Department of Mechanical Engineering

The Polytechnic
Lecturer: Griffin Salima

Types of loads - Load curves - Load duration curve

Variable load on power stations:

Here I am going to explain you how the load connected to a power station is
varied and what are terms used to describe the factors responsible for variable load.
First of all, lets us know what is a variable load. Generally, in the house, we switch
on lights, fan, TV and all other appliances only when we are at home. But when we
are out of home all are switched off. So now the load is varied. Like this in every
home, it happens and not only at home but many schools, hospitals, buildings,
factories, offices.

The load on a power station varies from time to time due to uncertain demands
of the consumers and is known as the variable load on the station. A power station
is designed to meet the load requirements of the consumers. An ideal load on the
station, from the stand point of equipment needed and operating routine, would be
one of constant magnitude and steady duration. However, such a steady load on
the station is never realised in actual practice. The consumers require their small or
large block of power in accordance with the demands of their activities. Thus the
load demand of one consumer at any time may be different from that of the
other consumer. The result is that load on the power station varies from time to
time.

Effects of variable load:

The variable load on a power station introduces many perplexities in its
operation. Some of the important effects of variable load on a power station are:
(i) Need of additional equipment: The variable load on a power station
necessitates to have additional equipment. By way of illustration, consider a
steam power station. Air, coal and water are the raw materials for this plant. In
order to produce variable power, the supply of these materials will be required
to be varied correspondingly.

For instance, if the power demand on the plant increases, it must be followed
by the increased flow of coal, air and water to the boiler in order to meet the
increased demand. Therefore, additional equipment has to be installed to
accomplish this job. As a matter of fact, in a modern power plant, there is
much equipment devoted entirely to adjust the rates of supply of raw materials
in accordance with the power demand made on the plant.
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(ii) Therefore, in actual practice, a number of alternators of different capacities are
installed so that most of the alternators can be operated at nearly full load
capacity. However, the use of a number of generating units increases the initial
cost per kW of the plant capacity as well as floor area required. This leads to
the increase in production cost of energy.

Comparison of various power plants

Load Curves:
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to
(w.r.t) time is known as a load curve.

The load on a power station is never constant; it varies from time to time. These
load variations during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours) are recorded half-hourly or
hourly and are plotted against time on the graph. The curve thus obtained is
known as daily load curve as it shows the variations of load w.r.t. the time during
the day. The figure below shows a typical daily load curve of a power station. It is
clear that load on the power station is varying, being maximum at 6 P.M. in this
case. It may be seen that load curve indicates at a glance the general character of
the load that is being imposed on the plant. Such a clear representation cannot be
obtained from tabulated figures. The monthly load curve can be obtained from the
daily load curves of that month. For this purpose, average values of power over a
month at different times of the day are calculated and then plotted on the graph.
The monthly load curve is generally used to fix the rates of energy. The yearly
load curve is obtained by considering the monthly load curves of that particular
year. The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the annual load factor

Importance: The daily load curves have attained a great importance in a

generation as they supply the following information readily:
(i) The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during
different hours of the day.
(ii) The area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the
day.
Units generated/day = Area (in kWh) under daily load curve.

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(iii) The highest point on the daily load curve represents the maximum demand on
the station on that day.
(iv) The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number of hours gives
the average load on the station in the day.
Average load =Area (in kWh) under daily load curve/24hours
(v) The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of a rectangle in
which it is contained gives the load factor.
Load factor = Average load/Max. demand = Average load × 24/Max. demand
× 24 = Area (in kWh) under daily load curve/Total area of a rectangle in
which the load curve is contained.
(vi) The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
(vii) The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station.

Important terms and factors:

The variable load problem has introduced the following terms and factors in
power plant engineering:

(i) Connected load: It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment
connected to supply system. A power station supplies load to thousands of
consumers. Each consumer has certain equipment installed in his premises.
The sum of the continuous ratings of all the equipment in the consumer’s
premises is the “connected load” of the consumer.

For instance, if a consumer has connections of five 100-watt lamps and a power
point of 500 watts, then connected load of the consumer is 5 × 100 + 500 =
1000 watts. The sum of the connected loads of all the consumers is the
connected load to the power station.

(ii) Maximum demand: It is the greatest demand of load on the power station
during a given period. The load on the power station varies from time to
time. The maximum of all the demands that have occurred during a given
period (say a day) is the maximum demand. Thus referring back to the load
curve of Figure below the maximum demand on the power station during the
day is 6 MW and it occurs at 6 P.M.
Maximum demand is generally less than the connected load because all
the consumers do not switch on their connected load to the system at a
time. The knowledge of maximum demand is very important as it helps
in determining the installed capacity of the station. The station must be
capable of meeting the maximum demand.

(iii) Demand factor: It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to
its connected load i.e.,
Demand factor = Maximum demand/Connected load

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The value of demand factor is usually less than 1.It is expected because maximum
demand on the power station is generally less than the connected load. If the
maximum demand on the power station is 80 MW and the connected load is 100
MW, then demand factor = 80/100 = 0·8.The knowledge of demand factor is vital
in determining the capacity of the plant equipment.
(iv) Average load: The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given
period (day or month or year) is known as average load or average demand.

(v) Load factor: The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a
given period is known as load factor i.e.,

The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor
if the time period considered is a day or month or year. Load factor is always less
than 1 because the average load is smaller than the maximum demand. The load
factor plays a key role in determining the overall cost per unit generated. Higher
the load factor of the power station, lesser will be the cost per unit generated.

(vi) Diversity factor: The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the
maximum demand on power station is known as diversity factor i.e.,

A power station supplies load to various types of consumers whose maximum

demands generally do not occur at the same time. Therefore, the maximum
demand on the power station is always less than the sum of individual maximum
demands of the consumers. Obviously, diversity factor will always be greater than
1.The greater the diversity factor, the lesser is the cost of generation of power.

(vii) Plant capacity factor: It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the
maximum possible energy that could have been produced during a given
period i.e.,
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Thus if the considered period is one year,

The plant capacity factor is an indication of the reserve capacity of the plant. A
power station is so designed that it has some reserve capacity for meeting the
increased load demand in future. Therefore, the installed capacity of the plant is
always somewhat greater than the maximum demand on the plant.

Reserve Capacity = Plant capacity − Maximum demand

It is interesting to note that difference between load factor and plant capacity
factor is an indication of reserve capacity. If the maximum demand on the plant is
equal to the plant capacity, then load factor and plant capacity factor will have the
same value. In such a case, the plant will have no reserve capacity.

(viii) Plant use factor: It is ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant
capacity and the number of hours for which the plant was in operation i.e.

Gas turbine power plant

Load duration curve:
When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes, the curve thus obtained is called a load duration curve. The load
duration curve is obtained from the same data as the load curve but the ordinates
are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes. In other words, the maximum
load is represented to the left and decreasing loads are represented to the right in
the descending order.

Hence the area under the load duration curve and the area under the load curve are
equal. The figure below shows the daily load curve. The daily load duration curve
can be readily obtained from it. It is clear from daily load curve, those load elements
in order of descending magnitude are 20 MW for 8 hours; 15 MW for 4 hours and

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5 MW for 12 hours. Plotting these loads in order of descending magnitude, we get
the daily load duration curve as shown in Figure below.

The following points may be noted about load duration curve:

(i) The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form. In other
words, it readily shows the number of hours during which the given load has
prevailed.
(ii) The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding
load curve. Obviously, the area under daily load duration curve (in kWh) will
give the units generated on that day.
(iii) The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time. By
laying out the abscissa from 0 hours to 8760 hours, the variation and
distribution of demand for an entire year can be summarised in one curve.
The curve thus obtained is called the annual load duration curve.

Types of loads:
A device which taps electrical energy from the electric power system is called a
load on the system. The load may be resistive (e.g., electric lamp), inductive (e.g.,
induction motor), capacitive or some combination of them. The various types of
loads on the power system are :

(i) Domestic load: Domestic load consists of lights, fans, refrigerators, heaters,
television, small motors for pumping water etc. Most of the residential load occurs
only for some hours during the day (i.e., 24 hours) e.g., lighting load occurs during
night time and domestic appliance load occurs for only a few hours. For this
reason, the load factor is low (10% to 12%).

(ii) Commercial load: This type of load consists of lighting for shops, fans and
electric appliances used in restaurants etc. This class of load occurs for more
hours during the day as compared to the domestic load. The commercial load

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 has seasonal variations due to the extensive use of air conditioners and space
heaters.

(iii) Industrial load : Industrial load consists of load demand by industries. The
magnitude of industrial load depends upon the type of industry. Thus small
scale industry requires load up to 25 kW, medium scale industry between
25kW and 100 kW and large-scale industry requires load above 500 kW.
Industrial loads are generally not weather dependent.

(iv) Municipal load: Municipal load consists of street lighting, power required for
water supply and drainage purposes. Street lighting load is practically constant
throughout the hours of the night. For water supply, water is pumped to
overhead tanks by pumps driven by electric motors. Pumping is carried out
during the off-peak period, usually occurring during the night. This helps to
improve the load factor of the power system.

(v) Irrigation load: This type of load is the electric power needed for pumps driven
by motors to supply water to fields. Generally this type of load is supplied for
12 hours during night.

(v) Traction load: This type of load includes tram cars, trolley buses, railways
etc. This class of load has wide variation. During the morning hour, it reaches
peak value because people have to go to their work place. After morning
hours, the load starts decreasing and again rises during evening since the
people start coming to their homes.

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Load Curve

Definition: Load curve or chronological curve is the graphical representation of

load (in kW or MW) in proper time sequence and the time in hours. It shows the
variation of load on the power station. When the load curve is plotted for 24 hours
a day, then it is called daily load curve. If the one year is considered then, it is called
annual load curve.

The load curve of the power system is not same all the day. It differs from day to
day and season to season. The load curve is mainly classified into two types, i.e.,
the summer load curve and the winter load curve.

Information Obtained From Load Curve

The following are the information obtained from load curves.
1. Load duration curve determines the load variation during different hours of
the day.
2. It indicates the peak load which determines the maximum demand on the
power station.
3. The area under the load curve gives the total energy generated in the period
under consideration.
4. The area under the curve divided by the total numbers of hours gives the load.
5. The ratio of the area under the load curve of the total area of the rectangle in
which it is contained gives the load factor.

The ideal load curve is flat, but practically it is far from flat. For a flat load curve,
the load factor will be higher. Higher load factor means the more uniform load
pattern with fewer variations in load.

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Utility of Load Curve
The following are the utility of the load curve.
1. Load curve decides the installed capacity of a power station.
2. It is helpful in choosing the most economical sizes of the various
generating units.
3. The load curve estimates the generating cost.
4. It decides the operating schedules of the power station, i.e., the sequence in
which the different generating units should run.

Load factor
Definition: Load factor is defined as the ratio of the average load over a given
period to the maximum demand (peak load) occurring in that period. In other
words, the load factor is the ratio of energy consumed in a given period of the
times of hours to the peak load which has occurred during that particular period.

Load factor means how efficiently we use energy. It is the measure of the
utilisation of electrical energy during a given period to the maximum energy which
would have been utilised in that period. The load factor plays an important role in
the cost of generation per unit (kWh). The higher the load factor the smaller will
be the generation cost for the same maximum demands. Load factor regarding
energy,

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Depending on the number of hours in days, weeks, months, or years we define
different load factors. For daily load factor, period T is taken as 24 hours; similarly,
for weeks, months and years the different value of T is taken.
Mathematically,

For calculating load factor, the following information is required;

1. Actual kilowatt hours used (kWh)
2. Peak kilowatt demand (kW)
3. Number of days

For Example:
Let total kWh = 36,000 kWh
Demand = 100kW
The number of days = 30 days
Hours per day = 24 hours
Solution

Similarly, we can calculate the annual, weeks and daily load factor. The value of the
load factor is always less than 1 because the value of average load is always smaller
than the maximum demand.

If the load factor is high (above 0.50), it shows that the power usage is relatively
constant; if it is low, it means a high demand is set. For improving load factor,
electrical load operating at the peak time of the day should be shifted to non-peaks
time.
For example, let 12 machines are running at 10:00 am, instead of this it would be
beneficial if 4 machines operating at 9:00 am, 5 machines operating at 10:00 am
and 3 machines operating at 11:30 pm. So 12 machines are still running but not at
the same time.

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Load Duration Curve
Definition: The load duration curve is defined as the curve between the load and
time in which the ordinates representing the load, plotted in the order of
decreasing magnitude, i.e., with the greatest load at the left, lesser loads towards the
rights and the lowest loads at the time extreme right. The load duration curve is
shown in the figure below.

This curve represents the same data as that of the load curve. The load duration
curve is constructed by selecting the maximum peak points and connecting them
by a curve. The load duration curve plotting for 24 hours of a day is called the daily
load duration curve. Similarly, the load duration curve plotted for a year is called
the annual load curve.

Procedure for Plotting the Load Duration Curve

1. From the data available from the load curve determines the maximum load
and the duration for which it occurs.
2. Now take the next load and the total time during which this and the
previous load occurs.
3. Plots the loads against the time during which it occurs.

The load duration curves can be drawn for any duration of time, for example, a day
or a month or a year. The whole duration is taken as 100%.

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Example: Consider the daily load curve data of the power system.

Time Load in MW
6.00 am to 8.00am 8
8.00 am to 1.00 noon 20
1.00 noon to 2.00 noon 5
12.30 noon to 6.00 pm 30
6.00 pm to 6.00 am 8

Solution: The data available from the load curve are tabulated as follows. Here the
total time is 24 hours or 100%.

Load in MW Hours in a day Time in percentage

30 4 4/24×100=16.67%
20 4+5 9/24×100=37.5%
8 2+4+5+12 =23 23/24×100=95.83%
5 4+5+2+12+1 = 24 24/24×100=100%

Information Available Form Load Duration Curve

1. The load duration curve gives the minimum load present throughout the
specified period.
2. It authorises the selection of base load and peak load power plants.
3. Any point on the load duration curve represents the total duration in hours for
the corresponding load and all loads of greater values.
4. The area under the load duration curve represents the energy associated with
the load duration curve.
5. The average demand during some specified time periods such as a day or a
month can be obtained from the load duration curve.

Power Triangle
Power Triangle is the representation of a right angle triangle showing the relation
between active power, reactive power and apparent power. When each component
of the current that is the active component (Icosϕ) or the reactive component
(Isinϕ) is multiplied by the voltage V, a power triangle is obtained shown in the
figure below

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The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an AC Circuit is called True
power or Active Power or real power. It is measured in kilowatt (kW) or MW.
The power which flows back and forth that means it moves in both the direction
in the circuit or react upon it, is called Reactive Power. The reactive power is
measured in kilovolt-ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR. The product of root
mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current is known as Apparent Power.
This power is measured in KVA or MVA.

The following point shows the relationship between the following quantities and is
explained by graphical representation called Power Triangle shown above.
 When an active component of current is multiplied by the circuit voltage V,
it results in active power. It is this power which produces torque in the
motor, heat in heater, etc. This power is measured by the wattmeter.
 When the reactive component of the current is multiplied by the circuit
voltage, it gives reactive power. This power determines the power factor,
and it flows back and froth in the circuit.
 When the circuit current is multiplied by the circuit voltage, it results in
apparent power.
 From the power triangle shown above the power, the factor may be
determined by taking the ratio of true power to the apparent power.

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As we know simply power means the product of voltage and current but in AC
circuit except pure resistive circuit there is usually a phase difference between
voltage and current and thus VI does not give real or true power in the circuit.

Active, Reactive and Apparent Power

Active Power
Definition: The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an AC Circuit is
called True power or Active Power or real power. It is measured in kilo watt (kW)
or MW. It is the actual outcomes of the electrical system which runs the electric
circuits or load.

Reactive Power
Definition: The power which flows back and froth that mean it moves in both the
direction in the circuit or react upon itself, is called Reactive Power. The reactive
power is measured in kilo volt ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.

Apparent Power
Definition: The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current
is known as Apparent Power. This power is measured in kVA or MVA.

It has been seen that the power is consumed only in resistance. A pure inductor
and a pure capacitor do not consume any power, since in a half cycle whatever
power is received from the source by these components, the same power is
returned to the source. This power which returns and flows in both the direction
in the circuit is called Reactive power. This reactive power does not perform any
useful work in the circuit.

In the pure resistive circuit, the current is in phase with the applied voltage,
whereas in pure inductive and capacitive circuit the current is 90 degrees out of
phase. i.e If the inductive load is connected in the circuit the current lags voltage by
90 degrees and if the capacitive load is connected the current leads the voltage by
90 degrees.

Hence, from the above all discussion, it is concluded that the current in phase with
the voltage produces true or active power, whereas, the current 90 degrees out of
phase with the voltage contributes to reactive power in the circuit.

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Therefore,
 True power = voltage x current in phase with the voltage
 Reactive power = voltage x current out of phase with the voltage

The phasor diagram for an inductive circuit is shown below

Taking voltage V as reference, the current I lags behind the voltage V by an angle
ϕ. The current I is divided into two components
 I Cos ϕ in phase with the voltage V
 I Sin ϕ which is 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage V
Therefore, the following expression shown below gives the active, reactive and
apparent power respectively
 Active power P = V x I cosϕ = V I cosϕ
 Reactive power Pr or Q = V x I sinϕ = V I sinϕ
 Apparent power Pa or S = V x I = VI

Active component of the current

The current component which is in phase with the circuit voltage and contributes
to the active or true power of the circuit is called active component or wattfull
component or in-phase component of the current.

Reactive component of the current

The current component which is in quadrature or 90 degrees out of phase to the
circuit voltage and contributes to the reactive power of the circuit is called reactive
component of the current.

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Diversity Factor
Definition: Diversity factor is defined as the ratio of the sum of the maximum
demands of the various part of a system to the coincident maximum demand of
the whole system. The maximum demands of the individual consumers of a group
do not occur simultaneously. Thus, there is diversity in the occurrence of the load.
Due to this diverse nature of the load, full load power supply to all the consumers
at the same time is not required.

Mathematically, diversity factor is expressed as:

or

Where,
FD – diversity factor
Di – maximum demand of the load I, irrespective of the time of occurrence.
Dg = D(1+2+3…….n) – maximum coincident demands of a group of n load.

Diversity factors can be defined for loads, substations, feeders, and generating
stations. Usually, the maximum demands of the consumers do not occur at the
same time. The diversity factor can be equal or greater than 1.

If the value of the diversity factor is greater than 1, then it is a good diversity
factor, and 1.0 represents a poor diversity factor. A high diversity factor has the
effect of reducing the maximum demand. It is obtained by using electrical energy
at night load or light load periods.

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Different Layouts for Substation
The substation is the part of an electrical supply system which transmits the high
voltage from the generating substations to the local distribution networks. Between
the generation and distribution, the voltage may vary through several substations.
The different types of layout for substation are explained below in details.

Typical Radial Substation

In the radial substation, there is only one source of feeding the load as shown in
the figure below. This supply system is unreliable because of total blackout when
source fails, or line develops a fault. Such type of substation is used in distribution
system particularly in the rural area because of their unimportance.

Tapped-Substation
This supply is equally unreliable and insecure because there shall be total supply
failure when source or line become faulty.

LILo (Line In Line Out) Substation

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In this substation, a long distribution line is brought in and brought out from
newly created substation as shown below. This scheme is bit expensive because of
the need of an extra layout. But it is more secure.

Interconnected Substation
This is the most preferred supply system which is safe secure and reliable. The
outage of the source and line does not effect power supply system because many
other alternatives are available. Such a formation of the network is called electric
grid.

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19
Methods of Voltage Control in Power System

The voltage of the power system may vary with the change in load. The voltage is
normally high at light load and low at the heavy-load condition. For keeping the
voltage of the system in limits, some additional equipment requires which increase
the system voltage when it is low and reduces the voltage when it is too high. The
following are the methods used in the power system for controlling the voltage.
1. On – Load Tap Changing Transformer
2. Off – Load Tap Changing transformer
3. Shunt Reactors
4. Synchronous Phase Modifiers
5. Shunt Capacitor
6. Static VAR System (SVS)

Controlling the system voltage by the help of shunt inductive element is known as
shunt compensation. The shunt compensation is of two types, i.e., the static shunt
compensation and the synchronous compensation. In static shunt compensation,
the shunt reactor, shunt capacitor and static VAR system are used, whereas the
shunt compensation uses the synchronous phase modifier. The methods used for
controlling the voltage are explained below in details.

1. Off – Load Tap Changing Transformer – In this method, the voltage is

controlled by changing the turn ratio of the transformer. The transformer is
disconnected from the supply before changing the tap. The tap changing of the
transformer mostly done manually.

2. On – Load Tap Changing Transformer – This arrangement is used for

changing the turn ratio of the transformer for regulating the system voltage
when the transformer delivers the load. Most of the power transformer is
provided with on-load tap changer.

3. Shunt Reactor – The shunt reactor is the inductive current element which is
connected between the line and neutral. The shunt reactor compensates the
inductive current from the transmission line or underground cables. It is
mainly used in the long distance EHV and UHV transmission lines for reactive
power control.

The shunt reactors are used in the sending end substation, receiving end substation
and in the intermediate substation of long EHV and UHV line. In the long
transmission line, the shunt reactor is connected at the distance of 300 Km to limit
the voltage at an intermediate point.

4. Shunt Capacitors – The shunt capacitors are the capacitors connected in

parallel with the line. It is installed at the receiving end substation,
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 distribution substations and in the switching substations. The shunt
capacitor injected the reactive volt-ampere to the line. It is placed in the
three phase bank.

5. Synchronous Phase Modifier – The synchronous phase modifier is the

synchronous motor running without a mechanical load. It is connected with
the load at receiving the end of the line. The synchronous phase modifier
absorbs or generates the reactive power by varying the excitation of the field
winding. It keeps the voltage constant at any condition of the load and also
improves the power factor.

6. Series Var Systems (SVS) – The static VAR compensator inject or absorb the
inductive VAR to the system when the voltage becomes higher or lower than
the reference value. In static VAR compensator, the thyristor is used as
switching device in place of circuit breakers. Nowadays, the thyristor switching
is used in the system in place of mechanical switching because thyristor
switching is faster and provides transient free operation by controlling the
switching.

Transposition of Conductors
Definition: The transposition is a physical rotation of the conductors so that the
conductor is moved to take up the next physical position in the regular sequence.
The transposition of the conductor equalises the mutual inductance and
capacitance between the lines. The irregular spacing between the conductor gives a
complex value of inductances which makes the study of the power system
complex. The transposition is mainly done in the switching station and the
substations. The transposition cycle is shown in the figure below.

Needs of Transposition
The inductance of unsymmetrical line causes voltage drops even if the voltage is in
a balanced condition. Because of the inducing voltages, the magnetic field exists in
the conductor which causes the interference in the line. This can be reduced by
continually exchanging the position of the conductor, which can be done by
transposition the conductors.

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Transposition Method
The transposition of the lines can be done by placing the one-third segment of all
three phases of the conductor in the same line. The transposition balance the
capacitance of the line due to which the voltage is also balanced.

Disadvantage of Transposition
Frequently changing the position of conductors weakens the supportive structure
which increases the cost of the system.

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Electricity Tariffs
Definition: The amount of money frame by the supplier for the supply of
electrical energy to various types of consumers in known as an electricity tariff. In
other words, the tariff is the methods of charging a consumer for consuming
electric power. The tariff covers the total cost of producing and supplying electric
energy plus a reasonable cost.

The actual tariffs that the customer pay depends on the consumption of the
electricity. The consumer bill varies according to their requirements. The industrial
consumers pay more tariffs because they use more power for long times than the
domestic consumers. The electricity tariffs depends on the following factors
 Type of load
 Time at which load is required.
 The power factor of the load.
 The amount of energy used.

The total bill of the consumer has three parts, namely, fixed charge D, semi-fixed
charge Ax and running charge By.

where, C – total charge for a period (say one month)

x – maximum demand during the period (kW or kVA)
y – Total energy consumed during te period (kW or kVA)
A – cost per kW or kVa of maximum demand.
B – cost per kWh of energy consumed.
D – fixed charge during each billing period.

This is known as three-part electricity tariff, and it is mainly applied to the big
consumer.

Factors Affecting the Electricity Tariffs

The following factors are taken into accounts to decide the electricity tariff:
 Types of Load – The load is mainly classified into three types, i.e.,
domestic, commercial, or industrial. The industrial consumers use more
energy for a longer time than domestic consumers, and hence the tariff for
the industrial consumers is more than the domestic consumers. The tariff of
the electric energy varies according to their requirement.
 Maximum demand – The cost of the electrical energy supplied by a
generating station depends on the installed capacity of the plant and kWh
generated. Increased in maximum capacity increased the installed capacity of
the generating station.
 The time at which load is required – The time at which the maximum
load required is also essential for the electricity tariff. If the maximum
demand coincides with the maximum demand of the consumer, then the

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 additional plant is required. And if the maximum demand of the consumers
occurs during off-peak hours, the load factor is improved, and no extra
plant capacity is needed. Thus, the overall cost per kWh generated is
reduced.

 The power factor of the load – The power factor plays a major role in the
plant economics. The low power factor increases the load current which
increases the losses in the system. Thus, the regulation becomes poor. For
improving the power factor, the power factor correction equipment is
installed at the generating station. Thus, the cost of the generation increases.

 The amount of energy used – The cost of electrical energy is reduced by

using large amounts of energy for longer periods.

Types of Electricity Tariff

Some of the most important types of tariff are as follows;
1. Flat Demand Rate tariff
2. Straight-line Meter rate tariff
3. Block meter Rate tariff
4. Two-part tariff
5. Power factor tariff
6. Seasonal rate tariff
7. Peak load tariff
8. Three-part tariff

The different types of tariffs are explained below in details

1. Flat demand rate tariff – The flat demand rate tariff is expressed by the
equation C = Ax. In this type of tariff, the bill of the power consumption
depends only on the maximum demand of the load. The generation of the bill
is independent of the normal energy consumption. This type of tariff is used
on the street light, sign lighting, irrigation, etc., where the working hours of the
equipment are unknown. The metering system is not used for calculating such
type of tariffs.

2. Straight-line meter rate tariff – This type of tariff is given by the equation C
= By. The generation of the bills depends on the energy consumption of the
load. Thus, different types of bills are generated by the consumers.

The charges for different types of consumption depends on the load and
diversity factors of the load. For example, the tariff for small devices is less as
compared to the power loads. Hence different meters are used for measuring
the power consumption

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3. Block meter rate tariff – In this type of tariff, the energy consumption is
distinguished into blocks. The per unit tariff of the individual block is fixed.
The price of the block is arranged in the decreasing order. The first block has
the highest cost, and it goes on decreasing accordingly.

The price and the energy consumption are divided into three blocks. The first few
units of energy at a certain rate, the next at a slightly lower rate and the remaining
unit at a very lower rate.

4. Two-part tariff – In such type of tariff, the total bill is divided into two parts.
The first one is the fixed charge and the second is the running charge. The
fixed charge is because of the maximum demand and the second charge
depends on the energy consumption by the load.

The factor A and B may be constant and vary according to some sliding.

5. Power factor tariff – The tariff, which depends on the power factor of the load
is known as the power factor tariff. The power factor tariff is mainly classified into
two types.
a. kVA maximum demand tariff – This is also a two-part tariff.
The low power factor increases the KVA rating
of the load.

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b. kWh and kVarh tariff – The bill is calculated by the sum of the kVarh and
Kwh rating of the load

The kVarh is inversely proportional to the power factor of the load.

c. Sliding Scale or Average power factor tariff – In Average power factor tariff,
the particular value of the power factor is taken as reference. If the power factor at
the consumer end is low, then the consumer has to pay the additional charges.
Similarly, if the power factor of the load is above from the reference value, then
the discount will be given to the consumer.

6 Seasonal rate tariff – Such type of tariff measures the high price in kWh used
by the consumer in one complete year. It is also known as the on peak season
tariff. If the low consumption occurs in the year, then it called the off-peak
season tariffs.

7. Peak-load tariff – Such type of tariff is similar to peak load tariffs. The only
difference is that the seasonal tariff measures the peak hour of the year and the
peak tariff calculates it for the day. If the power consumption is high, then it is
known as the on-peak tariff, and for low power consumption, it is called off-
peak load tariffs.

The peak load and seasonal tariffs both are used for reducing the idle or
standby capacity of the load.
8. Three-part tariff – The three-part tariff is in the form of, C = Ax + By + D
and it is applied to the big consumer.

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Single Line Diagram of 11kV Substation

Substation provides the energy supply for the local area in which the line is located.
The main function of the substation is to collect the energy transmitted at high
voltage from the generating station and then reduce the voltage to an appropriate
value for local distribution and gives facilities for switching. The substation is of
two types one is the simple switching type where the different connection between
transmission line are made and the other is the converting stations which convert
AC to DC or vice versa or convert frequency from higher to lower or lower to
higher.

The substation has an additional function like they provide points where safety
devices may be installed to disconnect equipment or circuit in the event of the
fault. The synchronous condenser is placed at the end of the transmission line for
improving the power factor and for measuring the operation at the various part of
the power system. Street lighting, as well as the switching control for street
lighting, can be installed in a substation.
The single line diagram of an 11 KV substation is shown in the figure below. The
single line diagram makes the system easy and it provides the facilitates reading of
the electrical supply and connection.

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Main Components of 11kV Substation
The working of the electrical equipment used in the substation is explained below
in details.
1. Isolator – The isolator connects or disconnects the incoming circuit when
the supply is already interrupted. It is also used for breaking the charging
current of the transmission line. The isolator is placed on the supply side of
the circuit breaker so that the circuit breaker isolated from the live parts of
the maintenance.
2. Lightning Arrester – The lightning arrester is a protective device which
protects the system from lightning effects. It has two terminals one is high
voltage and the other is the ground voltage. The high voltage terminal is
connected to the transmission line and the ground terminal passes the high
voltage surges to earth.

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 3. CT Metering – The metering CT measure and records the current when
their secondary terminal is connected to the metering equipment panel.
4. Step-down Transformer – The step-down transformer converts the high
voltage current into the low voltage current.
5. Capacitor Bank – The capacitor bank consists series or parallel connection
of the capacitor. The main function of the capacitor bank is to improve the
power factor of the line. It draws the leading current to the line by reducing
the reactive component of the circuit.
6. Circuit Breaker – The circuit breaker interrupts the abnormal or faults
current to flow through the line. It is the type of electrical switch which
open or closes the contacts when the fault occurs in the system.

The outgoing feeder supplies the input power to the consumer end.

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Electrical Substation Equipment

For transferring of electrical power from generating unit to distributing units

various types of electrical equipment are required. The equipment like bus bars,
isolator, power transformer etc., are assembled together in the electrical substation
through which consumers get electrical supply. The main equipment required for
the substation installations is explained below in details:

Lightning Arrestor
Lightning Arrestor is the first member of the electrical substations. It protects the
substation equipment from transient high voltage and also limits the duration and
amplitude of the flow of current. The Lightning arrestor is connected between line
and earth, i.e., in parallel with the equipment under protection at the substation.
The lightning arrester diverts, the current of the surges to the earth and
hence protects the insulation and conductor of the system from damage. The
lightning arresters are several types and they are classified on the basis of the duties
they perform.

Power Transformer
Power transformers are used for stepping up the voltage for transmission at
generating station and for stepping down the voltage for further distribution at
main step-down transformer substations. Usually naturally cooled, oil immersed
type two winding, three phase transformers, are used for rating up to 10 MVA.
The transformer for rating more than 10 MVA, are usually air blast cooled. For
very high rating, the force oil, water cooling and air blast cooling may be used.
Such type of transformer operated at full load, and it is disconnected at light load
hours. The power transformers are arranged in banks and can be thrown in parallel
with other units. Thus, the efficiency of the power transformer is maximum at full
load (i.e., with iron loss to full load copper loss ratio 1:1).

Instrument Transformer
Instrument transformer is used to reduced high voltages and currents to a safe and
practical value which can be measured by conventional instruments (normally
range is 1A or 5A for current and 110 V for voltage). It is also used for actuating
the AC type protective relay by supplying the current and voltage by the current
and potential transformer. Instrument transformers are classified into two types
 Current Transformer – A current transformer is a device for the
transformation of current from a higher value to a lower value. It is used in
parallel with AC instruments, meters or control apparatus so that the meter
or instrument coil cannot conveniently be made of sufficient current
carrying capacity.
 Instrument Transformer – A voltage transformer may be defined as an
instrument transformer for the transformation of voltage from a higher
value to the lower value.
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Bus-Bar
It is one of the most important elements in an electrical power substation. It is a
type of conductor carrying an electrical current to which many connections are
made. In order words, bus-bar is a type of electrical junction in which the
incoming and outgoing of electrical current take place.
When the fault occurs in the bus- bar, then all the circuit equipment connected to
that section must be tripped out to give complete isolation in the shortest possible
time e.g. (60ms) so that the damage is avoided to the installation due to heating of
conductors.

Wave Trapper
It is placed on incoming lines for trapping the high-frequency wave. The high-
frequency wave which is coming from the remote substation disturbs the waves of
voltage and current. Wave trapper trips the high-frequency wave and diverts them
to the telecom panel.

Isolator
It is a type of switches which is employed only for isolating the circuit when the
current has only been interrupted. The isolator is called disconnected switches
operates under no load condition. They are not equipped with arc-quenching
devices. They do not have any specified current breaking capacity or current
making capacity. In some cases, it is used for breaking the charging current of the
transmission line.

Circuit Breaker
The circuit breaker is a type of electrical switches which is used for opening or
closing of electrical circuit whenever faults occur in the system. It consists of two
moving contacts which are normally closed. Whenever the fault occurs in the
system, the relay sends the tripping command to the circuit breaker and hence their
contacts are moved apart. Thus, the fault occurs in the system becomes clear.

Batteries
In electric power stations and large capacity substations, the operation and
automatic control circuits the protective relay system, as well as emergency lighting
circuits, are supplied by station batteries. Station battery is assembled of a certain
number accumulator cell depending on the operating voltage of the respective DC
circuit.
Storage batteries are two types lead acid battery and acid-alkaline batteries. Lead
acid battery is most commonly used in power stations and substations because
their voltage is high and very cheap low voltage

Capacitor Bank
Capacitor bank consists capacitors connected either in series or parallel. It stored
the electrical energy in the form of electrical charges. Capacitor bank draws leading

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current which increases the power factor of the network and also the power
transfer capability of the system increases.

Switchyard
The switch yards, houses transformers, circuit breakers and switches for
connecting and disconnecting the transformers and circuit breakers. It also has
lightning arrestors for the protection of the power station against lightning strokes.

Indicating and metering Instruments

Ammeters, Voltmeters, Wattmeters, kWh meters, KVARH meters, power factor
meters reactive volt-amperes meters are installed in substations to control and
maintain a watch over the current flowing through the circuits and over the power
loads.

Carrier-current Equipment
Such equipment is installed in the substations for communication, relaying,
telemetered or for supervisory control. The equipment is suitably mounted in a
room known as carrier room and connected to the high voltage power circuit.

Relay
It protects the power system component against abnormal conditions such as
faults. The relay is a sensing device which senses the fault, then determines its
location and finally, it sends tripping commands to the circuit. The circuit breaker
after getting the command from the relay disconnects the faulted element. Relays
protect the equipment from damage and hence subsequent hazards like fire, the
risk to the life are reduced by removing the particularly faulted section.

Insulator
It is used in generating stations and substations to fix and insulate the bus bars
systems. They may be subdivided into post and bushing type. A post insulator
consists of porcelain body and their cap is made up of cast iron. It is directly
bolted to the busbars by means of bus-bar clamps. A bushing or through insulator
consists of porcelain-shell body, upper and lower locating washes used for fixing
the position of bus-bar or rod in a shell.

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Electrical Substation

Definition: The electrical substation is the part of a power system in which the
voltage is transformed from high to low or low to high for transmission,
distribution, transformation and switching. The power transformer, circuit breaker,
bus-bar, insulator, lightning arrester are the main components of an electrical
substation.

Single Line Diagram of an Electrical Substation

The single line diagram of the substation is shown in the figure below. The
connection of the substation is divided as
 Incoming or power feeder connection
 Outgoing feeder for feeding the other subsequent substations or switchgear.
 Power transformer connection.
 Voltage transformer connection for control and metering.
The circuit breaker is connected between the bus-bar and each incoming and
outgoing circuit. The isolator is provided on each side of the circuit breaker. The
current transformer is used for measurement and protection. The current
transformers are placed on both sides of circuit breaker so that the protection zone
are overlapped and cover the circuit breaker.

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The potential transformer is connected to the bus bar and on the incoming line
side. Lightning or surge arrester are connected phase to ground at the incoming
line as the first apparatus and also at the terminal of transformer and capacitor
bank, the terminal of shunt reactor and a terminal of the generator, the terminal of
the large motor to divert switching.

Selection and location of a site for an Electrical Substation

The following factor is considered while making site selection for a substation.
 Type of substation – The category of the substation is important for its
location. For example, a step-up transformer is a point where power from
various sources is pooled and step up for long distance transmission should
be located as cool as possible to minimise the losses. Similarly, the step-
down transformer should be located nearer to the load centre to reduce
transmission losses, the cost of the distribution system and better reliability
of supply.

 Availability of suitable and sufficient land – The land selected for a

substation should be level and open from all sides. It should not be

34
 waterlogged particularly in the rainy season. The site selected for substation
should be such that approach of transmission lines and their take off can be
easily possible without any obstruction. The places nearer to
airdrome, shooting practice ground, etc. should be avoided.

 Communication facility – Suitable communication facility is desirable at a

proposed station, both during and after its construction. It is better,
therefore, to select the site alongside the existing road to facilitate an easier
and cheaper transportation.

 Atmospheric Pollution – The atmosphere around the ground factories

produces metal corroding gas, air fumes, conductive dust, etc. And the area
near the sea coast may be more humid and is harmful to the proper running
of the power system. Thus, the substation should not be located near the
factories or sea coast.

 Availability of Essential Facilities to the Staff – The site should be such

where staff can be provided essential facilities like school, hospital, drinking
water, housing, etc.

 Drainage Facility – The site selected for the proposed substations should
have proper drainage arrangement or the possibility of making effective
drainage, avoid pollution of air and growth of micro-organism and health

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