future, additional
civilian codes are expected to be transmitted on the L2 and L5 frequencies (see GPS
modernization). Then all users will be able to perform dual-frequency measurements and
directly compute ionospheric delay errors.

A second form of precise monitoring is called Carrier-Phase Enhancement (CPGPS). This

corrects the error that arises because the pulse transition of the PRN is not instantaneous, and
thus the correlation (satellite-receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. CPGPS

uses the L1 carrier wave, which has a period of ,

which is about one-thousandth of the C/A Gold code bit period of

, to act as an additional clock signal and resolve

the uncertainty. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to 2–3 metres (6.6–
9.8 ft) of ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect transition reduces this error to 3
centimetres (1.2 in) of ambiguity. By eliminating this error source, CPGPS coupled with
DGPS normally realizes between 20–30 centimetres (7.9–12 in) of absolute accuracy.

Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is a third alternative for a precise GPS-based

positioning system. In this approach, determination of range signal can be resolved to a
precision of less than 10 centimetres (3.9 in). This is done by resolving the number of cycles
that the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver by using a combination of
differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and
ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical tests—possibly with processing in real-time
(real-time kinematic positioning, RTK).

79
Timekeeping

Timekeeping and leap seconds

While most clocks are synchronized to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic
clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time (GPST; see the page of United States Naval
Observatory). The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the
Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically added to
UTC. GPS time was set to match Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1980, but has since
diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset with
International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI – GPS = 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are
performed on the on-board clocks to keep them synchronized with ground clocks.[94]

The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC. As of
2011, GPS time is 15 seconds ahead of UTC because of the leap second added to UTC
December 31, 2008. Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and
specific timezone values. New GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after
receiving the UTC offset message. The GPS-UTC offset field can accommodate 255 leap
seconds (eight bits) that, given the current period of the Earth's rotation (with one leap second
introduced approximately every 18 months), should be sufficient to last until approximately
the year 2300.

Timekeeping accuracy

GPS time is accurate to about 14 nanoseconds.[95]

Timekeeping format

As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is
expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number. The week number is
transmitted as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes
zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC
(00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time
at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). To determine the
current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within
3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal. To address this concern the

80
modernized GPS navigation message uses a 13-bit field that only repeats every 8,192 weeks
(157 years), thus lasting until the year 2137 (157 years after GPS week zero).

Carrier phase tracking (surveying)

Another method that is used in surveying applications is carrier phase tracking. The period of
the carrier frequency multiplied by the speed of light gives the wavelength, which is about
0.19 meters for the L1 carrier. Accuracy within 1% of wavelength in detecting the leading
edge reduces this component of pseudorange error to as little as 2 millimeters. This compares
to 3 meters for the C/A code and 0.3 meters for the P code.

However, 2 millimeter accuracy requires measuring the total phase—the number of waves
multiplied by the wavelength plus the fractional wavelength, which requires specially
equipped receivers. This method has many surveying applications.

Triple differencing followed by numerical root finding, and a mathematical technique called
least squares can estimate the position of one receiver given the position of another. First,
compute the difference between satellites, then between receivers, and finally between
epochs. Other orders of taking differences are equally valid. Detailed discussion of the errors
is omitted.

The satellite carrier total phase can be measured with ambiguity as to the number of cycles.

Let denote the phase of the carrier of satellite j measured by receiver i at time
. This notation shows the meaning of the subscripts i, j, and k. The receiver (r), satellite (s),
and time (t) come in alphabetical order as arguments of and to balance readability and

conciseness, let be a concise abbreviation. Also we define three

functions, : , which return differences between receivers, satellites, and time

points, respectively. Each function has variables with three subscripts as its arguments. These
three functions are defined below. If is a function of the three integer arguments, i, j,

and k then it is a valid argument for the functions, : , with the values defined as

, and

81
 .

Also if are valid arguments for the three functions and a and b are

constants then is a valid argument with values defined as

, and

Receiver clock errors can be approximately eliminated by differencing the phases measured
from satellite 1 with that from satellite 2 at the same epoch.[96] This difference is designated as

Double differencing[97] computes the difference of receiver 1's satellite difference from that of
receiver 2. This approximately eliminates satellite clock errors. This double difference is:

Triple differencing[98] subtracts the receiver difference from time 1 from that of time 2. This
eliminates the ambiguity associated with the integral number of wave lengths in carrier phase
provided this ambiguity does not change with time. Thus the triple difference result
eliminates practically all clock bias errors and the integer ambiguity. Atmospheric delay and
satellite ephemeris errors have been significantly reduced. This triple difference is:

Triple difference results can be used to estimate unknown variables. For example if the
position of receiver 1 is known but the position of receiver 2 unknown, it may be possible to
estimate the position of receiver 2 using numerical root finding and least squares. Triple
difference results for three independent time pairs quite possibly will be sufficient to solve for
receiver 2's three position components. This may require the use of a numerical procedure. [99]
[100]
An approximation of receiver 2's position is required to use such a numerical method.
This initial value can probably be provided from the navigation message and the intersection

82
of sphere surfaces. Such a reasonable estimate can be key to successful multidimensional root
finding. Iterating from three time pairs and a fairly good initial value produces one observed
triple difference result for receiver 2's position. Processing additional time pairs can improve
accuracy, overdetermining the answer with multiple solutions. Least squares can estimate an
overdetermined system. Least squares determines the position of receiver 2 which best fits
the observed triple difference results for receiver 2 positions under the criterion of
minimizing the sum of the squares.

Regulatory spectrum issues concerning GPS receivers

The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please
do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (October 2011)

In the United States, GPS receivers are regulated under the Federal Communications
Commission's (FCC) Part 15 rules. As indicated in the manuals of GPS-enabled devices sold
in the United States, as a Part 15 device, it "must accept any interference received, including
interference that may cause undesired operation."[101] With respect to GPS devices in
particular, the FCC states that GPS receiver manufacturers, "must use receivers that
reasonably discriminate against reception of signals outside their allocated spectrum." [102]

The spectrum allocated for GPS L1 use by the FCC is 1559 to 1610 MHz.[103] Since 1996, the
FCC has authorized licensed use of the spectrum neighboring the GPS band of 1525 to
1559 MHz to the Virginia company LightSquared. On March 1, 2001, the FCC received an
application from LightSquared's predecessor, Motient Services to use their allocated
frequencies for an integrated satellite-terrestrial service. [104] In 2002, the U.S. GPS Industry
Council came to an out-of-band-emissions (OOBE) agreement with LightSquared to prevent
transmissions from LightSquared's ground-based stations from emitting transmissions into
the neighboring GPS band of 1559 to 1610 MHz.[105] In 2004, the FCC adopted the OOBE
agreement in its authorization for LightSquared to deploy a ground-based network that used
its allocated frequencies of 1525 to 1559 MHz.[106] This authorization was reviewed and
approved by the U.S. Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee, which includes the U.S.
Departments of Agriculture, Air Force, Army, Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Interior, and Transportation.[107]

83
In January 2011, the FCC conditionally authorized LightSquared's wholesale customers, such
as Best Buy, Sharp, and C Spire, to be able to only purchase an integrated satellite-ground-
based service from LightSquared and re-sell that integrated service on devices that are
equipped to only use the ground-based signal using LightSquared's allocated frequencies of
1525 to 1559 MHz.[108] In December 2010, GPS receiver manufacturers expressed concerns to
the FCC that LightSquared's signal would interfere with GPS receiver devices [109] although
the FCC's policy considerations leading up to the January 2011 order did not pertain to any
proposed changes to the maximum number of ground-based LightSquared stations or the
maximum power at which these stations could operate. The January 2011 order makes final
authorization contingent upon studies of GPS interference issues carried out by a
LightSquared led working group along with GPS industry and Federal agency participation.

GPS receiver manufacturers design GPS receivers to use spectrum beyond the GPS-allocated
band. In some cases, GPS receivers are designed to use up to 400 MHz of spectrum in either
direction of the L1 frequency of 1575.42 MHz.[110] However, as regulated under the FCC's
Part 15 rules, GPS receivers are not warranted protection from signals outside GPS-allocated
spectrum.[102]

The FCC adopted rules in February 2003 that allowed Mobile Satellite Service (MSS)
licensees such as LightSquared to construct ground-based towers in their licensed spectrum to
"promote more efficient use of terrestrial wireless spectrum." [111] In July 2010, the FCC stated
that it expected LightSquared to use its authority to offer an integrated satellite-terrestrial
service to "provide mobile broadband services similar to those provided by terrestrial mobile
providers and enhance competition in the mobile broadband sector." [112] However, GPS
receiver manufacturers have argued that LightSquared's licensed spectrum of 1525 to
1559 MHz was never envisioned as being used for high-speed wireless broadband although
there is no regulatory or legal backing of this claim. [113] To build public support of efforts to
reverse the 2004 FCC authorization of LightSquared's network, GPS receiver manufacturer
Trimble Navigation Ltd. formed the "Coalition To Save Our GPS."[114]

The FCC and LightSquared have each made public commitments to solve the GPS
interference issue before the network is allowed to operate. [115][116] However, according to
Chris Dancy of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, airline pilots with the type of
systems that would be affected "may go off course and not even realize it." [117] The problems
could also affect the Federal Aviation Administration upgrade to the air traffic control
84
system, United States Defense Department guidance, and local emergency services including
911.[117]

Other systems

Comparison of GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and Compass (medium earth orbit) satellite navigation
system orbits with the International Space Station, Hubble Space Telescope and Iridium constellation
orbits, Geostationary Earth Orbit, and the nominal size of the Earth. The Moon's orbit is 9.1 times
larger (in radius and length) than geostationary orbit.[118]

Other satellite navigation systems in use or various states of development include:

 GLONASS – Russia's global navigation system. Fully operational worldwide.

 Galileo – a global system being developed by the European Union and other partner
countries, planned to be operational by 2014
 Beidou – People's Republic of China's regional system, currently limited to Asia and the West
Pacific[119]
 COMPASS – People's Republic of China's global system, planned to be operational by
2020[120][121]
 IRNSS – India's regional navigation system, planned to be operational by 2012, covering India
and Northern Indian Ocean[122]
 QZSS – Japanese regional system covering Asia and Oceania

85
Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a

switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits,
repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were
used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor
or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving
parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated
operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical
circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are
performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Basic design and operation

Simple electromechanical relay.

Small "cradle" relay often used in electronics. The "cradle" term refers to the shape of the relay's
armature.

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an
iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature,
and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged
to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in
place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic

86
circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and
the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their
function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This
ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit
track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates
the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was
closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity
is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current
application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the
surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper
"shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase
current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.[1]

A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a light-
emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and
controlled circuits.

Types
Latching relay

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Latching relay with permanent magnet

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or
"stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is
achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing
coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in
position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example,
the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil
example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay
off. This type of relay has the advantage that one coil consumes power only for an instant,
while it is being switched, and the relay contacts retain this setting across a power outage. A
remanent core latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change
state.

Reed relay

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside an
evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric
corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the
influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can switch faster than larger
relays, require only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and
voltage ratings. In addition, the reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them
stick 'on' even when no current is present; changing the orientation of the reeds with respect
to the solenoid's magnetic field will fix the problem.

Top, middle: reed switches, bottom: reed relay

Mercury-wetted relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the
mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals
where surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications

88
where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive
and must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of
liquid mercury, these relays are now rarely used. See also mercury switch.

Polarized relay

A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase
sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect
faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician
could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical
current that would operate the relay.

 External links
o Schematic diagram of a polarized relay used in a teletype machine.

Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to
normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller
(PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.

A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment: for example, a timer circuit
with a relay could switch power at a preset time. For many years relays were the standard
method of controlling industrial electronic systems. A number of relays could be used
together to carry out complex functions (relay logic). The principle of relay logic is based on
relays which energize and de-energize associated contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of
ladder logic, which is commonly used in Programmable logic controllers.

Ratchet relay

This is again a clapper type relay which does not need continuous current through its coil to
retain its operation.

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Contactor relay

A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads,
although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for common
contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with
alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however,
silver oxide is still a good conductor. [2] Such devices are often used for motor starters. A
motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing
devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder
pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in
series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized.
Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a
chief concern.

Solid-state relay
Solid state relay with no moving parts

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar
function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing
long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor
has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given
SSR could handle. The minimum voltage drop for such a relay is equal to the voltage drop
across one transistor (~0.6-2.0 volts), and is a function of the material used to make the
transistor (typically silicon). As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle
100 to 1,200 Amperes, have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic
relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients.

Solid state contactor relay

A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink,
used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent

90
on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact
bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from
Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or
other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

Buchholz relay

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if
gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.

Forced-guided contacts relay

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so
that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together.
If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay
will be able to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to
check the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided
contacts", "captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".

Overload protection relay

Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor,
or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor
windings.[3] One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating
element in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a
bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload
relay is exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation
for motor ambient temperature is provided.

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Pole and throw

Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.)

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A
relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the
coil in one of three ways:

 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact.
NO contacts can also be distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means that the
contacts will close before the button or switch is fully engaged.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact.
NC contacts can also be distinguished as "late-break" or NCLB, which means that the
contacts will stay closed until the button or switch is fully disengaged.
 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-open
contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C
contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make
before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

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  SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is
ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO"
and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.
 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST
switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six
terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).
 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals.
Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight
terminals, including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a
single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14
terminals).

EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay terminal numbering; a typical EN 50005-
compliant SPDT relay's terminals would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and A2 for the C, NC,
NO, and coil connections, respectively.

Applications

Relays are used to and for:

 Amplify a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a small operating power.
Some special cases are:
o A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a long wire
o Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of
modems or audio amplifiers,
o Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid
of an automobile,
 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit
breakers (protection relays),

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A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

 Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch.
The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily
installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be
controlled by room occupancy detectors to conserve energy,
 Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting normally
open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in
parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function.
Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. The
Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic networks.
o The application of Boolean Algebra to relay circuit design was formalized by Claude
Shannon in A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits
o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical
elements in digital computers. See electro-mechanical computers such as ARRA
(computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
o Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to
nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control
panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery.
 Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of
contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field
for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a
dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The
time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods,
a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.
 Vehicle battery isolation. A 12v relay is often used to isolate any second battery in cars,
4WDs, RVs and boats.
 Switching to a standby power supply.

Relay application considerations

A large relay with two coils and many sets of contacts, used in an old telephone switching system.

94
Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century 1XB switch and 5XB switch
telephone exchanges; cover removed on one

Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of many

different factors:

 Number and type of contacts – normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)

 Contact sequence – "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the old style
telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't get dropped
while dialing the number.
 Rating of contacts – small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated for up to
3000 amperes, alternating or direct current
 Voltage rating of contacts – typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC, automotive
types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 V
 Operating lifetime, useful life - the number of times the relay can be expected to operate
reliably. There is both a mechanical life and a contact life; the contact life is naturally
affected by the kind of load being switched.
 Coil voltage – machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for switchgear may
have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few milliamperes
 Coil current - including minimum current required to operate reliably and minimum current
to hold. Also effects of power dissipation on coil temperature at various duty cycles.
 Package/enclosure – open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation between circuits,
explosion proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant, washable for printed circuit board
assembly
 Operating environment - minimum and maximum operating temperatures and other
environmental considerations such as effects of humidity and salt
 Assembly – Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed to allow PCB post
soldering cleaning, which is removed once assembly is complete.
 Mounting – sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel mount, enclosure
for mounting on walls or equipment
 Switching time – where high speed is required

95
  "Dry" contacts – when switching very low level signals, special contact materials may be
needed such as gold-plated contacts
 Contact protection – suppress arcing in very inductive circuits
 Coil protection – suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the coil current
 Isolation between coil contacts
 Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance
 Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration – some relays used in aerospace applications
are designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or more
 Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons
 Regulatory approvals
 Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit board.

There are many considerations involved in the correct selection of a control relay for a
particular application. These considerations include factors such as speed of operation,
sensitivity, and hysteresis. Although typical control relays operate in the 5 ms to 20 ms range,
relays with switching speeds as fast as 100 us are available. Reed relays which are actuated
by low currents and switch fast are suitable for controlling small currents.

As for any switch, the current through the relay contacts (unrelated to the current through the
coil) must not exceed a certain value to avoid damage. In the particular case of high-
inductance circuits such as motors other issues must be addressed. When a power source is
connected to an inductance, an input surge current which may be several times larger than the
steady current exists. When the circuit is broken, the current cannot change instantaneously,
which creates a potentially damaging spark across the separating contacts.

Consequently for relays which may be used to control inductive loads we must specify the
maximum current that may flow through the relay contacts when it actuates, the make rating;
the continuous rating; and the break rating. The make rating may be several times larger than
the continuous rating, which is itself larger than the break Type of load % of rated value
rating.
Resistive 75

Derating factors Inductive 35

Control relays should not be operated above rated temperature Motor 20

because of resulting increased degradation and fatigue.
Filament 10

96 Capacitive 75
Common practice is to derate 20 degrees Celsius from the maximum rated temperature limit.
Relays operating at rated load are also affected by their environment. Oil vapors may greatly
decrease the contact tip life, and dust or dirt may cause the tips to burn before their normal
life expectancy. Control relay life cycle varies from 50,000 to over one million cycles
depending on the electrical loads of the contacts, duty cycle, application, and the extent to
which the relay is derated. When a control relay is operating at its derated value, it is
controlling a lower value of current than its maximum make and break ratings. This is often
done to extend the operating life of the control relay. The table lists the relay derating factors
for typical industrial control applications.

Undesired arcing

Without adequate contact protection, the occurrence of electric current arcing causes
significant degradation of the contacts in relays, which suffer significant and visible damage.
Every time a relay transitions either from a closed to an open state (break arc) or from an
open to a closed state (make arc & bounce arc), under load, an electrical arc can occur
between the two contact points (electrodes) of the relay. The break arc is typically more
energetic and thus more destructive.

The heat energy contained in the resulting electrical arc is very high (tens of thousands of
degrees Fahrenheit), causing the metal on the contact surfaces to melt, pool and migrate with
the current. The extremely high temperature of the arc cracks the surrounding gas molecules
creating ozone, carbon monoxide, and other compounds. The arc energy slowly destroys the
contact metal, causing some material to escape into the air as fine particulate matter. This
very activity causes the material in the contacts to degrade quickly, resulting in device failure.
This contact degradation drastically limits the overall life of a relay to a range of about
10,000 to 100,000 operations, a level far below the mechanical life of the same device, which
can be in excess of 20 million operations.[4]

Protective relays

For protection of electrical apparatus and transmission lines, electromechanical relays with
accurate operating characteristics were used to detect overload, short-circuits, and other
faults. While many such relays remain in use, digital devices now provide equivalent
protective functions.

97
Railway signalling
UK Q-style signalling relay and base.

Railway signalling relays are very big and cumbersome compared to the mostly small
voltages (less than 120 V) and currents (perhaps 100 mA) that they switch. Contacts are
widely spaced to prevent dangerous flashovers and short circuits over a lifetime that may
exceed fifty years. BR930 series plug-in relays are widely used on railways following British
practice. These are 120 mm high, 180 mm deep and 56 mm wide and weigh about 1400 g,
and can have up to 16 separate contacts, say 12 make and 4 break contacts.

Since rail signal circuits must be highly reliable, special techniques are used to detect and
prevent failures in the relay system. To protect against false feeds, double switching relay
contacts are often used on both the positive and negative side of a circuit, so that two false
feeds are needed to cause a false signal. Not all relay circuits can be proved so there is
reliance on construction features such as carbon to silver contacts to resist lightning induced
contact welding and to provide AC immunity.

Opto-isolators are also used in some instances with railway signalling, especially where only
a single contact is to be switched.

History

In 1835, the relay was invented by American scientist Joseph Henry to improve his version of
the electrical telegraph, developed in 1831.[5][6]

A ‘relay’ or ‘repeater’ of Edward Davy of 1837/1838 was used in his electric telegraph.[citation
needed]

A simple device, which we now call a relay, was included in the original 1840 telegraph
patent of Samuel Morse. The mechanism described acted as a digital amplifier, repeating the
telegraph signal, and thus allowing signals to be propagated as far as desired. This overcame
the problem of limited range of earlier telegraphy schemes.

98
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT

In chapter 4 we discuss about Result, Applications and advantages

4.1 Implementation of the embedded technology for the under ground cable
fault, including the hardware and software requirements.

99
 Figure 4.1:Implementation of the embedded technology for the wireless cable
fault , including the hardware and software requirements.

4.2 Working

WORKING Working of this project is divided into four parts – DC power supply Part, cable
part, controlling part, display part. DC power supply part consist supply of 230v AC then it is step
down using transformer, bridge rectifier converts ac signal to dc & voltage regulator 7805 is used to
produce constant dc voltage. The set of resistors denote the cable part along with switches. The set
of resistors & switches are used as fault creators to indicate the fault at each location this shown by
the current sensing part of cable. The change in current is sensed by this part by sensing the voltage
drop. Controlling part uses the analog to digital (ADC) to converter the input current sensing signal
from the current generating circuit to the voltage drop into digital signal and supply the
Microcontroller. The microcontroller makes necessary calculations regarding the distance of the

100
fault. The driver is ran by the microcontroller and controls the switching of the relays for proper
connection of the cable at each phase. Display part consists of the LCD display interfaced to the
microcontroller and it shows the status of the cable of each phase and the fault distance of the cable
at the particular phase, in case of any fault and GSM used to send message to the base
statifunctionality to demonstrate wireless EV charging triggered by the presence of a vehicle.

4.2 ADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

1.Provides precise accuracy in determining the location of fault.

2.Consumes low power in Nano watts.

3.Compact size, Easy to handle

4.Serial on board programming.

5.No external programming voltage needed.

6.Less maintenance cost.

7.It has higher efficiency.

8.Lower tree trimming cost.

9.Safe and secure to use.

10.It is fast, effective & flawless service.

11.Highly reliable and efficient to use.

12.Useful for all type of underground cable.

13.Public safety is improved

LIMITATIONS

101
1.The Arduino and other component require 5V DC Supply
2.Relay requires 12V dc.
3.Sometimes network Problems for rural areas may happen.
4.Angular value required time to read so some delay occur

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION It’s a difficult task to find the faults in underground cables. This paper is
intended to study how to detect the exact location of circuit fault in the underground cables from
the feeder end in km by using an Arduino microcontroller. The Arduino microcontroller work is
based on the output of the cable resistance. As soon as fault occurs in the cable, the display unit
displays the exact fault location and also displays which phase is affected in the cable and how long
it’s affected and buzzer system is used to create an alerting signal which is helpful to humans. Also
using GSM the message of fault detection send to the base station.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT :We express our thanks to the support given by

management in completing our paper. We also express our sincere gratitude & deep sense of
respect to our guide S.A.Danole. I would like to thanks all my friends who helped me directly or
indirectly in endeavor and infused their helped for the paper

FUTURE ENHANCEMENT
n this Project we detect the exact location of short circuit fault in the underground cable
from feeder end in km by using Arduino. In future, this project can be implemented to calculate the
impedance by using a capacitor in an AC circuit and thus measure the Open Circuit

REFERENCE

Reference: [1]. Special Issue of International Journal of Electronics, Communication & Soft
Computing Science and Engineering IETE Zonal seminar “Recent Trends in Engineering &
Technology”-2017 ISSN:2277-9477. [2]. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology
(IJERT) ISSN: 2278-0181 Vol. 9 Issue 02, February-2020 http://www.ijert.org [3]. International
Research Journal of Engineering and Technologies (IRJET) Volume 7, Issue 12, Dec (2020)

102
www.irjet.net ISSN: 2395-0056. [4]. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology
(IRJET) Volume 4, Issue 2 Feb 2017 www.irjet.net ISSN: 2395-0056 [5]. IOT based Underground Cable
Fault Detection www.nevonprojects.com [6]. Thomas, Summi & A.Vimenthani, & Kaleeswari,.
(2017). Automatic underground cable fault locator using GSM. International Journal of Advanced
Research Trends in Engineering and Technology (IJARTET). 4. 260-265. [7]. Manickam, Dinesh &
Vairaperumal, Mr & Senthil kumar, Mr. (2018). Design and Detection of Underground Cable Fault
Using Raspberry Pi and IOT System. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and
Development. Volume-3. 668-672. 10.31142/ijtsrd19037 [8]. International Journal of Advanced
Research in Management, Architecture, Technology and Engineering (IJARMATE) Volume 5,Issue 3,
March 2019 www.ijarmate.com ISSN:2454-9762 [9]. International Journals of Innovations in
Engineering Research and Technology [IJIERT] ISSN: 2394- 3696 Volume 2, ISSUE 4APR.-2015.

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