HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.

1
Chapter 9.
Structures and Properties of Substances

2.(f) Structures and properties of giant ionic substances

- describe giant ionic structures of substances such as sodium chloride and caesium chloride
- state and explain the properties of ionic compounds in
2(h) Structures and properties of giant covalent substances
- describe giant covalent structures of substances such as diamond, graphite and quartz
- state and explain the properties of giant covalent substances in terms of their structures and bonding
2.(g) Structures and properties of simple molecular substances
- describe simple molecular structures of substances such as carbon dioxide and iodine
- recognise that van der Waals’ forces exist between molecules
- state and explain the properties of simple molecular substances in terms of their structures and bonding
2.(i) Comparison of structures and properties of important types of substances
- compare the structures and properties of substances with giant ionic, giant covalent,
simple molecular and giant metallic structures
- deduce the properties of substances from their structures and bonding, and vice versa
- explain applications of substances according to their structures

9.1 Introduction --- Structure of Substances

ionic substance
covalent substance
melting point : 808°C
melting point : 0°C

Water
Sodium chloride

Macroscopic world
Microscopic world

(1) The structure of a substance is a description of what its constituent particles are, and about
how they are arranged or packed together.
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(2) According to the structure, substances can be classified as follows :

Substances

Giant Molecular
structures structures

Giant ionic Giant Giant Simple Macro-

structures covalent metallic molecular molecules
structures structures structures

E Non-metals Diamond(C), H2 , N2,

X graphite(C) Cl2, I2 ,
A Elements Metals Copper (Cu)
M Iron (Fe)
P
L
E Covalent Quartz H2O, CO2, Polythene
S Compounds (SiO2) (CH2CH2)n
Ionic NaCl

Question 1 / Answer :
Name the structures possible for
(i) non-metal elements
S m s ,g c s
(b) covalent compounds
S ,m ,g
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.3
9.2 Structures of ionic compounds: Giant Ionic Structures

(1) All ionic compounds have giant ionic structure, e.g. NaCl, CsCl.
(2) The oppositely charged ions in ionic compounds are held together regularly by strong ionic bond
(electrostatic attractions) to form a giant lattice.
(3) Examples of ionic compounds:
(a) Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Fig. 9.2 Structure of sodium chloride

• Each Na+ ion is surrounded by 6 Cl- ions.

• Each Cl- ion is surrounded by 6 Na+ ions.

(b) Caesium chloride (CsCl)

⚫ Each Cs+ ion is surrounded by 8 Cl- ions.

⚫ Each Cl- ion is surrounded by 8 Cs+ ions.
⚫ There are more Cl- ions surrounding a Cs+ ion than a Na+ ion because Cs+ ion is larger than a
Na+ ion.
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.4
(4) Properties of ionic compounds
Property Explanation
(i) High melting points and ⚫ Ions are held by strong ionic bonds.
boiling points ⚫ Much energy is needed to break the bonds.
(ii) Do not conduct electricity • There are no mobile ions.
in solid state
(iii) Conduct electricity in • There are mobile ions.
molten state or in aqueous
solution
(iv) Most are soluble in water • Strong attractive forces between ions and water
molecules overcome (weigh out) the ionic bonds
between oppositely charged ions.
(v) Insoluble in non-aqueous • The attractive forces between ions and
solvent non-aqueous solvent molecules are weaker than the
ionic bonds between oppositely charged ions.
(vi) Usually hard and high • Ions are held together closely in crystal lattice (giant
density ionic structure) by strong ionic bonds.
(vii) Brittle • When a force is applied, the relative movement of
the ions brings ions of the same charge close to each
other. This results in repulsion.

(5) Notices:
(i) Electrical conductivity (in solid, molten/liquid, aqueous solution) => Mobile ions (yes / No?)
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.5
(ii) Solubility (in water, in non-aqueous solvent)
• The attractive forces between the ions and the solvent molecules are strong enough to
overcome the ionic bonds between ions in the pure substance;
• Ions in the substance must separate from each other and become surrounded by the solvent
molecules.

(iii) Hard and brittle

• An ionic compound forms a lattice of alternating positive and negative ions.
• When an external force is applied, the layers of ions may move relative to each other. This brings
ions of the same charge close to each other and result in repulsion between the ions.
• Then, the lattice splits.
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Practice 9.1
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9.3 Structure and properties of Giant Covalent Structures
(1) Only a few covalent substances have giant covalent structure, e.g. carbon (diamond and
graphite), silicon and silicon dioxide (quartz).
(2) The atoms are held by strong covalent bonds to form a giant network.
(3) Typical examples of substances of giant covalent structures:
Example 1 Giant covalent structure Description
Diamond (i) Diamond is one form of carbon.
(ii) It has a three-dimensional giant covalent
structure.
(iii) Each carbon atom forms strong
covalent bonds (tetrahedrally/
networkingly) with 4 other carbon
atoms.

Example 2 Giant covalent structure Description

Graphite (i) Each carbon atom is bonded to only
three other carbon atoms in its layer
are held by strong covalent bonds.
(ii) Carbon atoms are arranged in flat,
parallel layers. Each layer contains
many six-membered carbon rings.
(iii) Weak van der Waals’ forces exist
between layers of carbon atoms.
(iv) Each carbon atom has one outermost
shell electron is delocalized.
(v) Delocalized electrons exist between
layers of carbon atoms. Hence, it
conducts electricity and it can be
used as electrodes in batteries.

Example 3 Giant covalent structure Description

Quartz/ (i) Silicon(IV) oxide has a giant covalent
silicon dioxide/ structure.
silicon(IV) oxide (ii) Each silicon atom is bonded to 4 oxygen
atoms.
(iii) Each oxygen atom is bonded to 2
silicon atoms.
(iv) There are no discrete SiO2 molecules.
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.8
(4) Properties of giant covalent structures:
Property Explanation
(i) Very high melting points ⚫ Atoms are held by strong covalent bonds with network
and boiling points structure.
⚫ Much energy is needed to break the strong covalent bonds.
(ii) Do not conduct electricity • There are no mobile ions or delocalized electrons.
(except graphite) • However, graphite has delocalized electrons for conducting
electricity!
(iii) Insoluble in all solvents • Strong covalent bonds between atoms cannot be broken
(water or non-aqueous down easily.
solvents)
(iv) Very hard ⚫ Atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds to form a
(except graphite) giant covalent structure.
• However, graphite is soft and easy to cleave because only
weak van der Waals’ forces exist between the adjacent
layers.
(5) Notices: Applications of graphite
(i) Graphite can be used as a solid lubricant (潤滑劑) because the layers of carbon atoms can
slide past each other easily. (weak van der Waals’ forces between the layers!)
(ii) Graphite (mixed with clay) is used in pencil ‘leads’. As you move a pencil across a piece of
paper, layers of carbon atoms flake off the structure (weak van der Waals’ forces), so
pencil marks appear on the paper.
(iii)Graphite is a non-metal that conducts electricity well. The presence of delocalised electrons
along the layers allows graphite to conduct electricity when a voltage is applied. Graphite is
used to make electrodes in electric motors and electrodes in dry cells
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.9

Practice 9.2

9.4 Giant metallic structures

(1) The outermost shell electrons of metal atoms leave atoms readily to form positive ions (cations).
(2) These electrons can move freely and they are called delocalized electrons.
(3) The strong electrostatic attraction between cations and delocalized electrons makes up
metallic bond.
(4) In metal, there is a regular 3-dimensional arrangement of metal cations in a ‘sea’ of
delocalized electrons. Hence, metal has a giant metallic structure.

delocalized delocalized electrons

electrons

(5) Properties of metals

Property Explanation
(i) High melting points and ⚫ Metal ions are held by strong metallic bonds.
boiling points (except Hg ⚫ Much energy is needed to break the bonds.
and group I metals)
(ii) High conductivity of heat • The delocalized electrons can move freely.
and electricity
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.10
(iii) High density (except group • Atoms (or cations) are closely packed in crystal lattice
I metals) (giant metallic structure) with strong metallic bonds.
(iv) High ductility and • The non-directional metallic bonds still hold the
malleability cations together even if the position of the cations has
been changed.
(6) Notices:
(i) High ductility and malleability
• Malleable (can be rolled into sheets or hammered)
• ductile (can be pulled out into wires)
Reasons: When a force is applied, the layers of metals can slip over one another. The metal does NOT
break as the non-directional metallic bonds still hold the atoms together.

9.5 Simple Molecular Structure

(1) In most non-metals, atoms are joined together to form simple molecular structure.
E.g. He, I2, H2O and CO2.
(2) Atoms (non-metals) within the molecules are held by strong covalent bonds.
(3) Discrete molecules are held by weak van der Waals’ forces.

(4) The larger the molecular size is, the greater the van der Waals’ forces between molecules
will be and thus the melting point and boiling point will be higher.
Molecular size Van der Waals’ forces m.p./ b.p./density
Fluorine F2
Chlorine Cl2
Bromine Br2
Iodine I2
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(5) Examples of typical simple molecular structures of some covalent substances (e.g. carbon
dioxide and iodine):=> 3-D regular and closely packed arrangement => crystals

Weak van der

Waals’ forces

(6) Properties of simple molecular substances:

Property Explanation
(i) Low melting points and ⚫ Molecules are held by weak van der Waals’ forces.
boiling points ⚫ Little energy is needed to separate them.
(ii) Do not conduct electricity • There are no mobile ions or delocalized electrons.
(iii) Insoluble in water • The weak attractive forces between the molecules of the
substance and water molecules are not strong enough to
overcome (weigh out) the attractive forces between water
molecules.
(iv) Soluble in non-aqueous • The attractive forces between the molecules of the substance
solvents and non-aqueous solvent molecules are similar to the
attractive forces between non-aqueous solvent molecules.
(v) Soft • Molecules are held by weak van der Waals’ forces.

(7) Notices:
(i) Melting point and boiling point
• During melting and boiling, covalent bonds are not broken. Only weak van der Waals’ forces
are needed to be overcome.
• Many simple molecular substances are liquids or gases at room temperature. Many of the
liquids are volatile (evaporate easily).
• The van der Waals’ forces among iodine molecules are so weak that iodine can sublime on
gentle warming.
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.12
(ii) Solubility (in non-aqueous solvent, in water)
• When iodine is added to cyclohexane, the intermolecular forces between iodine molecules
(solute) and cyclohexane molecules (solvent) are much the same as that in the pure
substances. So, iodine and cyclohexane mix together easily/ iodine is soluble in cyclohexane
(non-aqueous solvent).

• When iodine is added to water, the intermolecular forces among water molecules are strong.
The intermolecular forces between iodine moelcules and water molecules are weaker in
comparison. So, iodine molecules and water molecules do not mix together easily / iodine is
insoluble in water.
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.13
Example 9.1

Question 2:
Explain why iodine is a solid, bromine is a liquid, while chlorine and fluorine are gases at room
conditions. (Hint : you may answer this question according to the van der Waals’ forces between the
molecules.)

Question 2 Answer :
Iodine, bromine, chlorine and fluorine have a __________________ structure and their molecules are
held by weak intermolecular forces called van der Waals’ forces. The larger the molecular size, the
___________ the van der Waals’ forces. The molecular sizes of the substances are:________________.
The strength of the van der Waals’ forces are : ________________________.
So, the boiling points and melting points: _____________________________.
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.14

Practice 9.3
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.15
9.6 Table : Comparison of Structures and Properties
The structures and properties of different substances are summarized below:
Substances with
Giant metallic Giant ionic Simple molecular Giant covalent
structure structure structure structure
Nature of the constituent elements Metals only Metal + Non-metal Non-metals only
C(_________),
H2, O2, N2, Cl2,
Examples Na, Cu, Zn, Al NaCl, CsCl C(______), ___,
Ar, CO2, H2O
______(quartz)
⚫ Metal
⚫ Cat
Particles ⚫ ⚫ Mo ⚫ A
⚫ An
electrons
⚫ Strong

bonds
between
Strong Strong atoms Strong
Types of bonding
bonds bonds ⚫ Weak bonds

forces
between
molecules

Structure

sodium
Sodium chloride Iodine diamond
Melting points and boiling
Usually high high low Very high
points
⚫ Mainly gas
State at room temperature
or liquid;
and pressure Solids except Hg Solids Solids
⚫ Solid with
25oC and 1 atm
low m.p.
High Low
solid state (delocalized Low Low (Except
electrons) __________)
Electrical High
conductivity (delocalized High
liquid state Low -------------
in electrons + mobile (mobile ions)
metal cations)
aqueous High Low
------------- -------------
solution (mobile ions) (Except acids)
Solubility in water Insoluble Usually soluble Usually insoluble Insoluble
Solubility in non-aqueous
Insoluble Usually insoluble Usually soluble Insoluble
solvent (e.g. CHCl3)
Hard
Hardness Usually high Hard but brittle soft
(except ______)
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9.7 Relationship between structures and physical properties of substances
(1) In this unit, you have discovered how the physical properties of substances are related to their
structures and bonding, and why different substances have different properties.
(2) You should be able to deduce the physical properties of substances from their structures and
bonding, and vice versa.

A. Predicting structure from physical properties

The following flow chart is useful in predicting the structures of a substance:

Question 3
The following table shows the properties of four substances:
Electrical conductivity
Substance m.p. / oC b.p./ oC
solid molten
A 2450 3542 Low High
B 247 1220 High High
C 75 125 Low Low
D 3550 4827 Low Low
(a) State and explain which has a giant ionic structure.
(b) Which substance has a giant metallic structure?
(c) State and explain which substance is most likely to be diamond.
(d) Which substance is most likely to be soluble in ethanol?
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.17
Question 4/ Answers : The following table lists the physical properties of some substances :
substance m.p. (C) b.p.(C) Electrical Electrical conductance of Electrical conductance
conductance of liquid (in molten state) of aqueous solution
solid
A -25 144 Poor Poor Insoluble
B -51 -35 Poor Poor Good
C 730 1380 Poor Good Good
D 1455 2835 Good Good Insoluble
E 651 1300 Poor Good Good
F 0 100 Poor Poor Poor
G 961 2193 Good Good Insoluble
H 1083 2582 Good Good Insoluble
I 712 1412 Poor Good Good

(a) Which of these substances are liquids at room temperature ?

(b) Which of these substances is a gas at room temperature ?
(c) Suggest three of these substances which are ionic in nature.
(d) Suggest three of these substances which consists of molecules.
(e) Suggest three of these substances which consists of giant metallic structure.
(f) Suggest one of these substances which changes into ions from a molecular structure when it
dissolves in water.

B. Predicting physical properties from bonding and structure

Example 9.3
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Example 9.2
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Practice 9.4
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9.8 Public exam strategy: Physical property comparison – e.g. melting points

(A) Structure
Metal + Non-metal Non-metal + Non-metal Metals only
Giant covalent Simple molecular Giant metallic
Giant ionic structure
structure structure structure
⚫ C(diamond)
⚫ C(graphite)
⚫ Si
⚫ SiO2(quartz)

(B) Particles
Delocalized
Opposite charged
Atoms Molecules electrons and
ions
metallic cations

(C) Bonding / forces

Strong covalent Weak van der Waals’ Strong metallic
Strong ionic bond
bond forces bond

Sentence structure for explaining the difference in melting point between different structures:
X has a _____(A)_____structure,
Its ______(B)______ are held together by [strong/weak] _____(C)______ bonding/forces.

But Y has a _____(A)_____structure,

Its ______(B)______ are held together by [strong/weak] ______(C)_____ bonding/forces.
Therefore, X has a [higher/lower] melting point than Y.
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.21

A. Steps to draw the Structure of NaCl crystal lattice

 




 

Key :

Na+ ion

Cl- ion
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.22

B. Steps to draw the Structure of CsCl crystal lattice

 

Key :

Cs+ ion

Cl- ion
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.23

C. Steps to draw the structures of diamond

 




Key :

Carbon atom
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.24
Public Exam Questions:

Name: _______________ Class: _______ Class No.:_____ Block: X1 / X2 / X3

Question 1: HKCEE 2007 paper 1

A is compound formed from oxygen and magnesium, while B is a compound formed from oxygen and
fluorine.
(a) Draw the electronic diagram of A, showing electrons in the outermost shells only. (1 mark)
(b) Draw the electronic diagram of B, showing electrons in the outermost shells only. (1 mark)
(c) Compare the melting points of A and B. Explain your answer. (2 marks)

Question 2: HKCEE 2008 paper 1

T, X and Z are three elements in the Periodic Table, with the sum of their atomic numbers equals to 38.
Moreover, both T and X are Group VII elements, while the atomic number of T is smaller than that of
X.
(a) What are elements T, X and Z ? (1 mark)
(b) Draw the electronic diagram of the compound formed from T and X, showing electrons in the
outermost shells only. (1 mark)
(c) Discuss, with explanation, the electrical conductivity of the compound formed from X and Z
with reference to the type and property of the particles in it. (2 marks)
 HKDSE CHEMISTRY / Topic 2 / Chapter 9 / Structures and properties of substances / Page.25
Question 3: HKCEE 2008 paper 1
The simplified diagram below shows a tungsten light bulb. The filament inside is made of tungsten
metal (atomic number = 74). The filament can emit light by passing an electric current until it reaches
an extremely high temperature. Under vacuum condition, the filament would emit tungsten particles
under extremely high temperature and blacken the light bulb. To avoid this from happening, the light
bulb should be filled up with gas.

(a) Describe the structure and bonding in tungsten metal with the help of a diagram. (3 marks)

Question 4: HKCEE 2009 paper 1

Discuss respectively why electrical conductivity and melting point differ among sodium
chloride(NaCl), sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl2).
(9 marks)
Notice: 6 marks will be awarded for chemical knowledge and 3 marks for effective communication.
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More Challenging Questions (Chapter 9):

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More Challenging Topic Exercise (Chapters 5 - 9):

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