CHAPTER 5

SENSITIVITY AND COORDINATION

Introduction
When a sensory receptor is stimulated, it generates nerve impulses that travel to your brain.
Interpretation of these impulses is the function of the brain, which has a special region for
receiving information from each of the sense organs. Impulses arriving at a particular sensory
area of the brain can be interpreted in only one way, for example those arriving at the olfactory
area result in smell sensation and those arriving at the visual area result in sight sensation.
Sensory receptors may be categorized into five types based on their stimuli, mechanoreceptors,
thermoreceptors, pain receptors, chemoreceptors and photoreceptors.

THE SKIN AND TEMPERATURE CONTROL

A healthy human body temperature close to the average of 37 OC. only disease or some other
disorder can make it vary. The human body uses a number of control systems to keep its internal
temperature steady.
the body can raise its temperature by increased activity or by absorbing more sunlight energy.
We can also gain energy from hot food or hot drink. Also the body loses heat energy from the
skin by radiation and conduction. Evaporation of sweat also causes heat loss.
The body systems are controlled by the brain. If the temperature of the blood passing through the
brain is incorrect, the brain sends information to parts of the body which react to control body
temperature. The skin plays a very important kept in keeping the body temperature steady.

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The Skin is composed of two layers, epidermis and dermis.
a) EPIDERMIS CONSIST OF
i. Cornified layer: this is outer surface layer of the skin and consist of dead cells , all the
time are replaced the cells below.
ii. Granular layer: this is middle layer of the skin and made up of living cells which has
been produced in the Malpighian layer.
iii. Malpighian layer: is the deepest layer consist of actively divided cells, and is the where
melanocytes found. Melanocytes are cells which produce melanin that is responsible for
body color. Melanin absorbs the ultraviolet ray and protects the cells beneath from
damaged effects.
b) DERMIS
Dermis is thick connective tissue layer. contains cutaneous receptors which make the skin
sensitive to touch, pressure, pain and temperature ( warmth or cold).
Dermis found blood capillaries, lymph vessels, sensory nerves, hair follicles, sweat
glands.

THE SENSES
Human have five sense organs to respond what is going on to their environment these sense
organs are:
 Sense of Sight (Eyes)
 Sense of Hearing (Ears)
 Sense of Teste (Tongue)
 Sense of Smelling (Nose)
 Sense of Touching (Skin)

I. Sight
Sight is the most useful senses. Try
closing your ayes for few minutes
and think of the problems faced by
those who are blind. Eyes are the
sense organs of sight. Our eyes are in
sockets in the skull. This helps to protect them from the damage. The eyes are held in
place by muscles, these let us move our eyes from side to side and up and down.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAM EYES

The eyes contain the receptors for light stimuli and are the organs of vision. The ayes are
protected within the eye orbits by surrounding bones, the eyelids, the eyelashes, the eyebrows
and the conjunctiva.

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The outer layer of the eye consist of sclera, an opaque, white portion of the eye and the cornea,
an interior window of the eye.
The middle layer of the eye consist of the choroid coat, ciliary body, and the iris, the choroid
coat contains the blood vessels of the eye and melanin. The melanin absorbs light within the
eyeball and prevents glare. The ciliary body contains the ciliary muscles, which contract and
relax to change the shape of the lens of the eye and form a ring around it. Ligaments hold the
lens in place. the colored part of the eye is the iris and it control the amount of light entering the
eye by controlling the size of the pupil. The pupil is the opening in the center of the iris through
which light passes to the lens.
The inner layer of the eye contains the retina (which lines the interior of the eyes), rods (for
light detection) and cones (for color detecting) and neurons.
The space between the cornea and the lens Is called the anterior cavity. The anterior cavity filled
with aqueous humor. The aqueous humor helps to maintain the shape of cornea and it is
responsible for the pressure of the eye, behind the lens is the posterior cavity, which is filled with
a clear gel-like substance called vitreous humor. The vitreous humor helps to maintain the shape
of the eye by pressing firmly against the wall of the eye. Refraction is the process of bending the
light rays. Refraction is produced by the cornea and lens. There is farther bending by the lens to
provide fine adjustment focusing the image on the retina.
Once the light stimulus is on the retina, it must convert into impulses that are sent to the brain via
the optic nerve. In the brain the impulses are interpreted as visual images.

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ACCESSORY ORGANS OF THE EYE
Accessory organs of the eye include
 The eyebrows
 Eyelids
 Eyelashes
 Lacrimal apparatus which produces tears
 Extrinsic muscles that move the eye
The eyebrows
Eyebrows have short, thick hairs positioned transversely above the eye along the supraorbital
ridge. Eyebrows shade the eyes from the sun and prevent perspiration or debris from falling into
the eye.
The eyelids
Are the flaps of skin that cover the eyes. And protect the eyeball and cornea from chemical and
mechanical damage. Trap dust and dirt particles, control amount of light entering the eye.
The eyelashes
Are the hairs that protect from the eyelids and help to protect the eye from dust particles.
The eyeball
The wall of the eyeball is made up of three layer namely the sclera, choroid and retina.

TEAR GLANDS OR LACHRYMAL GLANDS

Are glands that lies at the corner of the upper eyelids. They secrete tears which function as
follows:
 Reduce friction.
 Lubricate the conjunctiva and protect it from drying.
 Wash away dust particles preventing them from entering the eye. Excess tear drain into
the nose through a tube called nasolacrimal duct.

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 SOME PARTS OF THE EYES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Part of the eye Function
1: Cornea Protects the eye from outside ultraviolet radiations
2: Retina Light sensitive inner layer detect light and convert nerve impulses
3: Iris Control the size of pupil (in dim and light conditions)
4: Pupil A hole in the center of the iris control the amount of light entering the eye
5: Sclera Protect the eye and help to maintain its shape
6: Choroids Is a dark middle layer absorb light and supply the eye with oxygen and
nutrient.
7: Conjunctiva This is a thin transparent and protective membrane that covers the exposed
part of the eye ball , also protect cornea.
8: Lacrimal A lacrimal app consist of the lacrimal glands and lacrimal sac with its duct,
apparatus and produces tears that flow over the eye when the eyelids are blinked.
9: Extrinsic muscles Control eye movements
10: Optic nerve Transmits impulses to brain
11: Lens To focus light rays on the retina for the formation of the image.

THERE TWO TYPES OF PHOTORECEPTORS IN THE RETINA

i. The rods – are photoreceptors sensitive to dim light. E.g. night blindness diseases
ii. The cones - are photoreceptors that are sensitive to bright light and are rather ineffective
in situation of low light intensity.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STIMULUS, RECEPTORS, IMPULSES,

RESPONSES AND ACCOMMODATION
A. Stimulus: is a change in the environment. This can be internal (like. Hunger) or external
(like. Sound)
B. Receptor: are transducers (e.g.they change energy from one form to another). For
example the eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin all our sense – are receptors.
C. Impulses: is a force so communication as to produce motion suddenly.
D. Response: is the change in behavior of part of or the whole organism as a result of
detecting a stimulus.
E. Accommodation: is the focusing of images of clearly at various distances on the, retina
this process called accommodation.
COMMON EYE DEFECTS
The most common abnormalities of human vision are:
Contract, glaucoma, short sightedness (Hypermetropia), shortsightedness (Myopia) presbyopia,
color blindness and astigmatism.

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 i. Longsightedness:
ii. Short sightedness:
iii. Contract:
iv. Glaucoma:
v. Presbyopia:
vi. Color blindness:
vii. Astigmatism:
LONGSIGHTEDNESS (HYPERMETROPIA)
This is an eye defect caused either due to the eyeball being too short or the lens being too thin.
The person only see far distance but do not see well near objects.
The shortness of the eyeball leads to focusing the light rays behind the retina, the thickness of the
lens make it not able to converge the light rays on the retina. the image is formed behind the
retina
SHORTSIGHTEDNESS (MYOPIA)
This is eye defect in which either the eyeball is longer than normal such that parallel rays from
distant objects are brought to focus in front of the retina or the lens is too thick such that it bends
the parallel rays of light from an object converting them to focus in front of the retina. This leads
to formation of a blurred image.

ASTIGMATISM
Astigmatism is a common condition of the eye which causes blurred or distorted vision. This is
due to an irregular shape of the cornea or the lens, preventing light from being focused properly
on the retina.

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PRESBYOPIA
Presbyopia also referred to as old- sightedness is an eye defect about due to old age.

CATARACT
This is an eye defect that is also common in old people. The lens get cloudy gradually and
becomes opaque such that light cannot pass through easily and the person cannot see properly.
GLAUCOMA
This is a condition most common in old people. It is caused by a blockage in the eye which
prevents excess aqueous humour to drain away leading to its build- up in the eye that causes
pressure in the eye. The pressure brings about blurred vision.

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COLOR BLINDNESS
This is inherited condition where one lacks one or more primary colour cones. Normally people
have three cones – red cones – blue cones and green cones. They are described as being
trichromatic in vision.
Those with only two cones are said to be dichromatic and may in most cases be lacking in red
cones hence are said to be colour blind.
Men are more likely so suffer from colour blindness because the gene for colour is held in
X-chromosomes which men carry only one per cell.

II. HEARING
We have one ear on each side of the head. This helps us to tell where a sound is coming from.
Ears change vibrations in the air into nerve impulses which travel to the brain where they are
interpreted as sound. These vibrations or sound waves are collected by the funnel-like pinna and
passed down a short canal to the eardrum. The eardrum is a thin, tightly stretched membrane
which vibrates in time with vibrations in the air,
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN EAR
Part of the human ear are:
Outer part (External)
 Pinna (Ear flap)
 Ear canal

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Middle part
 Eardrum
 Ossicles
 Oval window
 Eustachian tube
Inner part (Internal)
 Semicircular canal
 Cochlea
 Auditory nerve

HOW THE HUMAN EAR WORKS

The sound waves pass down the outer ear canal and hit to the ear drum, causing to vibrate. The
vibrations are carried by the tiny middle ear to the inner ear. Nerves in the coiled cochlea
detects the vibrations and send impulses to the auditory nerve to the brain, the semicircular
membrane detects the movement of the head and the send nerve impulses to the brain giving
information about the movement of the head which help us balance.
This table below shows summarizes some parts of the ear and their functions
PARTS OF THE EAR FUNCTION OF THE PARTS
1: Ear canal Along narrow canal lined with hairs channels the sound waves into
eardrum
2: Eardrum Thin membrane, vibrate in response to sound waves and transfer the
waves to ossicles.
3: Pinna Made up of cartilage and shaped like funnel collects and direct sound
waves into ear canal
4: Ossicles Consist of three bones called malleus magnify the vibration and
transfer into oval window
5: Oval window Thin membrane transfers the waves from the ossicles to cochlea
6: Cochlea Coiled fluid filled canal and lined with receptor cells which are
sensitive to vibration and help the body to keep its balance by detects
the movement of the head
7: Eustachian tube Air filled canal linked to the middle ear to the throat and balance the
pressure in the middle with the pressure in the ear drum
8: Semicircular Fluid filled canal help the body to keep its balance by detects the
canal movement of the head
9: Auditory nerve Bundles of nerve fibers links the ear to brain and transmit the nerve
impulses from the cochlea to the brain so the sound can be interpreted

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III SENSE OF TASTE
Teste and Smell are called chemical senses because their receptors are sensitive to the chemicals
in the food we eat and the air we breathe. The sensory receptors of sense of the teste are located
in the teste buds. Are small elevations on the tongue that are visible to the naked ayes.
HOW THE HUMAN TONGUE WORKS
The tongue can detects four testes which are:
 Bitter teste
 Sour teste
 Salty teste
 Sweet teste
The upper surface of the tongue is covered with teste buds which contains many receptor cells,
each type of teste receptors detect only one type teste.
Different types of teste are located in different areas in tongue. The process of teste detecting we
summarize below

Saliva Dissolved food The test The brain interpret

dissolves the substances receptors send the impulses and
food stimulate the teste identify the type of
an impulses to
substance in receptors in the test
the brain via
the mouth teste buds the nerves

TESTE AREAS ON THE HUMAN TONGUE

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IV SENSE OF SMELL
Our sense of smell is dependent on olfactory cells located within olfactory epithelium. The sense
of smell detects the chemicals in the air and sense organ is the nose.

How sense of teste and smell works with

Actually the sense of teste and the sense of smell work together to create a combined effect when
interpreted by the cerebral cortex, for example when you have a cold you think food has lost its
teste, but most likely you have lost the ability to sense its smell. This method works in reserve
also. When you smell something, some of the molecules move from the nose down into the
mouth region and stimulate the teste buds there. Therefore part of what we refer to as smell may
in fact be tested.
Types of nasal cells
In the nasal cavity there are two types of cells
 Granular cells: secrete mucus, mucus lines the walls of the nasal cavity this mucus
warm and moistens the air before enter the lungs
 Sensory cells: they acts as receptors, these cells are located at roof of the nasal cavity
and its function is to detects the stimuli.

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 V SENSE OF TOUCH
The sense of touch detect pressure, pain, heat and cold, the organ of touch is skin, spread
throughout the skin are sense receptor which are sensitive to touch pressure, temperature. There
are many touch and pressure receptors on the fingertips, lips and tongue. They tell you whether
surfaces are hard, soft, tough, or smooth.
The small temperature changes in the environment can be detected by temperature receptors of
which there are two types, hot and cold . the front of the body has more hot receptors than the
back, this explains why your back tends to feel cold when you enter a cold room.

Note
There are five sense organs and their nerves names
 Optic nerve (Ayes)
 Olfactory nerve (Nose)
 Hypoglossal nerve (Tongue)
 Cochlear nerve or acoustic nerve (Ear)
 Myelinated and unmyelinated branches of spinal cord (Skin)

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COORDINATION, ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND NERVOUS SYSTEM
Coordination
Definition
Co-ordination is the process by which a living organism gives the correct response at the correct
time to a particular stimulus. living organisms are able to respond to both internal and external
stimuli. This allows the organisms to adapt, to chance and increase their chance of survival.
For Example when humans/animals get hunger,
they go find food, so that their chance of survival
may increase.
Cordination is achieved by:

1. The nervous system

2. The endocrine system
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is made up of glands that
secretes chemicals called hormones directly into
bloodstream the blood carries the hormone to the
target organs where it produces an effect.
The target organ has a receptor on the cell
membrane that pick up the hormone molecule,
.Hormones influence the metabolism of cells, the
growth and development of body parts, and
homeostasis. Homeostasis - the regulation of the
internal conditions of cells to maintain optimum
conditions for functioning, in response to external
and internal changes. This balancing act is called
Homeostasis.
The glands that secrete hormones in the body are divide into two types and they are
 Endocrine glands
 Exocrine glands

I. ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Endocrine glands are ductless, they secrete their hormones into tissue fluid and blood stream for
distribution throughout the body, and so there are seven main endocrine glands which are
pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, ganoids (tests and ovaries)
glands pancreas and Thomas gland.
II. EXOCRINE GLANDS

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Which have a duct and secrete their hormones into those ducts, for example salivary glands send
saliva into the mouth by the salivary ducts.

HORMONES AND HOMEOSTASIS

The effect of hormones is usually controlled in two ways {1} Negative feedback and {2}
antagonistic hormones.
The several hormones directly affect the blood glucose, calcium and sodium levels. Other
hormones are involved in the function of various organs, including the reproductive organs.
Some hormones or their effect are controlled by a negative feedback system. For example when
blood glucose level became high some of the pancreas cells called beta cells secretes insulin
which causes the liver to store the glucose as a glycogen. And reverse if the insulin is too little
or absent in the body, the body cells are not able to use glucose and excreted in the urine, then
the person became diabetes person.
When the blood glucose lowers in the body other cells of the pancreas called alpha cells secretes
glucagon which causes the liver to convert glycogen into glucose. So insulin and glucagon
called antagonistic hormone because they do opposite functions.
On the other hand when the calcium level in the blood raises the thyroid gland secretes
calcitonin which remove the excess calcium in the blood and reverse if the calcium level in the
blood decreases parathyroid glands secretes parathyroid hormones which causes the increase of
calcium in the blood. All this above example indicate the negative feedback system.

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