Arabic & Translation Studies Division

CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR AND STYLISTICS

Student Handbook

This is a first draft of STTI102 “Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics”

Student Handbook (Fall ’13)

All rights reserved. No part of this handbook may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information or retrieving system without permission in writing from the Arabic and Translation Studies Division, School of Continuing Education, The
American University in Cairo.
© 2007
ii
 Forward

Changes in how professional translators practice their profession have been

recently frequent. They are not only derived by the growth of the young
discipline of translation, which is the success story of the 1980s, but also by
changes in the world around us such globalized societies and economies, the
spread of internet, and the need for intercultural communication, not to mention
the changes in the geography of translation with the move of the multi-million
industry towards the Middle East and the Arabic language. Translation in the
era of globalization requires interdisciplinary approach to translation that
stresses the need for a translator with background knowledge in various fields.
This necessitates training the learners in more than one field of specialization,
and hence a career certificate which focuses on the specializations of legal, UN
and economic translation on the one hand, and a career certificate which
includes journalistic, literary and audio-visual translation on the other hand.

Taking a quick path unto automation and digitalization, the translation

profession nowadays looks into practical techniques to help translators produce
more and waste less. The new course ‘Technology for Translators and
Interpreters’ in the Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting with a
focus on CAT tools and translation software programs does not only train
learners on computer-assisted translation, but takes them directly into the on-
line translation environment. To satisfy a need for the translator as intercultural
communicator, also derived from globalization and the spread of new
technologies, new courses such as literary translation and audiovisual
translation were offered in a Career Certificate in Media and Literary
Translation.

The changes in the translation market have been given due focus in the
advanced courses such as Advanced Translation Problem-Solving Strategies
and Translation Portfolio and Project, which focus on topics such as translation
market and environment, project management in translation, code of ethics etc.
Learners in the Professional Diploma in Translation and the Professional
Diploma in Translation and Interpreting are nourished from day one on the
highest standards of professionalism of translation as an activity in the market
of service, of translation as a translator/client relationship and translation as a
mental process.

Furthermore, the translation diploma at ATS can be viewed as comprising three

stages. The first stage (The Foundation Certificate in Translation and
Interpreting) develops all basic translation skills required to produce an
acceptable translation including command of the language, familiarity with
iii
culture, computer skills and e-tools for translators, background knowledge, and
contrastive and transfer skills between the source and the target languages.
Finishing this stage, a trainee can produce a good translation of a general text
but not necessarily of a specialized text such as legal, UN and journalistic texts.
The second stage (The Career Certificate in Legal and UN Translation and The
Career Certificate in Literary and Audiovisual Translation) focus on the text-
specific features in translation so that a trainee can be able to produce a
translation in a specialized field. After the career certificate, the trainee can
produce a sound translation in a certain specialization, but he may not be aware
of many factors related to the environment of translation such as certain code of
ethics, rates, project management etc. The diploma is the level of
professionalism which makes the trainee ready to go to the market after being
enlightened on many issues related to translation theory and the translation
market.

Dr. Hussein Ali

Director, Arabic and Translation Studies Division

iv
 The American University in Cairo
School of Continuing Education
Arabic and Translation Studies Division

CURRICULUM DESIGN FORM

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Course Code: STTI102

Course Type (Regular / Customized): Regular/Customized

Number of Continuing Education Units (CEUs): 3.0 1

Target Audience:
Learners who are seeking knowledge on and skills at rendering the functions of grammatical
structures and stylistic devices between English and Arabic; trainees/translators seeking help with
problem-solving techniques at the levels of grammar and stylistics

Course Pre-requisites (if any):

1. None

Course Description:
This course is an exploration of how the differences between English and Arabic grammar and
stylistics are dealt with in translation, an investigation of how professional translators handle the
differences between English and Arabic in translation, and practice of the different techniques of
translation between English and Arabic.

Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this course, learners will be able to
1. contrast different sentence structures in English and Arabic;
2. translate appropriately different sentence structures in English and Arabic;
3. contrast tense and aspect in English and Arabic;
4. translate appropriately tense and aspect between English and Arabic;
5. contrast passive voice in English and Arabic;
6. translate appropriately passive voice between English and Arabic;
7. contrast punctuation in English and Arabic;
8. render appropriately punctuation between English and Arabic;
9. contrast adverbs and adverbial phrases in English and Arabic;
10. translate appropriately adverbs and adverbial phrases between English and Arabic;
11. contrast adjectives and adjectival phrases in English and Arabic;
12. translate appropriately adjectives and adjectival phrases between Arabic and English;
13. contrast sentence connectors in English and Arabic;
14. translate appropriately sentence connectors between English and Arabic;
15. contrast affixation in English and Arabic; and
16. translate appropriately affixation between Arabic and English.

1
Offered as customized; the number of CEUs depends on client's request.

v
Instructional Materials:
1. Contrastive Grammar and stylistics. ATS Student Workbook. (Updated Every Term)
2. Baker, M. (1992). In other words. London: Routledge
3. Ghazala, Hasan. (2004). "Stylistic semantic and grammatical functions of punctuation in English
Arabic translation". Babel 50:3. 230-245.
4. Malmkjaer, K. (2005). Linguistics and the language of translation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.

Syllabus / Training Outline:

Serial* Title/subtitle Assignment
1  Orientation and theoretical introduction  Selected readings on
 Tenses and aspects; theories of contrastive
analysis and translation
 Selected readings on
sentence structures in
English and Arabic
 Selected readings on
English and Arabic tense
and aspect
 Controlled practice on
translating tense and
aspect.

2  Tenses and aspects;  Controlled practice on

 Conditional translating conditionals in
English and Arabic

3  Voice  Controlled practice on

 Quiz 1 translating active and
passive in English and
Arabic
 Selected readings on voice
in English and Arabic

4  Affixations and collocations  Controlled practice on

translating affixation and
collocations in English
and Arabic

5  Adjectives  Controlled practice on

 Quiz 2 translating adjectives in
English and Arabic

*
Session: In this course one session equals 2.5 contact hours.

vi
6  Adverbs and adverbial phrases  Controlled practice on
translating adverbs and
adverbial phrases in
English and Arabic
 Selected readings on
adverbs and adverbial
phrases in English and
Arabic
7  Sentence connectors  Controlled practice on
 Punctuation translating sentence
connectors in English
and Arabic
 Selected readings on
sentence connectors in
English and Arabic
 Controlled practice on
translating punctuation
devices in English and
Arabic

8  Models and articles  Controlled practice on

 Quiz 3 translating modals and
articles in English and
Arabic

9  Thematic organization of information  Controlled practice on

thematic organization of
information

10  Translation at paragraph level  Distribution of the final

Project

11  Translation at paragraph level

12  Discussion of project

vii
Instructional Methods:
Learners will experience interactive, practice and skill-based learning; methods of teaching in this
course also include group work and case studies of published translations.

Assessment of Learning Outcomes

Frequency** : Three assessments and a project.
Type: Written tests and/or projects.

 Classroom assessments should not take more than 30 minutes.

 The first two assessments should be recorded in the class folder by session 7.
 Learners’ grades are based upon three assessments during the course (70%) and an end-of-term
exam (30%).
 Instructors are required to provide learners with appropriate feedback on their performance
throughout the course.
 For all written courses, three assessments at least should be conducted as follows:

Session 3 20 points
Session 5 25 points
Session 8 25 points
Project 30 points
Total 100 points

For further information or Inquiries: Please see the Assistant Division Director for Regular Programs
in Room 617 SCE, or call 2797-6873, or email [email protected]

**
Exact dates will be announced in class two sessions before the quiz, exam, or project is due.

viii
ix
 Classroom Guidelines for SCE Learners
CLASSROOM GUIDELINES FOR SCE
‫إرشادات خاصة بالدارسين بكلية التعليم المستمر‬
LEARNERS
Attendance Policy: :‫سياسة الحضور‬
 You must attend at least 75% of the class ‫ من عدد‬% 57 ‫ يجب أن تحضر نسبة ال تقل عن‬
sessions. Failure to do so will result in failing ،‫ وفي حالة عدم االلتزام بذلك‬.‫محاضرات المادة الدراسية‬
the course, although you will be allowed to ‫ غير أنه سيُسمح لك بحضور‬،‫ستعتبر راسبًا في المادة‬
attend classes. .‫المحاضرات‬

Punctuality Policy: :‫سياسة االنضباط في المواعيد‬

 You are expected to arrive on time for all ‫ عليك مراعاة الحضور في الموعد المحدد لكل المحاضرات‬
scheduled classes and laboratory sessions. .‫والمعامل وف ًقا للجدول المحدد‬
 You will be considered late if you enter the ‫ تعتبر متأخرً ا إذا دخلت الفصل في أي وقت بعد بدء‬
class any time after the start of instruction. .‫الدرس‬
 You are allowed to be late twice without ‫ وسيتم اعتبار كل‬.‫ يُسمح لك بالتأخر مرتين دون محاسبة‬
penalty. All successive instances of ‫ غير أنه‬،‫مرات التأخر التالية على أنها حاالت غياب‬
tardiness will be counted as absences, .‫سيُسمح لك بحضور المحاضرات‬
although you will be allowed to attend the
class.
Grading System: :‫نظام التقويم والتقديرات‬
 Learners are assessed throughout the term ‫ يتم تقويم الدارسين خالل الدورة الدراسية عن طريق‬
by tests, quizzes, assignments, projects or ‫ أو‬،‫ أو الواجبات‬،‫ أو االمتحانات الموجزة‬،‫االختبارات‬
other means of evaluation. End-of-term ‫ وتقيس‬.‫ أو أي وسائل أخرى للتقويم‬،‫المشروعات‬
achievement tests measure learners’ overall ‫اختبارات التحصيل في نهاية الفصل الدراسي األداء العام‬
performance in the course. .‫للدارسين خالل الدورة‬
 The final grade in each course is based on ‫ يعتمد التقدير النهائي في كل دورة على أداء الدارسين في‬
learners’ performance on continual .‫التقويم المستمر واالختبار النهائي‬
assessment measures and the final test. ‫ فطب ًقا‬،"‫ ال يعتمد تقدير نهاية الدورة على نسبة "الحضور‬
 Final course grades are NOT based on %57 ‫لسياسة الكلية يتعين على جميع الدارسين حضور‬
attendance, since in accordance with SCE’s ‫من عدد المحاضرات حتى يسمح لهم بحضوراختبار نهاية‬
attendance policy, learners must attend at .‫الدورة‬
least 75% of the class sessions in order to ‫ ُتعلن تقديرات الدارسين على‬،‫ في نهاية أي دورة دراسية‬
be allowed to take the final examination. ‫ مقرونة بأرقام‬،‫لوحة اإلعالنات الخاصة بكل قسم‬
 At the end of each term, final course grades ‫ وليس بأسمائهم؛ وعليه فإن رقم الدارس‬،‫الدارسين‬
are posted on the divisional bulletin boards .‫ضروري لمعرفة نتيجة المادة الدراسية‬
along with learners’ ID numbers, NOT their
names. Accordingly, the ID number is
necessary to know your course grade.
Incomplete Grade: :‫التقديرات غير المكتملة‬
 An incomplete grade (I) for any scheduled ‫“) وذلك‬I”, Incomplete( ‫ يسمح بمنح تقدير غير مكتمل‬
course may be given at the discretion of the ‫ وال يتم هذا اإلجراء إال مع‬.‫بنا ًء على تقدير مدرس الدورة‬
course instructor only to learners who have ‫الطلبة الذين انتظموا في الدورة لكنهم ال يستطيعون أداء‬
attended the course, but cannot sit for the ‫االختبار النهائي أو استكمال متطلبات الدورة لظروف‬
final examination or cannot complete course .‫خارجة عن إرادتهم‬
requirements due to circumstances beyond ‫ من أجل تسجيل التقدير النهائي للدورة ينبغي استيفاء جميع‬
their control. ‫المتطلبات قبل نهاية األسبوع الثاني من الفصل الدراسي‬
 In order to record the final course grade, all ‫ وفي حالة عدم تغيير تقدير "غير مكتمل" سيتحول‬. ‫التالي‬
requirements should be completed before ."‫التقدير النهائي في التسجيل إلى "راسب‬
the end of the second week of the following
term. Failure to change an incomplete grade
will result in the final grade being recorded
as "F".

x
Learner Evaluation of Instruction: :‫تقويم الدارس لعملية التدريس‬
 Learner evaluation of instruction is very ‫ فبنا ًء على‬.‫ إن تقويم الدارس لعملية التدريس هام للغاية‬
important. Based upon your response and .‫ يُمكن عمل التغييرات الالزمة‬،‫استجابتك وتعليقاتك‬
comments, changes can be made. ‫ يُرجى مراعاة الجدية في عمليات التقويم واإلجابة عن كل‬
 Please take these evaluations seriously and ‫ تذ َّكر أنه ال يُسمَح للمدرسين برؤية نتائج‬.‫األسئلة بأمانة‬
answer all the questions honestly. .‫التقويم إال بعد إعالن النتائج النهائية للدارسين‬
Remember that instructors are not permitted .‫ تقدِّر كلية التعليم المستمر مشاركتك في هذا التقويم‬
to see their evaluation results until after your
grades are posted.
 SCE values your input.
Learner Petitions and Grievances: :‫التماسات الدارسين وتظلماتهم‬
 You may appeal to a division administrator ‫ من حقك أن تتقدم بشكوى ألحد مديري األقسام تتعلق بأي‬
in any aspect pertaining to class instruction, ‫ أو البيئة‬،‫من الجوانب الخاصة بالتدريس في الفصل‬
learning environment, or administration .‫التعليمية أو اإلجراءات اإلدارية‬
processes. ‫ يجوز لك اللجوء إلى مستويات إدارية أعلى إذا لم يتم حل‬
 You may seek resolution at higher ‫ ويكون قرار العميد المشارك للشئون التعليمية‬.‫المشكلة‬
administrative levels if the matter is not .‫قرارً ا نهائيًا‬
resolved. The decision of the Associate ‫ سيتم تجاهل كل الشكاوى أو االلتماسات التي ال تتضمن‬
Dean for Instructional Affairs is final. ‫ و ُتعامل كل االلتماسات في إطار من السرية‬،‫اسم صاحبها‬
 Anonymous complaints or petitions will be .‫وبما يخدم مصالح الدارسين‬
completely disregarded. All petitions are
handled with discretion, protecting your best
interests.
Cheating: :‫الغش‬
 Cheating is not acceptable in an institution ‫الغش غير مقبول في أي من المؤسسات التي تكرس‬ 
dedicated to learning. Cheating includes ‫ ويشمل الغش إعطاء أو تلقي معلومات‬.‫جهودها للتعليم‬
giving or receiving information during an ‫ واستخدام مواد يُحظـَر استخدامها أثناء‬،‫أثناء االختبار‬
examination, using unauthorized material ‫ وصدور أي أفعال تتصف بعدم األمانة‬،‫االختبار‬
during an examination, and other acts of .‫ بما في ذلك سرقة اإلنتاج الفكري‬،‫األكاديمية‬
academic dishonesty, including plagiarism. ‫ضبط الدارس وهو يقوم بالغش في االختبار‬ ِ ‫في حال‬ 
 If you are caught cheating on the final "F" ‫ ُتسجَّ ل درجته النهائية لهذه المادة الدراسية بـ‬،‫النهائي‬
examination, your final course grade will be .)‫(راسبًا‬
recorded as ‘F’. ‫عِ قاب الغش للمرة الثانية هو إيقاف الدارس تلقائيًا من‬ 
 The penalty for a second offense is ‫الدراسة في كلية التعليم المستمر لمدة فصل دراسي واحد‬
automatic suspension from studying at SCE .‫ أسبوعًا والرسوب في المادة الدراسية‬21 ‫مدته‬
for one 12-week term and failing the course. ‫ سيتم فصل الدارس‬،‫وفي حالة تكرار الغش للمرة الثالثة‬ 
 In instances of a third offense, you will be .‫نهائيًا من كلية التعليم المستمر‬
permanently dismissed from SCE.

Harassment: :‫التحرش‬
 SCE does not tolerate any form of ‫ ال تسمح كلية التعليم المستمر بأي شكل من أشكال‬
harassment, including sexual harassment. .‫ بما في ذلك التحرش الجنسي‬،‫التحرش‬
 Sexual harassment is any conduct of a ‫ التحرش الجنسي هو أي تصرف ذي طبيعة جنسية يُفسد‬
sexual nature that significantly impairs a ‫بدرجة كبيرة قدرة الشخص أو فرصته للقيام بأنشطته‬
person’s ability or opportunity to perform his .‫الخاصة بالعمل أو الدراسة‬
or her job or educational pursuits. ‫ تلتزم كلية التعليم المستمر بتوفير بيئة آمنة للتعليم والعمل‬
 SCE is committed to providing a secure .‫ ومديريها‬،‫ والعاملين بها‬،‫ ومدرسيها‬،‫لدارسيها‬
educational and work environment for its
learners, instructors, staff, and
administrators.

Photocopying: :‫النسخ‬
 Photocopying textbooks and original content ‫ بما‬،‫ يُعد نسخ كتب المقررات الدراسية والمحتوى األصلي‬
including computer software is a violation of ‫ مخال ًفا لسياسات حقوق‬،‫في ذلك نسخ برامج الحاسب اآللي‬
AUC copyright and photocopying policies ‫ وبالتالي غير‬،‫النشر والنسخ بالجامعة األمريكية بالقاهرة‬
and thus will not be allowed in SCE classes. .‫مسموح بذلك في فصول كلية التعليم المستمر‬

xi
Smoking: :‫التدخين‬
 Smoking is not allowed in any SCE building, ‫ غير مسموح بالتدخين في أي مبنى من مباني كلية التعليم‬
including classes, lounges, workspaces, ‫ واألماكن‬،‫ وقاعات االنتظار‬،‫المستمر بما في ذلك الفصول‬
single-occupancy offices, balconies, ‫ وحتى المكاتب التي يشغلها موظف‬،‫المخصصة للعمل‬
stairwells, open-areas within buildings, and ‫ والمساحات المفتوحة داخل‬،‫ وبئر السلم‬،‫ والشـُرفات‬،‫واحد‬
outside the entrance of buildings. .‫ وخارج مداخل المباني‬،‫المباني‬

Cellular / Mobile Phone: :‫استخدام الهاتف المحمول‬

 SCE prohibits the use of cellular/mobile ‫ تمنع كلية التعليم المستمر استخدام الهواتف المحمولة في‬
phones in the classroom and during the ‫ واختبارات نهاية الفصل‬،‫ وأثناء اختبارات القبول‬،‫الفصل‬
administration of entrance and end-of-term .‫الدراسي‬
testing sessions. ‫ يجب إغالق الهاتف أثناء أي محاضرة أو أثناء‬
 You should turn off your phone during any .‫االختبارات‬
class time and/or testing session.
Misconduct: :‫إساءة التصرف‬
 Acceptable adult behavior is expected of ‫ يُراعى من الدارسين بكلية التعليم المستمر التحلي بسلوك‬
SCE learners in the classroom and on .‫ناضج ومقبول في الفصول وداخل حرم الجامعة ومبانيها‬
university campuses. ‫ وسيقوم مدرس الفصل بإبالغ أي سلوك مخالف لمدير‬
 Breach of such behavior will be reported by ‫ ويحول الدارسون المشتركون في هذا السلوك إلى‬،‫القسم‬
the instructor to the Division Director, and .‫لجنة تأديب‬
learners involved will be referred to the
Learner Disciplinary Committee.

xii
 Table of Contents
Session Number: One ............................................................................................................... 2
Tenses .................................................................................................................................... 3
Tenses (PowerPoint) ............................................................................................................ 7
Tenses – Exercises .............................................................................................................. 13
Session Number: Two ............................................................................................................ 16
Conditional in English and Arabic ................................................................................... 17
Session Number: Three .......................................................................................................... 22
Active & Passive ................................................................................................................. 23
Passive & Active (PowerPoint) ......................................................................................... 28
Session Number: Four ............................................................................................................ 30
Affixations........................................................................................................................... 31
‫االشتقاق‬................................................................................................................................... 42
‫ صيغ المبالغة‬............................................................................................................................. 46
Collocations ........................................................................................................................ 49
Exercises on Collocations .................................................................................................. 50
Idioms .................................................................................................................................. 51
What is a Fixed Expression? ............................................................................................. 52
Fixed Expressions Quiz ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Session Number: Five ............................................................................................................ 54
Adjectives ............................................................................................................................ 55
Modifiers ............................................................................................................................. 59
Adjectives PowerPoint ....................................................................................................... 62
Adjectives …. Exercises ..................................................................................................... 65
Session Number: Six .............................................................................................................. 72
Adverbs … Handout ......................................................................................................... 73
Adverbs … Exercises ........................................................................................................ 81
Session Number: Seven.......................................................................................................... 82
PUNCTUATION ................................................................................................................ 83
‫ عالمات الترقيم‬........................................................................................................................... 87
Sentence Connectors .......................................................................................................... 91
Connectors .......................................................................................................................... 94
Session Number: Eight ......................................................................................................... 100
Models and Articles ......................................................................................................... 101
Session Number: Nine.......................................................................................................... 110
Session Number: Ten ........................................................................................................... 114
Session Number: Eleven ...................................................................................................... 116
Session Number: Tweleve.................................................................................................... 118

xiii
 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 1

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: One

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore the differences between English and Arabic
verb tenses, and how professional translators handle the differences. They will also
practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice versa.
The main question that should be asked is “What is the function of the structure and
how should this function be carried out in the target languate?” For example, the
function of the present perfect is to give news of recent events, where as the function
is performed by the use of the past tense in Arabic.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- contrast tense and aspect in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately tense and aspect from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Assignments:

- Selected readings on theories of contrastive analysis and translation.

- Selected readings on sentence structures in English and Arabic.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 2

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Tenses
What is a tense?
Tense in English means a system marked by verb inflection or auxiliaries whose
basic use is to locate the situation in time or to express certain time relations.

Present Simple:
When we talk about permanent situations, or about things that happen regularly,
repeatedly or all the time (not just around now), we use the simple present tense.

Simple present tense is used to indicate:

 Facts: Ex. The sun rises in the East.

 Habits: Ex. The British drink tea a lot.

 Making declarations: By the authority vested in me, I now pronounce you

husband and wife.

 Senses: did you hear that?

 Mental & Emotional states: think, feel, believe, belong, doubt, know, matter,
mean, prefer, understand, suppose, suspect, want, wish, depend.

 Communication of Reactions: agree, astonish, deny, disagree, impress,

please, promise, satisfy, surprise.

 With Frequency Adverbs: Ex. He usually practices 90 minutes of yoga

every morning.

 Timetabled future:
Ex. The president holds talks with his French counterpart on Wednesday.
The plane arrives at 10 AM.

Present Continuous (Progressive)

It indicates contemporary or continuing actions that are going around now. In other
words, it indicates:

 Actions that are in progress at the moment:

I'm staying in a hotel until I find a suitable apartment.

 Complaints and bad habits

You are always telling lies. (Bad habit) .‫أنت دوما ما تقول الكذب‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 3

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

 Description of change & development

Things are getting worse. .‫تزداد األمور سوءا‬

 Gradual Change
The status quo in the Arab world is deteriorating.

Note: Present Continuous is sometimes used to indicate future plans:

The prime minister is meeting the new ministers late this afternoon.

Present Perfect
This tense indicates:
 Giving news of recent events: The government has announced the new
Cabinet.

 No time reference: I have visited the Caribbean islands many times.

 Up to the present
I have not seen “Romeo and Juliet”. .‫لم أشاهد ”روميو وجولييت“ من قبل‬
She’s never apologized for anything in her life.

 The result at hand (connected with the present): I've broken my leg.

 Not distant in time and place (on part of the speaker)

I've left my wallet in the car. (Speaker about to return)

 Something happened several times up to the present:

I have written six letters since morning. .‫قمت بكتابة ستة خطابات منذ الصباح‬

Present Perfect Continuous

This tense is used mainly to talk about situations that started in the past and are
still going on.
 Emphasis of a duration
I've been waiting for you all morning. .‫ظللت فى انتظارك طوال الصباح‬

 A habitual action in a period of time up to the present

I've been jogging every morning since I quit my job.
.‫أمارس الهرولة كل صباح منذ ان تركت وظيفتى‬

 Incomplete action that continued over a period of time

I've been ironing this shirt. (I haven’t finished ironing yet.)

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 4

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Simple Past Tense

It refers to a completed action, state, and habits in the past (with definite time
reference).

Last year I changed my career from a stockbroker into a real estate agent.

Note: simple past is used to when distancing oneself.

I left my wallet in the car. (I'm not near my car.)

Past continuous
 Actions in progress (often interrupted by other actions)
While we were trying to find a solution to the problem, the CEO suggested a
brilliant idea.
 Changing states
Your behavior was getting worse. .‫كان سلوكك يزداد سوءا‬

Past Perfect
This tense refers to an event in the distant past before another in the past.
When I came back, someone had stolen my wallet. I guess I had forgotten to lock
the locker.

Note: When past events are reported in their order of occurrence, there will be no
need for the past perfect; the need would arise if the events were reported out of
their sequence.

Future with “Will”

We use will to refer to the future in the following situations:
 Description of what we suppose to be true:
That will be Jim at the door.

 Immediate (spur of the moment) decision:

I'll take this one.

Future with “Be Going to”

 Intention or plan:
I'm going to do my best to be there on time.

 An event whose cause is present:

Look at the tree! It is going to fall.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 5

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

 Decisions referring to a more distant point in the future:

Next year, I'm going to work as a reporter.

Future Continuous:
 An event that will be continuing at a future point
Come around in the morning, I'll be cooking in the kitchen.

 An event that will happen anyway, rather than events we choose to make
happen
I won't fix a time to see you as I'll be calling into the office anyway.

 Fixed arrangements:
The band will be performing next spring.

Future Perfect:
To express assumptions on the part of the speaker that a particular action will be
finished by a future point

 The builders say they’ll have finished the roof by Tuesday.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 6

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Tenses (PowerPoint)

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 7

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 8

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 9

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

I. Translate the following sentences into Arabic showing the function of the tense in
each sentence, and how to convey it into the target language:

1. There is often tension in balancing the “happiness” factor between individuals and
social wants, needs, and desires.

2. We celebrate Halloween every year on October 31.

3. The platform of the Democratic Party stressed the importance of the economic
reform.

4. The manifesto of Al Wafd party includes all their views and motives.

5. The Central Intelligence Agency has concluded that China has recently delivered
important components for missile systems to Iran and Pakistan.

6. EEAA has exerted enormous efforts to conserve environment in Egypt.

7. In 1979 the Conservative party has won the general election making Margaret
Thatecher Britain’s first ever woman prime minister.

8. Previous government attempts to find a consensus on terror laws have failed but
the London bombs appear to have changed that.

9. He observed that the economy had expanded steadily since 1981

10. NASA scientists had thought they'd solved the technical problems which have
dogged the Space Agency.

11. China’s birth control policies have been criticized as draconian, especially the
“one-child” policy.

II. Translate the following into English, showing the function of the tenses included
and how to convey them into English:

‫ أعلن مأمور سجن القناطر عن ظهور سبع حاالت مصابة بإنفلونزا الطيور‬.1

‫ استقال محافظ البنك المركزى بناء على طلب العاملين بالبنك‬.2

‫ تحتفل القوات المسلحة الثالثاء القادم بعيد " يوم البحرية" فى ذكرى اغراق المدمرة اإلسرائيلية إيالت فى‬.3
1691 ‫ اكتوبر‬21

‫ اوضح الرئيس ان التعديالت الدستورية الجديدة ال تضيف اى ميزة لرئيس الجمهورية؛ لكنها تزيد من‬.4
‫المشاركة الشعبية فى اتخاذ القرار‬

III. Translate the following taking into consideration the function of the tenses
included and the brief:

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 10

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Exercise one:
Target group: employees of health services and young managers
Text type : Self reporting questionnaire on teamwork and total quality management

- The first part of the questionnaire asks non-identifying demographic data. The
second part is composed of statements that represent items of teamwork that
may influence TQM. You are requested to mark the best response which
reflects your own beliefs. The third part asks you to respond to open-ended
questions. In this part you can write what you would like to add and believe
was not addressed in the questionnaire items.
- Management Support

Exercise two:
Target group: Same as previous
Text type : Same questionnaire- some items

- Teams are active and their input is appreciated by management

- Management encourages multidisciplinary, multilevel team decisions
- Management gives incentives to promote teamwork.
- Management consults appropriate employees to solve quality issues
- Incentives are given to employee who participates in setting quality plans.
- Management appreciates employee work based only on their performance.

Exercise three:
Brief: academic paper review
Context: workshop
Target group: young researchers

- This section will explore the various ways in which resistance to change has
been unmasked in the literature and the areas that perhaps did not capture much
attention by the researchers in general.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 11

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Exercise four:
Target: Children with special needs educators
Text type: Book: In Early Childhood Through Middle School: Laying the Foundation

- Scenario: Jacob was born with Down syndrome, severe cognitive delays, and
additional health problems to parents who understood that Jacob would need
special attention. Even before Jacob was born, hospital officials had connected
the family with agencies and resource people who helped them understand how
the family could best help Jacob in his years as an infant. The connections to
agencies and resources continued into his toddler days and through his
transitions into public school.

Exercise five:
Target group: doctors
Text type : Medical report
Brief History:

- Patient is a known case of mitral steno-sis presented in ER with left side

weakness. CT Brain shows right tempero parietal infarc.
- Echo- rheumatic heart with infected endocraditis. As per patient’s condition
improves, trans out to the ward where he developed respiratory distress, heart
failure and aspiration pneumonia. Admitted again to the ICU, intubated and
ventilated.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 12

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪Tenses – Exercises‬‬

‫‪ .1‬أن الوضع الحالى ليس بالغ السوء لكنه سيكون أسوأ إذا لم نكن أكثر حرصا ً على تحقيق األمن‬
‫واالستقرار‪.‬‬

‫‪ .2‬كنت رئيسا ً لشركة وعضواً منتدبا ً لـ‪ 3‬شركات أخرى وإن كنت ال أملك فيها سهما ً واحداً‪ ،‬إال‬
‫أننى كنت أتعامل وأفكر وأدير بمنطق وعقلية المستثمر‪.‬‬

‫‪ .3‬إن الموازنة العامة للدولة قبل تعديلها كانت تتضمن اقتراحا باللجوء إلى االقتراض الدولى لسد‬
‫العجز ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .4‬بحلول شهر أغسطس المقبل سنكون قد إنتهينا من وضع اللمسات األخيرة للمشروع‪.‬‬
‫‪ .5‬كنت أتمنى لو أنى رأيتها عندما زرتك‪.‬‬

‫‪ .6‬أعلن الرئيس األمريكى‪ ،‬باراك أوباما‪ ،‬أن االقتصاد األمريكى مر بأزمة وهو يتعافى منها ببطء‪.‬‬

‫‪ .7‬من المقرر أن تعلن الحكومة األسبوع المقبل الخطة الجديدة لمكافحة العجز والبطالة وكيفية دعم‬
‫النمو والوظائف‪.‬‬

‫‪ .8‬أعلن سيلفا كير‪ ،‬رئيس حكومة جنوب السودان‪ ،‬أنه اختار مدينة القدس مقراً لسفارة بالده في‬
‫إسرائيل بدالً من تل أبيب‪.‬‬

‫‪ .9‬تدرس الحكومة حاليا مشروعا شامال إلعادة هيكلة قطاع األعمال العام‪.‬‬

‫‪ .11‬منذ أكثر من أربعة أشهر والعنف يتصاعد يوميا في سوريا بعد أن اتخذ بشار األسر قرارا‬
‫استراتيجيا باستئصال الثورة وعدم التفاهم معه‪.‬‬

‫‪ .11‬أطلق فريق من شباب الثوار مبادرة مصرية إلكترونية لكسب التأييد العالمي إلسقاط ومبادلة‬
‫الديون المصرية لدي الواليات المتحدة األمريكية وغيرها من الدول‪.‬‬

‫‪ .12‬تعيش إسرائيل في حالة من الذعر والترقب في انتظار الموقف المصري من اتفاقية كامب ديفيد‪.‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 13‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

1. The blast Thursday that killed Stephen Everhart, who was working for the U.S.
Agency for International Development, was the second in a week in the Iraqi capital
that targeted embassy personnel.

2. Tunisia, the country where the Arab Spring uprisings began this year, has joined the
International Criminal Court, becoming the first North African country to do so.

3. I was sorry when Jacky moved to America; we had been good friends since university
days.

4. Obama said when I came into office, this economy was in a freefall, and the economy
has stabilized.

5. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights has said more than 2,000 people -- mostly
demonstrators -- have died since the uprising began in mid-March.

6. Movie producer Khoury had planned to make two series for this Ramadan, but the
other had to be postponed until next year because several members of his team were
too busy participating in the revolution to work on it.

7. Egyptian Gabriel Khoury's first foray into television drama "Dawaran Chobra" is
being watched by millions on four channels every night during the holy month of
Ramadan.

8. This year we have tried to break the mold with a good quality series without the big
names.

9. Despite violence and political uncertainty sweeping the country, Syria's production of
Ramadan drama continued largely undisturbed in the capital Damascus.

10. The United Nations' World Food Programme was sending 600 tons of food
commodities for the Red Cross to distribute in Tripoli.

11. A group of University of Kentucky students and staff has been patrolling campus
grounds -- scouting out any student, employee or visitor lighting a cigarette.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 14

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

12. This year, we've certainly become aware of how social media can coordinate the
activities of protesters and rebels acting against repressive regimes.

13. The Arab Spring was initiated on Facebook pages, orchestrated through Twitter
accounts, and video recorded on cell phones.

14. In a brave and noble move, the United Kingdom's Advertising Standards Agency this
week issued a ban on two makeup advertisements.

15. There has been a string of scientific studies in recent years showing a potential health
benefit from eating chocolate.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 15

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Two

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore the differences between the English and Arabic
conditional, and how professional translators handle the differences. They will also
practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- contrast the conditional in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately the conditional from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating tense and aspect from English into Arabic and vice
versa.
- Controlled practice on translating conditionals from English into Arabic and vice
versa.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 16

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Conditional in English and Arabic

Conditional in Arabic is understood at the lexical level, while in English it's

understood at the syntactic level.

Suggest Arabic Translations:

There are four main types of 'if' conditional in English:

 CASE ZERO:
- Formation: present simple + present simple
- Usage:
1. It expresses universal fact:
If you heat ice, it melts. (Universal fact)

2. It expresses personal fact:

If I drink coffee, I get a headache. (Personal fact)

3. It is also used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main

clause:
If he phones, tell him I'll be back at 5:00.

 CASE I:
- Formation: Present simple + "will + infinitive
- Usage: to express real possibility in the future.

If you study, you will succeed. (Present in form, future in meaning)

 CASE II:
- Formation: Past simple + "would + infinitive
- Usage:
1. to express untrue present, unlikely future, probable result

If you studied hard, you would succeed (Past in form but present in
meaning)
If you won the prize, what would you do?

2. Imaginary present

If I were you, I would say the truth.

I was not on that occasion and I'll never be

If I had been you, I would have said the truth.

I was not on that occasion, but I may be in future.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 17

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

CASE III:
 Formation: Past perfect + "would + have + P.P.
 Usage: Imaginary past – impossible past

If you had studied hard, you would have succeeded.

If the test had been easier, I'd have had a full mark.

If I had been elected US president, I would have reduced taxes.

Exceptions:
 Imaginary Present: “were” replaces “was”

If I were a queen, I would have lived in a palace.

III + II = Present result of a past condition

 Past perfect / if clause + would + infinitive / main clause.

If I had accepted that job I would be a millionaire now.

If I had married him I would be happy now.

 The time is past in the If-clause & present in the main clause.
 Unreal past condition + its probable result in the present.

II + III = Past result of a present or continuing condition

 Simple past / If clause + would have + P.P. / main clause.

If I didn't love him I wouldn't have married him.

=
I still love him and that is why I married him.

 Unreal present situation + its probable (but unreal) past result.

If I were a good cook, I would have invited them to lunch.
=
I am not a good cook so I can't invite them to lunch.

If I spoke English, I would have got a better job.

If I knew him, I would have said Hello

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 18

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

 ADVICE:

Take 2 days off, if that will help you to recover.

 INSISTENCE:

If she will (insists on) smoke so heavily,

it's not surprising she has a disease in the heart.

 REQUEST:

If you will just fill in this form, you can hand it in the reception.

 INVERSION:

Had he studied hard, he would have entered faculty of engineering.

Should you have any questions, do not hesitate to ask me.

 UNLESS: is used instead of "if not"

Unless you got an ID, you wouldn't have access to the library.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 19

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

 In Zero case "if" is mostly replaced by "when" (time clause).

 If in front position is more emphatic and put a comma.
 Request:
ex: It will be nice if you help me. (direct request - Type 1)
ex: It would be nice if you helped me. (more polite request - Type 2)

 Type I: Future tense may be used in both clauses. This is particularly

common in polite requests.
ex: If you will marry me, I will love you forever.
(More polite than 'If you marry me…')

ex: If you would marry me, I will love you forever.

(More polite than 'If you will marry me…')

 Type I: "be + going to" often replaces "will" to emphasize a certain

result.
ex: If you skip your classes, you are going to fail.

For example:
If she gets good grades, she will go to university.

We are talking about the future, but we use a present tense for the condition
and will for the result. In this case, the person is sure about going to
university.

Other modal verbs in the result part of the sentence.

We can use other modal verbs in the result part of the sentence. For example:
IF Condition Result Possibility
If she gets she will go to If the condition is met, then she
good grades, university. definitely will go
If he gets good he may go to He is not sure about going to
grades, university. university.
If she gets she should go to The speaker is expressing his or her
good grades, university. opinion, giving advice.
If he gets good he can go to This means that it is possible.
grades, university.
If she gets she could go to This means that it is possible, but not
good grades, university. that likely.
If he gets good he might go to This means that it is possible, but not
grades, university. that likely.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 20

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫أدوات الشرط‪ :‬من ‪ ،‬ما ‪ ،‬مهما ‪ ،‬متى ‪ ،‬أيان ‪ ،‬أين ‪ ،‬حيثما ‪ ،‬كيفما ‪ ،‬كلما‬

‫من ‪ :‬اسم شرط للعاقل )من يجتهد ينجح(‬

‫‪------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫مـا ‪ :‬اسم شرط لغير العاقل )ما يزرع المرء يحصد(‬

‫‪------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫مهما ‪ :‬اسم شرط لغير العاقل )مهما تبذل من جهد فلن تنهى العمل اليوم(‬
‫‪------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫لوال‪ :‬حرف امتناع الجواب لوجود الشرط )لوال الهواء ماعاش انسان(‬
‫‪------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫متى ‪ :‬اسم شرط جازم يفيد الزمان )متى تجتهد يرض هللا عنك(‬
‫‪------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫أيان ‪ :‬اسم شرط جازم للزمان المستقبل )أيان تطع هللا يساعدك(‬
‫‪------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫أيـن ‪ :‬اسم شرط للمكان )أين تسقط األمطار تخضر األرض(‬

‫‪------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫حيثما ‪ :‬اسم شرط للمكان )حيثما تذهب تجد أصدقاء(‬

‫‪-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫كيفما ‪ :‬اسم شرط يدل على الحال )كيفما تعامل اآلخرين يعاملوك(‬
‫‪----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫كلما‪ :‬تفيد التكرار ‪ -‬كلما قرأت ازددت معرفة‬

‫‪----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫كلما زارنى أكرمته‬

‫‪----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 21‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Three

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore the differences between the English and Arabic
active and passive, and how professional translators handle the differences. They
will also practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice
versa. Assessment 1 will be given in this session.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- contrast the active and passive in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately the active and passive from English into Arabic and vice
versa.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating simple and continuous aspects.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 22

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Active & Passive

Arabic tends to use the actuve more frequently, whereas passive voice is inherent in the
English language structure.

A professional translator should know that not every active vocie case in Arabic is
necessarily translated to active in English; it might be better rendered with the passive
voice.

Likewise, not every passive case in English is necessarily translated into passive voice in
Arabic; it might be better rendered with active vocie.

When is Passive voice is used in English?

1. When the doer of the verb is not known from the text or the situation as a whole.

When they got back from their holiday they found that their home had been
burgled.

2. When the doer is known but is not really important.

The streets are swept every day.

3. When the subject or the doer of the active verb is generic; "people" or the infinite
pronoun ONE; OR the doer can be easily understood from the context,(in this case it
is better to translate the sentence to ‫ مبني للمعلوم‬in Arabic).

French is spoken in France, Switzerland and Belgium.

This sort of advertisement is seen everywhere.

4. When we are more interested in the action than the person who does it.

A large amount of the company’s shares were sold last Wednesday.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 23

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

5. When the doer is known but is of little importance compared to the action. In this
case, the English mentions the doer after "by"

The notes were written by the committee.

(These kind of sentences must be translated in Arabic to the active.Thus it would be

inaccurate to translate the word "by" using "‫)" من قِبل‬

6. The passive may be used to avoid an awkward or ungrammatical sentence. This is

usually done by avoiding a change of subject.

When their mother got sick, the children were looked after by neighbors.

7. Passive is used with some verbs that collocate or exist with a single known doer: Ex.
arrest, sentence, acquit. (In this case translation of the sentences would be better if
we use the active voice)

He was arrested on charges of spying.

.‫ألقت قوات الشرطة القبض عليه بتهمة التجسس‬

8. Passive is also used when the speaker gets someone to do the act for him.

I got or (had) my car repaired last week

. ‫أصلحت سيارتي في األسبوع الماضي‬

(Here the translator is dealing with a cultural aspect since it is very unusual in Arabic to
indicate that an (agent) carried out an act for the speaker. Hence the Arabic would tend
to use ‫)فعل و فاعل المتحدث‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 24

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Choice between “get” and “be”

 The action is unexpected, involuntary or possibly unwelcome.

When he picked up the phone we got cut off.

 An achievement based on something that has been built up beforehand.

She got elected.

 An achievement in the face of difficulty.

I finally got accepted for the job.

 GET or HAVE

To describe things we arranged to be done for us.

I got/had my nails polished.

 “BY” and “WITH”

 ''By'' indicates an animate agent. Ex.: by the police.

 ''With'' indicate an inanimate instrument. Ex.: with a stick.

Compare:
I was hit with a branch.
I was hit by a branch.

Verbs not used in the passive

Note that:
 Not all verbs can have passive forms. Passive forms are impossible with intransitive
verbs which cannot have objects like: die, arrive

 Some transitive verbs, too, are seldom used in the passive form. Most of these are
‘stative verbs’ (verbs which refer to states, not actions) such as: fit, have, lack,
resemble, suit.

My summer clothes don’t fit me any more.

 Some prepositional verbs are mainly used in the active voice.

Everybody agreed with my opinion.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 25

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪Passive in modern standard Arabic:‬‬

‫‪ are restricted to some cases:‬المبنى للمجهول ‪ Usages of‬‬

‫‪ ‬عندما يكون الفاعل مجهوالً‪،‬‬

‫مثال‪ :‬سرقت سيارتى‪.‬‬

‫‪ ‬إذا كان الفعل من األفعال الالزمة لصيغة المجهول التي لم يستخدم المعلوم منها البته ‪:‬‬

‫توفي‪ ،‬سل ‪،‬أغشى عليه ‪ ،‬جُن جُنونه‪.‬‬

‫‪ ‬أحيانا يأخذ الفعل صيغة المبنى للمجهول في اللغة اإلنجليزية ولكن هذه الصيغة ال تنصاع في الترجمة ليظل‬
‫المعنى مجهوالً أيضا في اللغة العربية بدون وجود مفعول‪ ،‬وحينئذ يكون اللجوء للفعل المطاوع في اللغة العربية‬
‫أفضل‪.‬‬

‫‪The law was twice amended.‬‬ ‫تعدل القانون مرتين (ترجمة أفضل من عُدﱢل القانون مرتين)‬
‫‪The meeting was held yesterday.‬‬ ‫انعقد االجتماع أمس (بدالً من ُعقِد االجتماع)‪.‬‬

‫‪ ‬أحيانا تترجم جملة الموصول إلي المبني للمجهول في اللغة االنجليزية‪:‬‬

‫في حفل العشاء الذي أقامه الرئيس تكريما للرئيس الفرنسي‪ ،‬راح الرئيس يروى طرائف حول رحلته األخيرة‬
‫لفرنسا‪.‬‬
‫‪At the banquet held by the president in honor of the French president, our president went‬‬
‫‪on telling anecdotes about his last trip to France.‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 26‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

:‫بعض األساليب فى اللغة العربية‬

‫ من المتوقع أن يسافرالرئيس ألمريكا الشهر القادم‬.1

He is expected to travel to the USA next month.

‫من المقرر ان يفتتح البنك فرعه الجديد الشهر القادم‬ .2

The bank is to open the new branch next month.
It has been decided that
‫من الثابت أن‬ .3
It's well established that
‫من المعروف أن‬ .4
It's well known that
‫من المفهوم أن‬ .5
It's understood that
‫من المتفق عليه أن‬ .6
It has been agreed that
‫من المحتمل أن‬ .7
It is likely that
............ ‫المزمع عقده فى‬ .8
Is scheduled to take place ……..
..... ‫يُـوصى بـ‬ .9
It is recommended that ……

.‫ يقال أن المرأة أطول عمرا من الرجل‬.11

It is said that women live longer than men.

.... ‫ لـ‬.... ‫ لم يكن‬.11

..…. V. to be + not meant to ….
.... ‫ لـ‬........... ‫ لم يخلق‬.12
..…. V. to be + not created to ….
.....‫ ذكرت مصادر أن الرئيس‬.13
President was reported ……

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 27

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Passive & Active (PowerPoint)

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 28

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 29

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Four

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore affixations and collocations. They will practice
different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- translate appropriately affixation between Arabic and English; and
- translate appropriately collocations between Arabic and English.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating affixation and collocations.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 30

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Affixations

Affixation: formation of a word by means of an affix (Prefix, Suffix or Infix)

- Prefix: a group of letters that is added to the beginning of a word to change
its meaning and form a new word.
- Suffix: a letter or letters added to the end of a word to form a new word.
- Infix: is a morpheme attached in the middle of the word to facilitate pronunciation.

‫ منظمة الوحدة األفريقية‬.1

Pan-African Unity Organization
All- African Unity Organization (UN)
‫ الخطوط الجوية األمريكية‬.2
Pan-America Airways
‫ األمة اإلسالمية‬.3
The Islamic Nation (according to context … Like the Sudan for example)
The Pan-Muslim Nation
‫ األمة العربية‬.4
The Arab Nation (according to context)
The Pan-Arab Nation
‫ اللجنة الوزارية بين وزراء الرى فى مصر و السودان و األسكندرية‬.5
Inter-ministerial committee between the Ministers of Irrigation in Egypt, the Sudan
and Alexandria
‫ قامت اللجنة المكونة من سبع دول بمناقشة مشروع القرار‬.6
The seven-state inter-governmental committee has discussed the draft resolution.

7. Inter-state commerce laws

‫القوانين التى تنظم التجارة بين الواليات األمريكية‬
8. Intra-state commerce laws
‫ فى الواليات األمريكية‬/ ‫القوانين التى تنظم التجارة داخل‬
9. Inter-governorate taxi
‫سيارة أجرة بين المحافظات‬
10. Intra-governorate taxi
‫سيارة أجرة داخل المحافظة‬
‫ فرع أجهرة خدمة نزع السالح و إنهاء االستعمار‬.11
Disarmament and Decolonization Organs Servicing Branch (term)
‫ إمكانية االعتماد على التقسسم الصادر عن أكثر من مقيم‬.12
Inter-rater reliability

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 31

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪I) Translate the following sentences into English using the suffix between brackets:‬‬

‫‪ -1‬إنها مادة غير قابلة للكسر‪(-able) .‬‬

‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -2‬لقد أصبح مدمنا لإلنترنت‪(-aholic).‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -3‬تزخر روايات الخيال العلمى بشخصيات آلية تشبه البشر‪(-oid) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -4‬جرم القانون الدولى مؤخرا إبادة الشعوب‪(-cide) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -5‬صدر قانون جديد يحدد العالقة ما بين المالك و المستأجر‪(-ee) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -9‬تضاعف سعر السيارة ثالثة أضعاف‪(-fold) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -1‬إن برامج الويندوز من أسهل برامج الكمبيوتر استخداما‪(-est) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -8‬تلك المأكوالت تخلو من السكر‪(free) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -6‬هل كان الملك آرثر و فرسان المائدة المستديرة شخصيات تاريخية؟ )‪(-ic/-ical‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬كان البن خلدون فضل كبير فى تحديث مناهج الدراسات التاريخية‪(-ic/-ical) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬يلقى الرئيس خطابا تاريخيا هاما‪(-ic/-ical) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -12‬تبدو عليه مالمح الطفولة البريئة‪(-ish/-like) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -13‬لقد عاب الحاضرون عليه تصرفاته الطفولية‪(-ish/-like) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -14‬جمع ثروة طائلة لحرصة الشديد على النقود‪(-ic/-ical) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 32‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪ -15‬أجمعت الدراسات االقتصادية على أهمية عامل التصدير‪(-ic/-ical) .‬‬

‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -19‬ينعقد مؤتمر الدول الناطقة بالفرنسية فى بيروت‪(-phone) .‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫‪II) Translate the following sentences from Arabic into English using prefixes , paying due‬‬
‫‪attention to the underlined words and phrases:‬‬
‫‪[co-, de-, il-, auto-, con-, cross-, im-, demi-, fore-, hypo-, extra-, mal-, anthropo-, by-, all-,‬‬
‫]‪foster-, down-‬‬
‫‪ -1‬لم تعد الدراسات األدبية تحفل كثيرا بالسير الذاتية للمبدعين‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -2‬عززت قرارات رئيس الوزراء األخيرة من وضع االقتصاد المصرى‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -3‬يقال أن شكسبير شارك فلتشر فى تأليف إحدى المسرحيات‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -4‬تحفل أساطير اإلغريق بأنصاف اآللهة مثل هرقل‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -5‬كان تطهير الجروح خطوة هامة على طريق نجاح العمليات الجراحية‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -9‬ساهم التحذير المسبق فى نجاة المدينة من هموم األعداء‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -1‬تضع اإلدارة شروطا قاسية ينبغى توافرها فى اآلباء بالتبنى‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -8‬يتلقى حقنة تحت الجلد ثالث مرات فى األسبوع‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -6‬هذا أمر يخالف القانون‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬دفعت األمطار الغزيرة المارة للجوء للمحال التجارية‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 33‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪ -11‬هناك اهتمام كبير بالدراسات المقارنة بين الثقافات‪.‬‬

‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -12‬صدرت القوانين المحلية لتنظيم شئون المدينة‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -13‬ترتدى مالبس من الصوف الخالص‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -14‬تخصصت فى علم دراسة اإلنسان و المجتمعات البشرية‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -15‬يؤدى سوء التغذية بحياة عشرات األلوف من األطفال سنويا‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -19‬تتزايد فى أيامنا هذه شائعات حول وصول مخلوقات من الفضاء الخارجى إلى كوكبنا‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬استخدم عطرا قويا إلزالة الرائحة الكريهة‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -18‬تعرض المشروع للخطر بسبب نقص رأس المال‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 34‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Translate the following sentences into Arabic heeding the use of affixation in the
underlined words:

1- The efforts of this poet are laudable.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2- Aerial imaging advanced the field of geography.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3- I have ambivalent feelings towards my cousin.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4- Anomalies that occur at child birth are usually incurable.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5- The anterior part of your body is beautiful.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6- The blind rely on their auditory sense.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7- Biophysics is a difficult field of knowledge.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8- Pesticides and herbicides are used by farmers.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9- The Palestinians and the Israelis have failed to coexist in peace.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10- One of the contraindications of this medicine is hypertension.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11- I bought a golden bracelet to match my yellowish scarf.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12- I was greatly saddened by the news.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13- All the shoes we make are of genuine leather not leatherette.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

14- The good deed is rewarded by tenfold.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 35

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15- Both ultraviolet and infrared radiations are used in treating certain diseases.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16- Before the rebellion against heaven, Satan was the most important of the archangels,
now he is the archfiend.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17- Farouk was the monarch of Egypt.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
18- Archeology is the study of ancient civilizations.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
19- Diabetes is a chronic disease.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20- Please indicate your degrees in chronological order.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
21- Demography is one of the areas studied in this department.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22- Bigamy is not a crime in Islam.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23- Many congenital diseases are curable.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
24- The child has hydrophobia.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25- Beware of dehydration in this heat.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
26- This is not logical.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
27- I am specialized in astrology.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
28- Cairo is a megalopolis.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

29- Microprocessors are part of the computer technology.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 36

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
30- This physician is specialized in treating neonatals.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
31- Agronomy is the science of managing crops.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
32- This movement is pan-African.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
33- I was struck by apathy.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
34- I specialized in pathology.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
35- He loves reading English novels, he is an Anglophile.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
36- Physical punishment is not a necessary component of pedagogy.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
37- Many animals are quadrupeds.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
38- This child is polylingual.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
39- There are many microscopic organisms in the air.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40- Atheism means the lack of belief in a god.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
41- Iran is ruled by a theocratic regime.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
42- Anemia is a grave disease.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
43- Anarchy can be caused due to the lack of leadership.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

44- The antidote of many poisons is a small dose of the poison itself.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 37

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
45- Antibiotics are prescribed to treat many diseases.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
46- When I was a child I had an appendectomy.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
47- Hypersensitive people are hard to deal with.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
48- Insulin injections are hypodermic.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
49- The word "sofa" and "couch" are synonyms.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 38

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪Translate the following into English using one word for the underlined word:‬‬

‫‪ -1‬رفض كبير أساقفة كانتربرى الحديث مع الصحفيين‪.‬‬

‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -2‬الدقيقة وحدة زمنية‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -3‬البلهارسيا من األمراض المتوطنة‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -4‬تشتهر القارة اإلفريقية بتعدد الزوجات‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -5‬اهتم العرب بعلم األنساب‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -9‬يعد العالج بالماء أحد وسائل التداوى‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -1‬تخصصت فى علم الحيوان‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -8‬إنه مصاب بجنون العظمة‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -6‬تعد كلمة "الخصخصة" من األلفاظ المستحدثة‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬تسعى فلسطين للحصول على الحكم الذاتى‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬التعاطف مع الغير من سمات اإلنسان المرهف‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -12‬حب اإلنسانية من أهم رسائل الديانات السماوية‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -13‬أصطحبت األم طفلها إلى طبيب األطفال‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 39‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪ -14‬أسهم تعدد األصوات فى هذه الرواية فى إثرائها‪.‬‬

‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -15‬المنظار الجراحى من الوسائل الحديثة للعالج‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -19‬اإلسالم أساسه التوحيد‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬إنه يتصرف بأسلوب غير نمطى‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -18‬معاداة السامية إحدى التهم التى يهاجم بها اإلسرائيليون أعداءهم‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -16‬تولت إدارة مكافحة المخدرات إلقاء القبض على المتهمين‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -21‬اضطررت إلستئصال اللوزتين‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -21‬إنه غريب األطوار‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -22‬ارتفاع ضغط الدم أو انخفاض ضغط الدم المفاجئ من العالمات غير الصحية‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -23‬السباحة التوقيعية من الرياضات الراقية‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -24‬يحل النزاع بالطرق الودية‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -25‬اشتريت عقدا من حجر لونه أزرق بحرى‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -29‬هذا ورم حميد‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -21‬قتل الثوار الحكام السابقين بقطع رؤوسهم‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 40‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪ -28‬أثارت مذابح الحرب العالمية الثانية سخط الشعوب‪.‬‬

‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -26‬يصيب العقاب الجسدى األطفال بعقد نفسية‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -31‬هذا حدث خارق ال يصدقه عقل‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -31‬حارب اإلسالم الكفر‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -32‬الفقر المدقع أسوأ أنواع الفقر‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -33‬إنه شرير‪.‬‬
‫‪-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 41‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫االشتقاق‬

‫االسم المشتق هو ما أخذ من غيره و دل على شىء موصوف بصفة‪ .‬فاالشتقاق هو أخذ كلمة من‬
‫أخرى مع التناسب بينهما فى المعنى و التغيير فى اللفظ‪ .‬فكلمة كتب يؤخذ منها كاتب و مكتوب و‬
‫كتاب ومكتب الخ ‪...‬‬

‫والمشتقات سبعة و هى‪:‬‬

‫‪ -1‬اسم الفاعل (و صيغ المبالغة)‬

‫‪ -2‬اسم المفعول‬

‫‪ -3‬الصفة المشبهة باسم الفاعل‬

‫‪ -4‬اسم التفضيل‬

‫‪ -5‬اسم الزمان‬

‫‪ -6‬اسم المكان‬

‫‪ -7‬اسم اآللة‬

‫صيغ األفعال‪:‬‬

‫الفعل‪ :‬كلمة تدل على حدث و زمن معا‪ ،‬و هى دائما تخبر عن فاعل الحدث و زمان الحدوث‪ .‬و‬
‫الفعل يدل على معان وظيفية فرعية أخرى و الزمن حسب الصيغة التى يجئ عليها‪.‬‬

‫معانى فرعية لبعض الصيغ‪:‬‬

‫صيغة َف َعل َ‪ :‬وهى صيغة تستخدم فى أكثر المعانى‪ ،‬فهى ال تختص بمعنى‬ ‫‪-1‬‬
‫معين‪ ،‬و هى أكثر الصيغ استعماال (قرأ‪ ،‬كتب‪ ،‬منع‪ ،‬حشد‪ ،‬وهب‪ ،‬زرع)‬

‫صيغة َف ِعل َ‪ :‬تستعمل فى بعض المعانى مثل‪:‬‬ ‫‪-2‬‬

‫ى عزمه)‬ ‫ِس قياده) ( َق ٍو َ‬
‫(سل َ‬‫الوصف َ‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫ض‬‫األعراض (وصف سلبى) َس ِق َم‪َ ،‬م ِر َ‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫االنفعال ( َف ِر َح‪َ ،‬غضِ َ‬
‫ب)‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫الخلو (عطش‪ ،‬ظمئ)‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫االمتالء (شيع‪ ،‬روى)‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 42‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫صيغة َف ُعل َ‪ :‬وتكثر فى معانى الغرائز و الطباع و السجايا (صفات جوهرية‬ ‫‪-3‬‬
‫أو أساسية) أى الصفات المالزمة ألصحابها مثل (الكبر و الصغر و الحسن و‬
‫القبح و السهولة و الغلظة و الكرم و البخل)‬
‫ُب‪َ ،‬غلُ َظ‬ ‫ص ُغ َر‪َ ،‬حس َُن‪َ ،‬قب َُح‪َ ،‬س ُه َل‪َ ،‬‬
‫صع َ‬ ‫‪َ -‬كب َُر‪َ ،‬‬
‫(وكلها أفعال الزمة أى ال تحتاج إلى مفعول به فهى طباع و سجايا تلزم‬
‫أصحابها)‬

‫صيغة فعلَل َ‪ :‬وهى صيغة صاغها العرب من بعض األسماء الدالة على‬ ‫‪-4‬‬
‫األفعال ألداء بعض المعانى‬
‫‪ -‬التشبيه (عقرب األمر ‪ ----‬أى جعله ملويا كالعقرب)‬
‫(كور العجين ‪ ----‬أى جعله يشبه الكرة)‬
‫‪ -‬تحويل المفعول إلى صيغة الفعل (فلفلت الطعام) (ملحت الطعام)‬
‫‪ -‬االختصار (بسمل‪ -‬حوقل‪ -‬حمدل‪ -‬سبحل)‬

‫أفعل‪ :‬وهى صيغة تجعل الفاعل مفعوال به فتحول الفعل من الالزم‬

‫صيغة َ‬ ‫‪-5‬‬
‫إلى متعدٍ‪.‬‬
‫"خرج الرجل" يصاغ منها "أخرجت الرجل" أو نقول "هو ما أخرج الرجل‬
‫عن صمته"‬

‫فاعل َ‪ :‬وأهم معانيها التشارك و التتابع فنقول‬

‫صيغة َ‬ ‫‪-6‬‬
‫‪ -‬فى التشارك "ماشيت الرجل" و "بارزت الفارس"‬
‫‪ -‬فى المتابعة "تابعت الصوم"‬

‫فعل‪:‬‬
‫صيغة َّ‬ ‫‪-7‬‬
‫‪ -‬التعدية (قومت الطالب وعلمته)‬
‫‪ -‬اإلزالة (قشرت الفاكهة)‬
‫‪ -‬التكثير (طوف)‬
‫‪ -‬جعل الشئ شبه الشئ (قوس ظهره‪ ،‬عقد)‬
‫‪ -‬النسبة (كفرت الرجل‪ ،‬أى نسبت إليه الكفر)‬

‫صيغة انفعل‪ :‬تأتى لمعنى واحد وهو المطاوعة‪ ،‬أى النسبة لفاعل آخر‬ ‫‪-8‬‬
‫‪ -‬كسرت الكوب‪ ،‬فانكسر‬
‫‪ -‬أطلقت الطائر‪ ،‬فانطلق‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 43‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫صيغة افتعل‪:‬‬ ‫‪-9‬‬

‫‪ -‬االجتهاد و الطلب (اكتسب الرجل‪ ،‬إذا اجتهد و طلب الكسب)‬
‫‪ -‬التشارك (اختصم الصديقان و اختلفا)‬
‫‪ -‬اإلظهار (اعتذر الرجل‪ ،‬أى أظهر العذر)‬
‫‪ -‬المبالغة (ارتد‪ ،‬أى بالغ فى الردة)‬
‫(اقتدر‪ ،‬أى بالغ فى القدرة)‬

‫افعل‪ :‬و تأتى لمعنى واحد و هو قوة اللون أو العيب‬

‫صيغة َّ‬ ‫‪-11‬‬
‫‪ -‬أحمر الورد‬
‫‪ -‬ابيضت عيناه‬
‫‪ -‬اختل عقله‬

‫صيغة تف َّعل‪:‬‬ ‫‪-11‬‬

‫االتخاذ (توسد يده أى جعلها وسادة)‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫التكلف (تكبر أى تكلف الكبر‪ ،‬ترجى أى تكلف الرجاء‪ ،‬تذلل أى تكلف‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫الذل)‬
‫التجنب (تحرج أى تجنب اإلحراج)‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫التدرج (تجرع الدواء‪ ،‬أى تدرج فى شربه – تعلم الدرس أى تدرج فى‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫علمه)‬

‫صيغة تفاعل‪:‬‬ ‫‪-12‬‬

‫‪ -‬تشارك (تجاذب أو تخاصم)‬
‫‪ -‬تظاهر (تناوم أو تضاحك)‬
‫‪ -‬تدرج (تزايد النيل أو تواردت الخواطر)‬
‫‪ -‬تراكم (تقاطرت المياه أو تساقطت األمطار)‬
‫‪ -‬مطاوعة (باعدت الرجل فتباعد)‬

‫صيغة استفعل‪:‬‬ ‫‪-11‬‬

‫الطلب (استغفر)‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫‪ -‬الصيرورة (أى االنتقال من حال إلى حال) استحجر الطين‬
‫‪ -‬االعتقاد (استحسن)‬
‫‪ -‬قوة العيب (استهتر أو استكبر)‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 44‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 45

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫صيغ المبالغة‬

‫صيغ المبالغة‪:‬‬

‫عند قصد المبالغة أو التكثير تحول صيغة اسم الفاعل إلى صيغ سماعية على خمسة أوزان هى‪:‬‬

‫َفعً ال ‪ ---‬مناع‪ ،‬قوام‪ ،‬صوام‪ ،‬تواق‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫مِفعال ‪ ---‬مطعان‪ ،‬مهذار‪ ،‬مفراح‪ ،‬معدام‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫َفعُول ‪ ---‬غفور‪ ،‬شكور‪ ،‬حقود‪ ،‬صبور‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫َفعيل ‪ ---‬عليم‪ ،‬قدير‪ ،‬سميع‪ ،‬خبير‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫فعِل ‪ ---‬حذر‪ ،‬قلق‪ ،‬يقظ‪ ،‬فهم‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫وهذه الصيغ تدل على معنى اسم الفاعل مع إفادة المبالغة‪ .‬و لهذا فهى تسمى صيغ المبالغة و ال تبنى‬
‫إال من الفعل الثالثى‪ .‬فمثال نقول عن شخص إنه حاقد‪ ،‬فإذا كان كثير الحقد قلنا إنه حقود‪ ،‬كذلك‬
‫نقول عن الجندى إنه طاعن‪ ،‬فإذا كان كثير الطعن قلنا إنه مطعان‪.‬‬

‫‪ -1‬و بعد أن أفهمناهما ما يترتب على هذا الزواج من عواقب‬

‫‪And after we made them understand the consequences of marriage.‬‬
‫‪And after I explained the consequences of marriage‬‬
‫‪ -2‬فهم التالميذ الدرس‪.‬‬
‫‪The students understood the lesson.‬‬
‫‪ -1‬أفهم المدرس التالميذ الدرس‪.‬‬
‫‪The teacher made the students understand the lesson.‬‬
‫‪ -4‬ف ًهم المدرس التالميذ الدرس‪.‬‬
‫‪The teacher made sure the students understood the lesson.‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 46‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Translate the following verb forms into English:

He understood ‫ فهم‬.1
He made sure someone understand ‫ ف ًهم‬.2
He made someone understand ‫ أفهم‬.3
He showed understanding ‫ تفهم‬.4
He asked to understand/ He requested understanding ‫ استفهم‬.5
There was a mutual understanding between …‫ تفاهم‬.6

‫فعيل‬ ‫فعول‬ ‫فعال‬ ‫فاعل‬ ‫فعل‬

---- ‫غفور‬ ‫غفار‬ ‫غافر‬ ‫غفر‬

The All-Forgiving The Ever-Forgiving Forgiver To forgive

‫سميع‬ ---- ‫سماع‬ ‫سامع‬ ‫سمع‬

The All-Hearing The Ever-Hearing Hearer To hear

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 47

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪I) Translate the following into English, paying due attention to the verb form in the word‬‬
‫‪underlined:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬استصعبت األمر‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -2‬استأسد الرجل‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -3‬استفحلت األمور‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -4‬استغفر المؤمن ربه‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -5‬تمارض الولد‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -9‬انبلج الصبر‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -1‬تمازحا الرجالن‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -8‬تواردت األخبار‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -6‬كاتب أخاه طوال العام‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬تكاتبا طوال العام‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬خون الرجل زوجته‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -12‬قتل السفاح النساء‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -13‬انطلق الطائر‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -14‬اطلق الطائر‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -15‬غرب ‪ 2‬مليون من العراقيين عن وطنهم فى العقدين الماضيين‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -19‬تغرب ‪ 2‬مليون من العراقيين عن وطنهم فى العقديين الماضيين‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬
‫‪ -11‬انقلبت العصا إلى حيه تسعى‪.‬‬
‫‪---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------‬‬

‫‪II) Translate the following verb forms into English:‬‬

‫‪ .1‬فَ ِهم‬
‫‪ .2‬فَهم‬
‫‪ .3‬أفهم‬
‫‪ .4‬تفهم‬
‫‪ .5‬استفهم‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 48‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

2
Collocations

What is a collocation?

A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These

combinations just sound "right" to native English speakers, who use them
all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may be unnatural and
just sound "wrong". Look at these examples:

Natural English... Unnatural English...

the fast train the quick train
fast food quick food
a quick shower a fast shower
a quick meal a fast meal

2
http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collocations.htm

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 49

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪Exercises on Collocations‬‬

‫‪I.‬‬ ‫‪Render the following sentences into English paying special attention to the‬‬
‫‪underlined collocations:‬‬

‫‪ .1‬تنفذ الحكومة العديد من المشروعات القومية التي تسهم في القضاء على البطالة‪.‬‬

‫‪ .2‬تعاني دول القارة األفريقية من اإلضطرابات السياسية و تبعات المديونية‪ ،‬باإلضافة إلى مشكالت‬

‫الحروب األهلية و المجاعات و الالجئين‪.‬‬

‫‪ .3‬يؤدي المدرسون أصعب الوظائف و يتقاضون أقل األجور‪.‬‬

‫‪ .4‬دخلت المشكلة القبرصية منعطفا جديدا مع اقتراب موعد انضمام قبرص لإلتحاد األوروبي في‬

‫ظل جهود التوصل إلى تسوية سياسية للجزيرة‪.‬‬

‫‪ .5‬لقد قتل موضوع اليأس القومي بحثا و أفاد الكثير من الكتاب بأن مجتمعنا أصبح مكبال بإحساس‬

‫عميق من اإلكتئاب الجماعي‪.‬‬

‫‪ .9‬أرسى القرآن الكريم مبدأ الشورى في قوله تعالى‪" :‬و أمركم شورى بينكم"‪.‬‬

‫‪ .1‬إن شعب مصر يعتز بأنه قد سطر صفحات رائعة في سجل الحضارة‪.‬‬

‫‪ .8‬يتحول القلق الطبيعي إلى قلق غير طبيعي عندما تشتد األعراض إلى درجة تمنعنا من التعايش‬

‫مع أنشطة الحياة اليومية ألنها مؤلمة جدا و محزنة‪.‬‬

‫‪ .6‬كيف يقف المجلس صامتا أمام حرب ضروس تدور رحاها أمام أعين المجلس‪.‬‬

‫‪ .11‬إن انتهاء حقبة الحرب الباردة و انزواء شبح الحرب النووية الذي ألقى بظالله ألكثر من أربعين‬

‫عاما‪ ،‬أفسح الطريق لما يسمى بالنظام العالمي الجديد‪.‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 50‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪Idioms‬‬

‫‪Idiom: A group of words in a fixed order that have a particular meaning, that is different‬‬
‫‪from the meanings of each word understood on its own: To “have bitten off more‬‬
‫‪than you can chew” is an idiom that means you have tried to do something which‬‬
‫‪is too difficult for you.‬‬

‫وهل يصلح العطار ما أفسده الدهر؟‬ ‫‪.1‬‬

‫الطبع يغلب التطبع‪.‬‬ ‫‪.2‬‬
‫كثرة الطباخين تفسد الطهي‪.‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬
‫عندما وجدت أنني سأواجهه إن عاجال أو آجال استجمعت شجاعتي‪.‬‬ ‫‪.4‬‬
‫وقف شامخا كالطود‪.‬‬ ‫‪.5‬‬
‫للماضي سطوته على اإلنسان المعاصر ألن الماضي هو الجوهر و الحداثة هي المظهر‪.‬‬ ‫‪.9‬‬
‫مصائب قوم عند قوم فوائد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬
‫ال جدوى من المراوغة‪.‬‬ ‫‪.8‬‬
‫ذهبت آماله أدراج الرياح‪.‬‬ ‫‪.6‬‬
‫الجمال في عين ناظره‪.‬‬ ‫‪.11‬‬
‫يضم السلك القضائي خيرة الناس‪.‬‬ ‫‪.11‬‬
‫ضربت المحكمة العسكرية عرض الحائط بالمبادئ األساسية للقانون المدني‪.‬‬ ‫‪.12‬‬
‫لقد حان الوقت لالستغناء عن األساليب التي عفا عليها الزمن‪.‬‬ ‫‪.13‬‬
‫إنه سعيد بأنه يقوم بدور ثانوي‪.‬‬ ‫‪.14‬‬
‫هو محط اإلعجاب‪.‬‬ ‫‪.15‬‬
‫إنه يوم سعيد في حياته‪.‬‬ ‫‪.19‬‬
‫و تأتي على قدر الكرام المكارم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.11‬‬
‫حماتك بتحبك‪.‬‬ ‫‪.18‬‬
‫الحي أبقى من الميت‪.‬‬ ‫‪.16‬‬
‫خدوا فالكوا من عيالكوا‪.‬‬ ‫‪.21‬‬
‫خيبة األمل راكبة جمل‪.‬‬ ‫‪.21‬‬
‫ذيل الكلب عمره ما يتعدل‪.‬‬ ‫‪.22‬‬
‫الرجل تدب مطرح ما تحب‪.‬‬ ‫‪.23‬‬
‫شيلني واشيلك‪.‬‬ ‫‪.24‬‬
‫عشمتني بالحلق خرمت أنا وداني‪.‬‬ ‫‪.25‬‬
‫يوم لك ويوم عليك‪.‬‬ ‫‪.29‬‬
‫من خاف سلم‬ ‫‪.21‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 51‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

What is a Fixed Expression? 3

To children, non-native English speakers, and anyone who confronts a fixed expression for
the first time, they can be baffling. A fixed expression is a little like a secret code that allows
access to a club that not everyone can enter. It’s a phrase that has a very specific meaning that
can’t be expressed any other way and also can’t be deduced just by considering the sum of its
parts. Some fixed expressions, like “ready, aim, fire” are used so often that the opportunity to
turn them into a joke creates another fixed expression. Others, such as “before you know it”
or “to tell you the truth” have been around for so long that they function almost as a single
word.

Unlike idioms, fixed expressions typically offer neither folk wisdom nor an image. “Two
heads are better than one” creates a bizarre, yet effective, visual idea of one body that
operates with two heads, while the idiom’s meaning is that two people working on a problem
have a better chance of solving it than just a single thinker. Fixed expressions are more often
a collection of words with individual meaning that really have nothing to do with one
another.
A fixed expression 4 in English is a standard form of expression that has taken on a more
specific meaning than the expression itself. It is different from a proverb in that it is used as a
part of a sentence, and is the standard way of expressing a concept or idea.
Examples include:

 all of a sudden
 come into mind
 fall in line
 I can assure you
 so to speak
 surf the web
 trinomials (3-word fixed expressions); e.g. "lights, camera, action", "signed, sealed,
delivered".
English uses a number of fixed expressions in everyday conversations and writing.

For example:

 I'm going to go come rain or shine. (Come rain or shine: "no matter whether it rains or
the sun shines; in any sort of weather")
 To tell you the truth, I don't enjoy going to parties. (To tell you the truth/To tell the
truth: "really; actually")

3
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-fixed-expression.htm
4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_expression

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 52

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Time: 30 minutes
I. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news
items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their
meaning is still unambiguous. The sentences include tenses and aspects
which are problematic in translation into Arabic. Write down the function of
the aspect followed by the appropriate translation of the sentences.
(Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .

II. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news
items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their
meaning is still unambiguous. The sentences include tenses and aspects
which are problematic in translation into English. Write down the function of
the aspect followed by the appropriate translation of the sentences.
(Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .

III. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news
items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their
meaning is still unambiguous. State the function of the conditional, and
translate into Arabic so that the function(s) is conveyed in the target
language.
(Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 53

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Five

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore the differences between the English and Arabic
adjectives, and how professional translators handle the differences. They will also
practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice versa.
Assessment 2 will be given in this session.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

render appropriately adjectives between Arabic and English.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating adjectives between English and Arabic.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 54

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Adjectives
Handout

Most adjectives and adjectives derived from nouns can be either attributive or predicative.
(a) Attributive: It comes before a noun.
(b) Predicative: It comes as complement after the following:
- Verb to be.
- Linking verbs: seem/ appear/ become.
- Verbs of senses: look/ smell/ taste/ feel.
- Verbs of continuity: keep/ remain/ stay.
- Verbs of opinion: think/ believe/ consider.
- Verbs of change: grow/ turn.

When translating adjectives pay due attention to the following:

 N.B. Some attributive adjectives appear after nouns.
 N.B. Nouns of measurements occur after nouns.
 N.B. Some adjectives can be used as both attributive and predicative, yet with a
difference in meaning.
 N.B. Position of participial adjectives may change the meaning.

 U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has called on the leaders of Bahrain not to use
violence against civilians and journalists.
‫دعا السكرتير العام لألمم المتحدة بان كى مون زعماء دولة البحرين إلى عدم إستخدام العنف ضد‬
.‫المدنيين والصحفيين‬

 Since Martelly became the President elect back in April, he has fought to put a properly
functioning government.
‫منذ أن أصبح هو الرئيس المنتخب فى إبريل الماضى ناضل مارتللى من أجل إنشاء حكومة تعمل على‬
.‫نحو جيد‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 55

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

.‫ يبلغ متوسط عمق البحيرة تقريبا أربعة عشر قدما و نصف‬

The average depth of the lake is approximately 14.5 feet deep.

.‫ كيلو مترا‬163 ‫ يبلغ طول قناة السويس‬

The Suez Canal is 163 kilometers long.

 All the present members of the Egyptian parliament attended the session.
‫قام جميع االعضاء الحاليين بمجلس الشعب المصرى بحضور الجلسة‬
.
 The members present at the board meeting are very few.
‫عدد األعضاء الحاضرين فى اجتماع مجلس اإلدارة قليل جدا‬
.
Try to translate the following examples
 I was certain that she would be the perfect choice for the movie.
 There are certain circumstances where deceit is permissible.

 This smiling man over there is my boss.

 This man smiling over there is my boss.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 56

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

The Royal Order of Adjectives

An opinion adjective explains what you think about something (other people may
Opinion not agree with you). Examples:
silly, beautiful, horrible, difficult

A size adjective, of course, tells you how big or small something is. Examples:
Size
large, tiny, enormous, little

An age adjective tells you how young or old something or someone is. Examples:
Age
ancient, new, young, old

A shape adjective describes the shape of something. Examples:

Shape
square, round, flat, rectangular

A colour adjective, of course, describes the colour of something. Examples:

Colour
blue, pink, reddish, grey

An origin adjective describes where something comes from. Examples:

Origin
French, lunar, American, eastern, Greek

A material adjective describes what something is made from. Examples:

Material
wooden, metal, cotton, paper

A purpose adjective describes what something is used for. These adjectives often
Purpose end with "-ing". Examples:
sleeping (as in "sleeping bag"), roasting (as in "roasting tin")

Try to translate the following examples:

‫ أود شراء سيارة أمريكية زرقاء جديدة و جميلة‬
.‫ أهديت زوجتى خاتم ماسى بلجيكى عتيق غاية فى الجمال‬
 Genitive with adjective construction:
Ex.: Helen's big car was stolen
‫ (هل السييارة هيي الكبييرة أم هيليين‬It is ambiguous in Arabic ‫* تعرضت سيارة هيلين الكبيرة للسرقة‬
)‫هي الكبيرة‬
.‫ تعرضت السيارة الكبيرة التي تمتلكها هيلين للسرقة‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 57

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Verbless adjective clause

An adjective can function as a verbless clause (a part of a sentence without a verb)
Ex.:
 Long and untidy, his hair played in the breeze.
.‫تطاير شعره في النسيم وقد بدا طويال غير مصفف وبال عناية‬
 Anxious for a quick decision, the chairman called for a vote.
‫دعا الرئيس الي التصويت وقد بدا عليه رغبة ملحة في التوصل الي قرار سريع‬
‫أو‬
.‫ طالب بالتصويت علي تلك المسألة‬,‫لما كان الرئيس في عجلة من أمره للوصول لقرار سريع‬
 Numerous adjectives qualifying one noun may pose a difficulty in translation.
 The broken lock of the steel safe door drew his attention at once.
The broken lock of the door )‫* القفل المكسور للباب (ركيكة‬
‫( القفل هو المكسور أم الباب هو المكسور‬ambiguous) ‫* قفل الباب المكسور‬
.‫* القفل المكسور المثبت في الباب (جذب انتباهه علي الفور القفل المحطم المثبت بباب الخزانة الحديدية‬

*********

Compound Adjectives
They are made up of two more words, normally with a hyphen between them. They have got
several patterns:
 Adj/Adv + Past Participle
Ex. empty-handed, old-fashioned, open-minded, well mannered
You can travel to the ends of the earth but you will come back empty-handed.
 Adj/Adv/Noun + Present Participle
Ex. good-looking, long-lasting, mouth-watering
The banquet we have been invited for was really mouth-watering.
 Noun + Past Participle
Ex. sun-dried, tongue-tied
While he was addressing the European parliament for the first time, he became
somewhat tongue-tied.
 Noun + Adjective
Ex. trouble-free, lead-free
If you want trouble-free motoring, make sure you use lead-free gas.
 Cardinal Number+ Singular Noun
Ex. Three-hour, twenty-page
You should finish reading this twenty-page article by the weekend.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 58

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Modifiers
Definition:
A word, phrase, or clause that limits or qualifies the sense of another word or word group. A
content word that qualifies the meaning of a noun or verb.
(American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language)
Definition of Compounding:
Any combination of two or more parts, aspects, etc
(Collins English Dictionary)
Section (1)
Compound noun:
A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Most compound nouns in
English are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives.

Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words:-
Noun + Noun toothpaste
Adjective + Noun monthly ticket
Verb + Noun swimming pool
Preposition + Noun underground
Noun + Verb haircut
Noun + Preposition hanger on
Adjective + Verb dry-cleaning
Preposition + Verb output

www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nouncompound.htm
Examples:
1. Road Accident Research Center
2. Furniture Factory Pay Cut Riot
3. The Convention Refugee Definition
4. Cambridge University Press Conference

A compound noun is a noun + noun combination characterized by a primary-tertiary stress

pattern in which the second element is the head of the construction and the first element is a
kind of modifier. Hence, contrary to what we may feel the meaning relationship should be
from right to left.

English Teaching Forum, Volume X, May-June, 1972 #3

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 59

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Section (2)
The order of adjectives may change the meaning
His last great novel ‫آخر ما كتب من روائع‬
His great last novel ‫روايته األخيرة العظيمة‬

Section (3)
If we have a Noun+Noun construction in English, and it is possible to have an adjective
derived from the same noun and both are acceptable, this means that the Noun+Noun has a
singular meaning and the Adj+Noun has a plural meaning.

Division Approval Divisional Approval

‫موافقة القسم‬ ‫موافقة األقسام‬
Program Funding Programmatic Funding
‫تمويل البرنامج‬ ‫تمويل البرامج‬
Program Planning Programmatic Planning
)‫التخطيط للبرنامج (تخطيط البرنامج‬ )‫التخطيط للبرامج (تخطيط البرامج‬
Institution Development Institutional Development
‫تنمية المؤسسة‬ ‫تنمية المؤسسات‬

Section (4)
Participles with different meanings
If we have a gerund + noun preceded by the verb to be we have two possible ways for
interpretation:

a) Verb to be may be the main verb, and in this case what follows the verb to be constitutes a
compound noun. The pause will be after the verb to be.
b) The main verb is the gerund, that is used in the progressive form and in this case we can
only have a pause after the –ing form.
1- They are moving vans.
‫ إنها سيارات نقل لألثاث‬-
‫ إنهم يحركون العربات‬-
2- They are washing machines.
‫ إنها غساالت‬-
‫ إنهم يغسلون اآلالت‬-
3- They are visiting professors.
‫ إنهم أساتذة زائرون‬-
‫ إنهم يزورون األساتذة‬-

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 60

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Section (5)
Number of modifiers
If we have a noun+noun preceded by an adjective, this construction may be ambiguous.
1- French Language Conference
‫ مؤتمر اللغة الفرنسية‬-
)‫ المؤتمر الفرنسى للغة (للغات‬-
2- New Gas Station
‫ المحطة الجديدة للوقود‬-
‫ محطة الوقود الجديدة‬-
3- Foreign Car Dealers
‫ تجار السيارات المستوردة‬-
‫ التجار األجانب للسيارات‬-
4- Economic Planning Council
‫ مجلس التخطيط االقتصادى‬-
‫ المجلس االقتصادى للتخطيط‬-

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 61

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Adjectives PowerPoint

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 62

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 63

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 64

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Adjectives …. Exercises

1. By this marriage, they are attempting to put some form of stability into the most
dysfunctional royal family in the world.
2. The former Egyptian governments failed to provide proper medical care for the seniors.
3. Purifiers have been affected by radiation in Tokyo city proper and 5 suburban districts.
4. They have also done little to change the perception that his family, the Grimaldi dynasty,
is one of the most troubled royal households in Europe.
5. His long-running bachelorhood has been a major cause for concern in Monaco.
6. Early attempts at flight are the subject of much debate.

.‫ هو طريق مصر لتنمية السياحة‬،‫ نجوم ذات السمعة الطيبة‬5 ‫ إن بناء عدد كبير من الفنادق‬.7
.‫ أصبح المصريون بعد الثورة أكثر انفتاحا ً للنقاش‬.8
.‫ متر‬8848 ‫ تعد قمة إفرست أعلى قمة جبلية فى العالم ويبلغ ارتفاعها‬.9
.‫ ستستمر فترة التدريب حتى آخر أسبوعين من شهر أغسطس القادم‬.11
‫ أنها وقعت على صفقة بقيمة‬،‫ رابع أكبر شركة لإلنشاء في كوريا الجنوبية‬،‫ أعلنت دايوو للهندسة‬.11
.‫ مليون دوالر لبناء فندق في كوااللمبور‬191
.‫ هذا الشخص بعينه هو الذى طالما حلمنا به رئيسا لنا‬.12
.‫ تحتاج البالد إلى سياسى محنك يتمتع بقدر كبير من الثقافة‬.13

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 65

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Study the following compound and adjective + noun constructions into Arabic:

1 Management Information System ‫نظام معلومات اإلدارة‬

(MIS)
2 Divisional Approval ‫موافقة األقسام‬
3 Institution Development ‫ تطوير المؤسسة‬/‫تنمية‬
4 Time Management ‫ تنظيم الوقت‬/‫إدارة الوقت‬
5 Progress Report ‫تقرير سير العمل‬
6 Core Programs ‫ رئيسة‬/ ‫برامج أساسية‬
7 Experience Exchange Program ‫ الخبرة‬/‫برنامج تبادل الخبرات‬
8 Change Management ‫إدارة عملية التغيير‬
9 Concept paper ‫ورقة مفهوم‬
10 Donor Countries ‫البلدان المانحة‬
11 Institutional Development ‫تنمية المؤسسات‬
12 Development agencies )‫وكاالت تنمية (التى تعمل فى مجال التنمية‬
13 Needs Assessment Survey ‫مسح تحديد االحتياجات‬
14 Mother and Child Care ‫رعاية األمومة و الطفولة‬
15 Community Participation ‫مشاركة شعبية‬
16 Programmatic activities ‫أنشطة البرامج‬
17 Teaching hospital ‫مستشفى تعليمى‬
18 Laser Printer User ‫مستخدم الطابعة الليزر‬
19 Professional Traditions ‫ المهنة‬/‫عادات مهنية‬
20 Inter-Agency Coordination ‫ بين مختلف األجهزة‬/ ‫تنسيق بين األجهزة‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 66

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

1. MOE staff ‫العاملون بوزارة التربية و التعليم‬

2. Local Community Development ‫جمعية تنمية المجتمع المحلى‬
Association

3. Training program ‫ برنامج تدريبى‬/‫برنامج التدريب‬

4. Organizational Development ‫تنمية المنظمات‬
5. Small Local Voluntary Organizations ‫منظمات تطوعية محلية صغيرة‬
6. Individual and Organizational ‫تنظيم شئون األفراد و المؤسسات‬
Management

7. Practical Operation ‫تشغيل عملى‬

8. Management Structure ‫ هيكل اإلدارة‬/‫هيكل التنظيم‬
9. Business or Government ‫منظمات تجارية أو حكومية‬
Organizations

10. Religious Institution ‫مؤسسة دينية‬

11. Religion Education ‫التربية الدينية‬
12. Development Agencies ‫وكاالت تنمية‬
13. Participatory Planning ‫تخطيط قائم على المشاركة‬
14. Strategic Management ‫تنظيم ستراتيجى‬
15. Guidelines ‫إرشادات‬
16. Decision-making ‫صنع القرار‬
17. Decision-taking ‫اتخاذ القرار‬
18. Financial Management ‫تنظيم الشئون المالية‬
19. Trust Fund ‫صندوق االستئمان‬
20. Fund-raising ‫جمع األموال‬
21. Conflict Resolution ‫حل الصراع‬
22. Community Participation ‫مشاركة شعبية‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 67

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

23. Staff Development ‫تنمية العاملين‬

24. Loan Coordinator ‫منسق القروض‬
25. Time Management ‫ تنظيم الوقت‬/ ‫إدارة الوقت‬
26. Personnel Management ‫ العاملين‬/‫تنظيم شئون األفراد‬
27. Water Project ‫مشروع مياه‬
28. Problem Solving Exercise ‫التدريب على حل المشكالت‬
29. Preschool Programs ‫برامج ما قبل المدرسة‬
30. Program Management Skills ‫مهارات إدارة البرنامج‬
31. Program Needs ‫احتياجات البرنامج‬
32. Staff Development ‫تطوير شئون العاملين‬
33. Proposal and Report Writing ‫كتابة المقترحات و التقارير‬
34. Programmatic Funding ‫تمويل البرامج‬
35. Organizational Funding ‫تمويل المنظمات‬
36. Core Funding ‫ تمويل األساس‬/‫تمويل أساسى‬
37. Administration Costs ‫تكاليف اإلدارة‬
38. Telephone Calls ‫مكالمات هاتفية‬
39. Governorate Level ‫مستوى المحافظة‬
40. Pre-program Systems ‫أنظمة ما قبل البرنامج‬
41. Monitoring System ‫ متابعة‬/‫نظام مراقبة‬
42. Monthly Health Committee Meetings ‫اجتماعات لجنة الصحة الشهرية‬
43. Membership Fees Account ‫حساب رسوم العضوية‬
44. Funding Proposal ‫طلب تمويل‬
45. Communication System ‫نظام اإلتصاالت‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 68

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

46. Performance Appraisal ‫ استمارة تقييم األداء‬/‫ارشادات‬

Form/Guidelines

47. Key Accountabilities ‫مسئوليات رئيسة‬

48. Key Processes ‫عمليات رئيسة‬
49. Work Flow ‫تدفق العمل‬
50. Performance Development Plan ‫خطة تنمية األداء‬
51. Overall Performance Rating ‫التقدير العام لألداء‬
‫تقدير األداء العام‬
52. Inter-rater Reliability ‫إمكاية اإلعتماد على التقييم الصادر عن أكثر من‬
‫مقيم‬
53. Work Assignments ‫مهام العمل‬
54. Team-building ‫بناء الفريق‬
55. Change Management ‫إدارة التغيير‬
56. Management Change ‫تغيير اإلدارة‬
57. Village Leadership ‫قادة القرية‬
58. Committee Members ‫أعضاء اللجنة‬
59. Professional Organization ‫منظمة مهنية‬
60. Volunteer Staff ‫العاملين المتطوعين‬
61. Wider Community Participation ‫مشاركة شعبية أوسع‬
62. Income Generation Programs ‫برامج توليد الدخل‬
63. Income Supplementation Programs ‫برامج تدعيم الدخل‬
64. Strategic management and Planning ‫التنظيم االستراتيجى و التخطيط‬
65. Financial Management and Funding ‫التنظيم المالى و التمويل‬
66. Decision-making Structures and ‫هياكل صنع القرار و قيادته‬
Leadership

67. Membership Criteria ‫ شروط العضوية‬/‫معايير‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 69

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

68. Current Membership ‫العضوية الحالية‬

69. Some Fund-raising Successes and )‫بعض أمثلة فى نجاحات و إخفاقات فى (عملية‬
Failures ‫جمع األموال‬
70. Job Description/ Analysis ‫ وصف الوظيفة‬/‫تحليل‬
71. A Special Major Business Goal ‫هدف تجارى رئيسى خاص‬
72. Quality Management Systems ‫متطلبات أنظمة إدارة الجودة‬
Requirements

73. Family of Standards ‫مجموعة من المعايير‬

74. Transition Planning Guidance ‫اإلرشاد عن تخطيط لعملية االنتقال‬
75. Guidance on the Documentation ‫إرشاد عن متطلبات التوثيق‬
Requirements

76. General Information on Structure ‫معلومات عامة عن البنية (الهيكل) و برنامج العمل‬
and Work Program

77. Links to related password-protected ‫روابط لمواقع عامة متصلة ببعضها البعض و‬
and public websites ‫محمية بكلمة مرور‬
78. A list of organizations ‫قائمة بالمنطمات‬
79. Summary of pages ‫ملخص الصفحات‬
80. Title Page ‫صفحة العنوان‬
81. Forward Page )‫صفحة المقدمة (صفحة كلمة التصدير‬
82. Water's Project ‫مشروع السيد واتر‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 70

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Time: 40 minutes
I. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news
items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their
meaning is still unambiguous. Translate the following sentences into Arabic
paying attention to affixation.
(Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .

II. Translate the following phrases into English using affixation. (Suggested
time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .

III. Translate the following phrases into English using the appropriate
collocations. (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .

IV. Translate the following sentences into Arabic pay attention to the meaning of
the adjectival phrase(s). (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 71

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Six

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore the differences between the English and Arabic
adverbs and adverbial phrases, and how professional translators handle the
differences. They will also practice different translation techniques from English
into Arabic and vice versa.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- contrast adverbs and adverbial phrases in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately adverbs and adverbial phrases from English into Arabic and
vice versa.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating adverbs and adverbial phrases.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 72

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Adverbs … Handout

Adverbs can be translated into Arabic either syntactically or lexically

EX. The wind blew fiercely. ‫ هبت الرياح هبوبا عنيفا‬/ ‫عصفت الرياح‬

How do we translate ''adverbs'' into Arabic?

‫الحال – المفعول المطلق – المفعول ألجله – المفعول معه – ظرف الزمان والمكان‬

Adverbs in English
- Manner: How something happens
- Degree: To what extent Ex.: She is totally insane.
- Frequency: How often something happens. Ex.: She occasionally visits her hometown.
- Time: When something happens Ex.: lately, recently.
- Place: Where something happens Ex.: here, there
- Intensifying: Make things stronger or weaker Ex.: I am really sick of indifferent people.

Form
A large number of adverbs are formed by adding -ly to their adjectives.
(Ex.: completely, haphazardly )
There are exceptions such as:
 (good → well)

 Adverbs whose adjectives end in -ly

(Ex.: friendly, likely, lonely… etc.)

In this case, adverbs can be formed by (in a + adj. + way / manner / fashion).

Some problematic issues when translating Adverbs

1- Some adverbs have different meanings from those of their adjectives:
- U.S. president's speech has been received coldly in Germany.
- The Turkish prime minister welcomed the Egyptian delegation so warmly.

2- Some adverbs have the same form as their adjectives:

- We have never received a straight answer from the Navy regarding his mysterious
disappearance.
- We'll go straight to the jewelry store where I have see a perfect ring for my
engagement.
- Turn right on County Road 130 and follow signs to Eldora.
- You were right when you accused him of treason.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 73

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

3- Some pairs of adverbs are closely related but have different meanings :
Compare:
- They really worked hard to finish the project on time.
- I hardly know him.
- He hardly ever attends the board meeting.

Position of adverbs
Adverbs of Manner
1. They usually come after the verb

He behaved foolishly.
OR after the object if there is one
She answered him reluctantly
(NEVER put an adverb between verb and object)

2. If we have verb + preposition + object the adverb can occur either before the preposition
or after the object

He looked at me suspiciously. OR He looked suspiciously at me.

Note: If the object is long, the adverb comes before the preposition.
He looked suspiciously at everyone who laughed.

3. With phrases or clauses, the position of the adverb changes the meaning. If it is placed
after the clause or phrase, it is normally considered to modify the verb in that clause or
phrase.

COMPARE:
*They secretly decided to leave the town. (the decision was secret)
*They decided to secretly leave the town. (the departure was secret)

Adverbs of Time
They are usually placed at the very beginning OR the very end of the clause
Eventually, he decided to put an end to his bachelorhood and get married.
OR
He decided to put an end to his bachelorhood and get married eventually.

Adverbs of Frequency
They are normally placed:
 After the simple tense of (to be)

He is always in time for dinner.

 Before the simple tenses of all other verbs

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 74

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

They sometimes stay up all night.

 With compound tenses, they are placed after the first auxiliary

He will never understand.

Adverbs of Degree
 An adverb of degree modifies adjectives or another adverb.

You are absolutely right.

 Only modifies verbs. It is placed next to the word to which it applies.

Sign here, only.

Only, sign here.
 Just precedes the word it qualifies.

I’ll buy just one .

I’ll just buy one.

Order of adverbs when they occur in the same sentence

Expressions of Manner usually precede expressions of place.
He climbed awkwardly out of the wind.
Note that: (away, back, down, forward, home, in, off, on, out, around, and up) usually
precede adverbs of manner .
He walked away sadly.
Time expressions can follow adverbs of manner and place.
They worked hard in the garden today.
They can also be in the front.
Everyday he queued patiently at the bus stop.

Notice that:
Verbs (go, put, last) need adverbs of manner/ place/ time in this order.
 Put it away now (correct)
 Put it now away (incorrect)
 Let's go to bed early (correct)
 Let's go early to bed (incorrect)

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 75

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Notice that:
Some words can be used as either adjectives or adverbs. An exception to this is the adverb of
manner ‘well’ which is also used as an adjective meaning ‘healthy’. ‘Well’ here is unrelated
to the adjective ‘good’.
COMPARE:
*I hope you are well (adjective)
. ‫ عساك بخير‬/ ‫عساك بصحة جيدة‬
* He did well on the exam (adverb)
.‫أحسن في أداءه لالمتحان‬
In the first example, well is a predicate adjective modifying the pronoun "you". In the
second example, on the other hand it is an adverb of manner modifying the verb "did".
Notice that:
''Perhaps'' occurring initially means 'hope' and not possibility.
Perhaps he has found her.
‫ أرجو أن يكون قد وجدها‬/‫ عساه‬/‫لعله‬
''Perhaps'' occurring in mid position can be understood to mean 'possibly'.
He has perhaps found her.
‫ ربما يكون وجدها‬/ ‫ قد‬/ ‫من المحتمل‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 76

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫المفعول المطلق‪ -‬المفعول ألجله – المفعول معه – ظرف الزمان والمكان – الحال → ‪An adverb‬‬

‫المفعول المطلق‬
‫*قد يفيد تأكيد المعنى (حرثنا األرض حرثا ‪)We did plough the earth‬‬
‫* وقد يفيد بيان عدد مرات حدوث الفعل (دقت الساعة دقتين‪) The clock struck twice‬‬
‫* وقد يفيد بيان نوع الفعل (قاتل جنودنا قتاال بطوليا ‪)Our soldiers fought heroically‬‬

‫المفعول ألجله‬
‫يبين سبب حدوث الفعل‬
‫* قمت إكراما ألبي ‪I stood up to honor my father‬‬
‫*" وال تقتلوا أوالدكم خشية إمالق" ”‪“Don’t kill your children for fear of poverty‬‬

‫المفعول معه‬
‫يدل على شئ حدث الفعل بمصاحبته‬
‫*سافرنا وطلوع الفجر ‪We left at dawn‬‬
‫* سرت والنهر ‪I walked along the river‬‬

‫ظرف الزمان والمكان‬

‫‪I'll meet you in the evening.‬ألقاك مساء *‬
‫‪I'll meet you under the tree.‬ألقاك تحت الشجرة *‬

‫الحال‬
‫يذكر لبيان هيئة اسم يسبقه‬
‫*عاد الجيش منتصرا ‪The army returned victorious‬‬
‫*رأيت أخاك راكضا ‪I saw your brother running‬‬
‫*علموا أوالدكم صغارا ‪Teach your children while they are still young‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 77‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 78

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 79

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 80

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Adverbs … Exercises

Adverbs:
1. Wives only go for physical violence when they reach a state of explosion
and can no longer control themselves.
2. The journalists saw a completely destroyed building with a crescent sign at
its entrance.
3. Perhaps the past is better left untold or unwritten.
4. He said the recordings could easily be accessed when the memory card is
inserted in a computer.
5. Doctors, emergency workers and the police are the only people who have a
right to examine the patients and determine if they are dead or not.
6. The only actor to win an Oscar posthumously was Peter Finch.
7. While some patients can be adequately cared for at home, others are best
served by care in a hospital.
8. It was only reluctantly, under pressure from its lower ranks, that the Muslim
Brotherhood participated in last Friday's massive demonstrations.
9. I looked wistfully into the street we had lately quitted, and after a time
directed my steps that way.
10. Applications sent by fax or email or any that arrive late will not be accepted
so always be aware of the deadline!
.‫ وزير النقل يزور المترو فجاة ويستمع لشكاوى الركاب‬.1
.‫ بدا عليها انها تجيب على األسئلة كرها‬.2
.‫ قاموا بتهديده اما التنحى طواعية او مجبرا‬.3
.‫ ظل ينظر لنا مندهشا ولم ينطق ببنت شفه‬.4
.‫ لم يكن خطأى وحدى‬:‫ نظرت الى وجهه المخيف متوجسا قائال‬.5

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 81

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Seven

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore the differences between the English and Arabic
sentence connectors, and how professional translators handle the differences. They
will also practice rendering punctuation between English and Arabic.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- contrast sentence connectors in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately sentence connectors from English into Arabic and vice versa.
- render punctuation appropriately between English and Arabic.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating sentence connectors.

- Controlled practice on translation punctuation devices in English and Arabic.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 82

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation in Arabic is less systematic than punctuation in English. Ahmad Zaki Pasha was
the one to introduce punctuation marks to Arabic in 1913. Traditionally Arabic had no
punctuation whatsoever. Even where punctuation exists, the conventions for Arabic are less
standardized than those of English. The basic punctuation marks such as the comma, period,
question and exclamation marks are deleted or substituted by Arabic lexical insertions.
Hence, in such cases when translating Arabic texts into English one has to realign meaning
and supply the missing punctuation marks.

 The Comma (,):

* It is used to separate items in a series. In British English, it is not usually used with
'and' between the last two items unless these are long.

e.g. Lunch consisted of pasta, Greek salad, and steak.

* It is used before and after a phrase in apposition or contrasting expressions.

e.g. Jean, Tom's sister, left for the UK.

e.g. He changed his style, not his ethics.

* It is used to mark off non-restrictive modifiers, which are not absolutely necessary to
the main idea of the sentence. However, if the modifiers are internally punctuated or
cause an abrupt break in the rhythm of the sentence, they are usually set off by
dashes or parentheses. It can never be used before 'that' since 'that' always denotes
essential elements.

e.g. The girl, who has just come in, is my new neighbor.

e.g. Three boats-one with an outboard and two with inboard motors- were tied to the
dock.
* It is used to separate coordinate adjectives when the conjunction is omitted. To
determine whether or not the adjectives are coordinate, a conjunction 'and'/'but' could
be inserted between the words in question. If the construction sounds right (e.g. calm
and clear water) a comma is needed. On the other hand, if the construction sounds
awkward (e.g. the hot midday sun) a comma is not required.

e.g. The boy was young, eager, and restless.

*It is used to set off long numbers, names, and items in dates.

e.g. On Sunday, June 23, 1940, he was wounded.

e.g. Number 10 Downing Street, London, is famous.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 83

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

e.g. Shreveport, Louisiana, is the site of a large air base.

* It is used to separate two independent clauses joined by: 'for', 'and', 'nor', 'or', 'but',
'yet', and 'so'. However, a comma is not used if the subject is omitted in the second
independent clause.

e.g. She likes cheese cake, but her husband prefers Brownies.

e.g. I will call the plumber or fix it myself.

 The Semicolon (;) :

* It is used to link independent clause not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

However, it is not used if the relationship between the clauses may not be easily
inferred.

e.g. He went to Paris; it delighted me.

* It is used to separate items in a series if they are unusually long, or internally

punctuated.

e.g. Members of the crew were Tom, a geologist; Hector, a draftsman; and Jan; a
student.

* It is used to link independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs (thus, hence,

however, therefore, furthermore, moreover, consequently, nevertheless, etc.)

e.g. Speeding is illegal; furthermore, it is dangerous.

 The Colon (:) :

* It is used to introduce a clause or phrase that explains, amplifies, illustrates, or

restates what has gone before.

e.g. The sentence was poorly constructed: it lacked both cohesion and coherence.

* It directs attention to an appositive.

e.g. He had only one pleasure: eating.

* It is used to introduce a series.

e.g. Your essay will be judged according to three criteria: spelling, grammar, and
style.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 84

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

* It used when the introductory clause ends in the expressions 'the following' or 'as
follows'. But it is not used when the clause ends in expressions such as 'including',
'like', 'such as', consists of', etc.

e.g. The contestants prepared the following kinds of dishes: pizza, pasta, and
goulash.

e.g. The contestants prepared various dishes such as pizza, pasta, and goulash.

* It is used to emphasize a point that merits attention.

e.g. A poor homeless child was arrested: he was merely watching the demonstrators.

 The Dash (_-_):

* It is stronger than a comma, less formal than a colon, and more relaxed than
parentheses.

* It is used to give extra emphasis.

e.g. The only thing can do _ if he can do anything at all _ is yell out.

* It is used to mark an abrupt change or break in the continuity of a sentence or clause.

e.g. But_ But you did_ wait, what? Stammered Jane.

* It is used to introduce a summary statement that follows a series of words or phrases.

e.g. Jane, Allen, and I _ were all taken by surprise.

 Parentheses ():

* They are used other than the dash or comma to enclose words or figures that clarify
showing that what is enclosed is of less importance or emphasis.

e.g. He finally answered (after taking a few minutes to think) that he did not hear the
question.
* They are used at first mention of an organization when both its abbreviation and
spelled out form are enclosed.

e.g. Palo Alto Research Centre (better known as PARC) is doing a great job.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 85

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

 Brackets []:

* They are used to include explanatory words or phrases.

e.g. Messi, the soccer player [a team member of Barcelona] is a great front striker.

* They are used to clarify a reference when quoting a sentence with a pronoun
referring to a word in another non-quoted sentence. The pronoun is to be deleted in
this case.

e.g. Elephants bark, snort, trumpet, and rumble. "According to Payne, many
[elephant rumbles] are below the human range of hearing".

 The Hyphen (-):

* It is used to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun.

e.g. It is a well-built house.

* It is used to avoid awkward or misleading combinations of letters or syllables with

prefixes and suffixes.

e.g. Semi-retired/ runner-up

* It is used to suspend the first part of a hyphenated compound when used with another
hyphenated compound.

e.g. good-for-nothing/ know-it-all.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 86

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫عالمات الترقيم‬

‫عالمات الترقيم‪ 5‬ليست أصيلة في اللغة العربية؛ بل قام بإدخالها أحمد ذكي باشا الملقب بشيخ العروبة‬
‫عام ‪ .1913‬ويقول أنه أخذها نقال عن أرسطو؛ ومن ثم فال عجب أن نجد خال ًفا كبيرً ا على مستوى‬
‫االستخدام بين المحررين والكتاب في شأن االصطالح على مواضعها‪ ،‬وكيفية استخدام هذه العالمات‬
‫وإدراجها بين ثنايا النص‪ .‬ويتمثل الهدف في استخدام هذه العالمات في تمثيل الطبيعة الصوتية للنص‬
‫المك توب حتى يتمكن القارئ من قراءته على نحو سليم‪ ،‬فيستطيع القارئ أن يحدد متى يقف وقفة لطيفة؛‬
‫ومتى يأخذ نفسًا عمي ًقا؛ وأين يعلو بنبرة الصوت؛ وأين يخفضها؛ ليس هذا فحسب؛ بل ماذا عُطف على‬
‫ماذا؟ وأين بداية الجملة وأين خاتمتها؟ وهي من ثم تمثل أهمية كبيرة في الوقوف على مقصد الكالم‬
‫ومعناه ورفع اللبس‪ ،‬وهى ذات أهمية للمحررين في محطات البث اإلذاعي والتلفزيوني‪ ،‬حتى يتمكن‬
‫قارئ النشرة أو التحليل اإلخباري من اإلتيان بالقراءة المهنية الدقيقة‪ .‬وفيما يلي عالمات الترقيم وشرح‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫الستخداماتها‪:‬‬

‫وأشهر عالمات الترقيم هي‪:7‬‬

‫‪ .1‬النقطة (‪).‬‬

‫وتوضع في نهاية الجملة التامة المعنى‪ .‬وتعبر عن وقف طويل‪ ،‬وتوضع في نهاية الفقرة أو المقطع‬
‫وكما توضع في نهاية البحث أو الموضوع المكتوب‪.‬‬
‫‪ُ -‬ت ْك َتبُ الهمزة في آخر الكلمة منفردة إذا جاءت بعد ساكن ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .2‬ال َفاصِ لَ ُة أو الشولة (‪)،‬‬

‫َت ُدل ُّ على َو ْق ٍ‬

‫ف قصير‪َ ،‬ب ْينَ َم َعاني ا ْلج ّملة لتمييز أجزاء الكالم بعضه عن بعض‪ ،‬وهي أكثر عالمات‬
‫الترقيم استعماالً في الكتابة ‪ ،‬ومن مواضعها‪:‬‬
‫*بين الجمل المترابطة وأشباه الجمل‪ ،‬مثل‪:‬‬
‫ُ‬ ‫ٌ‬
‫وكان التلّميذ َيحبُّ استاذه‪َ ،‬وي ِ‬
‫ُالزمُه َو َي ْخ ِدمُه ‪.‬‬ ‫َ‬ ‫تلميذ ذكيٌ‪ ،‬يُح ّب ُه كثيراً‪،‬‬ ‫لبعض األطباء‬
‫ِ‬ ‫‪ -‬كان‬

‫* بين الشرط والجواب‪ ،‬مثل‪:‬‬

‫‪ -‬إن كانوا قليالً‪ ،‬فأنت أوثقهم‪ ،‬وإن كانوا واحداً‪ ،‬فأنت هو‪.‬‬

‫* بعد المنادى‪ ،‬مثل‪:‬‬

‫الشار ِع‪.‬‬
‫ِ‬ ‫‪ -‬يا سامرُ‪ ،‬سِ رْ على رصيف‬
‫ّارةِ‪ ،‬ال ُتسْ ِرعْ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬يا سائ َِق ال َّسي َ‬
‫‪ -‬يا أبي‪ ،‬ع ُْد إلَي ْنا‪.‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫النحرير في صناعة التحرير لمحمود حامد الشريف‪ ،2111 ،‬دار األهرام للنشر والترجمة والتوزيع‬

‫‪6‬‬
‫‪http://www.alazhar.gov.eg/forum.aspx?g=posts&t=3603‬‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪http://www.schoolarabia.net/arabic/punctuation/punctuation_1.htm‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 87‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫* بين أنواع الشيء وأقسامه‪ ،‬مثل‪:‬‬

‫‪ -‬المؤمنون ثالثة‪ :‬واحد مشغول بآخرته‪ ،‬وآخر مشغول بدنياه‪ ،‬وثالث جمع بين الدنيا واآلخرة‪.‬‬
‫للقائل على السامع ثالث‪ :‬جمع البال‪ ،‬والكتمان‪ ،‬وبسط العذر‪.‬‬

‫‪ .1‬الفصلة المنقوطة (؛)‬

‫ويقف القارئ عندها وقفة أطول من وقفته على الفاصلة بقليل‪ ،‬وتجيء هذه العالمة في الغالب بين‬
‫جملتين تكون إحداهما سببا ً في األخرى‪ ،‬أو بين الجمل الطويلة التي يتألف من مجموعها كالم مفيد‪،‬‬
‫وذلك ليتمكن القارئ من االستراحة والتنفس بين هذه الجمل‪.‬‬

‫العرب ُتك ّنيها أ ُ َّم الندامة؛ ألن صاحِبها يقو ُل ق ْب َل أن َيعْ لَ َم‪ ،‬ويُجيبُ قبل أن َي ْفه َم‬
‫َ‬ ‫والع َجلَة‪ ،‬فإن‬
‫‪ -‬إياك َ‬
‫‪ -‬فُصِ ل الموظف من عمله؛ أل َّن ُه مُهملٌ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .4‬النقطتان العموديتان (‪):‬‬

‫وتوضعان بعد القول‪ ،‬وقبل األمثلة التي توضح فكرة أو قاعدة وهي عالمة وقف متوسط‪،‬‬
‫تستعمل في التوضيح‪ ،‬لتمييز ما بعدهما عما قبلهما و ُتوضع النقطتان الرأسيتان‪:‬‬

‫* َب ْعدَ ف ِْع ِل ال َق ْو ِل‬

‫‪ -‬قال حكي ٌم‪ :‬اإلتحاد قوة‪.‬‬

‫* عند إعراب الجمل‪.‬‬

‫مثل‪ :‬العمل مقدس‬

‫العمل‪ :‬مبتدأ مرفوع بالضمة‬

‫مقدسٌ ‪ :‬خبر مرفوع بالضمة‬

‫* بين الشيء وأقسامه (التفصيل بعد اإلجمال)‬

‫‪ -‬أصابع اليد خمس‪ :‬اإلبهام‪ ،‬والسبابة‪ ،‬والوسطى‪ ،‬والبنصر‪ ،‬والخنصر‪.‬‬

‫‪ -‬الكلمة ثالثة أقسام‪ :‬اسم‪ ،‬وفعل‪ ،‬وحرف‪.‬‬

‫* للداللة على عالقة النسبة والتناسب‬

‫‪3:6 -‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 88‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪ .5‬عالمة التعجب (!)‬

‫وتسمى َعالَمة التأثر وهي عالمة وقف طويل‪ُ ،‬تس ْت َع ْمل ُ‬

‫َّ‬ ‫توضع بعد كل جملة مثيرة للدهشة والتعجب‬
‫عجب‪ ،‬أو َف َر ٍ‬
‫ح‪ ،‬أو َخ ْوفٍ‪ ،‬أو استغاثة‪.‬‬ ‫َب ْعدَ َت ُّ‬

‫ما أجمل البحر!‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫أهال بمدرستي!‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫واأسفاه !‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫ويل للظالم !‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫‪ .6‬عالمات االستفهام (؟)‬

‫هى من عالمات الوقف الطويل‪ ،‬وتوضع في نهاية الجمل المستفهم بها عن شيء‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬كم هو عمرك؟‬
‫‪ -‬هل فهمت الدرس؟‬
‫‪ - -‬ماذا تفضل؟‬

‫‪ .7‬الشرطة المائلة (‪)/‬‬

‫تستخدم هذه العالمة غال ًبا للفصل بين عناصر التاريخ سواء الهجري أو الميالدي في حالة عدم ذكر‬
‫األشهر بالحروف‬
‫‪ 2111 /12 /11 -‬م‬

‫‪ .8‬ال َ‬
‫شرطة (‪)-‬‬
‫تستخدم لإلشارة إلى‪:‬‬
‫‪ ‬بند جديد من بنود القائمة‬
‫‪ ‬بداية العناصر الدرجة أسفل النقطتان (‪):‬‬
‫‪ ‬في ترقيم الحوار إذ تشير إلى أحد أطراف الحوار‬
‫‪ ‬الجمل االعتراضية قد توضع بين فصلتين أو بين شرطتين‬
‫‪ ‬توضع للفصل بين متالزمين‪ ،‬مثل المبتدأ والخبر‪ ،‬أو بين ركني الجملة إذا طال َ الركن األول فيها‪،‬‬
‫أو بين العدد والمعدود إذا كانا في أول السطر‬

‫‪ .8‬الشرطتان(‪)- -‬‬

‫وتوضعان للجملة االعتراضية وألفاظ التفسير‬

‫ض َّي َع – هداه هللا – عمره وثروته‬

‫‪َ -‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 89‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪ .9‬القوسان) (‬

‫أحيا ًنا يستخدم القوسان لتوضع بينهما مجموعة من العناصر وأحيا ًنا الجمل االعتراضية‬
‫‪ -‬القاهرة (حرسها ّ‬
‫هللا) أكبر مدينة في أفريقيا‬

‫‪ -‬قال رسول هللا (صلى هللا عليه وسلم)‪« :‬إنما األعمال بالنيات»‪.‬‬

‫‪ .11‬التنصيص « »‬

‫ويوضع بين قوسيها المزدوجين كل كالم مقتبس بنصه‬

‫‪ -‬تحب الفتاة أباها ‪ ،‬وتعجب به ‪ ،‬وقديما ً قالوا‪« :‬كل فتاة بأبيها معجبة»‬

‫‪ .11‬نقط الحذف واإلضمار ‪...‬‬

‫شا للحياء أو ألنه تكرار ممل‪ ،‬وتأتي دائ ًما‬ ‫توضع مكان الكالم لم يشأ الكاتب أن يذكره إما ألن به خد ً‬
‫قبل كلمة إلخ‪ .‬وتستخدم كذلك عند اقتباس نص من أحد المصادر وحذف بعض السطور من هذا‬
‫النص المقتبس فمن األمانة التأكيد للقارئ أن هناك كال ًما محذو ًفا‬

‫‪ .12‬النقطتان المتجاورتان ‪..‬‬

‫ترد أحيانا في العناوين الصحفية وغرضها أن تحل محل الفصلة المحظور استخدامها في العناوين‬
‫الصحفية‬

‫‪ -‬السلطات السودانية تعتقل الترابي ‪ ..‬وتصادر الصحيفة الناطقة بلسان حزبه (جريدة المصري اليوم)‬

‫‪ .12‬القوسان المركنان أو المعقوفان[ ]‬

‫وتوضع بينهما زيادة قد ُيدْ ِخلُها الكاتب على النص المقتبس أو يثبت بينهما عبارة من عنده يراها‬
‫ساقطة من النص الذي يحققه‪ ،‬أو يكتمل بوجودها هذا النص‪.‬‬

‫‪ .11‬عالمة يتبع (=)‬

‫توضع هذه العالمة في نهاية الحاشية في نهاية الصفحة لإلشارة إلى القارئ إلى أن بقية الحاشية‬
‫في الصفحة التالية‪.‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 90‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Sentence Connectors

Sentence Connectors
Sentence connectors are words and phrases used to link ideas from one sentence to the next
and to give paragraphs coherence. They are also known as linking language.

Functions of Sentence connectors

They are used to indicate similarity, contrast, result, addition, and listing, time,
exemplification, particularization, explanation, emphasis, reformulation, transition, negative
condition, and summation/conclusion.

I. Similarity
Likewise similarly correspondingly by the same token in the same way
Examples:
1. Men must wear a jacket and a tie; similarly women must wear a skirt or a dress, not
trousers.
2. You can’t teach navigation in the middle of a storm. Likewise, you can’t build a
system of values in the current educational climate.

II. Contrast
On the other hand, in contrast, conversely, however, yet, still, nevertheless,
nonetheless, even so, in spite of this, despite of this/ that
Examples
A. Direct Opposition

1. Ali worked hard. On the other hand, Okan hardly did any work at all.
2. Metin is lazy. However, his brother is quite diligent.
3. Extroverts love crowds. In contrast, introverts prefer solitude.
4. Six is more than five; conversely, five is less than six.
5. Denial of Expectation( Unexpected result)
6. She studied diligently for several months. Nevertheless, she failed.
7. George is very handsome. Yet, he is not popular with girls.
8. My uncle is 70 years old now. Nonetheless, he maintains his interest in legal
matters.
9. It’s raining. Even so, we must go out.

III. Result
As a consequence, accordingly, for this/ that reason, therefore, as a result, consequently,
hence, thus, because of that/ this
Examples
1. He passed his exams. Therefore, he had some good news to tell his parents.
2. Professor Brown is an outstanding scientist. Hence, he is highly respected.
3. He has been studying hard for a long time. Thus, he has made considerable progress.
4. He lacks self-confidence. As a consequence, he is unlikely to be successful.
5. The demand has increased sharply. Accordingly, the prices are higher now.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 91

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

IV. Addition and listing

Also, beside, further, moreover, furthermore, in addition, first (firstly, first of all, to
begin with, in the first place, for another thing), thirdly (third, in the third place), finally
lastly, last of all.4
Examples:
1. To prepare his homework, Jack went through various history books. Furthermore, he
took notes from several encyclopedias.
2. During her spare time, jenny practices the piano; in addition, she plays the violin.
3. Owning a car has some advantages. First (first of all/ firstly/ to begin with), it gives
you comfort. Secondly, it saves you a lot of time. Thirdly, it gives you great freedom
of movement.

V. Time
At first, afterwards, later, then, in the meantime, meanwhile
Examples:
1. I read the morning papers for a while. Afterwards, I took a shower.
2. First pick up the receiver and then insert a coin into the coin-box.
3. At first, I had great difficulty with grammar later. However, I was able to overcome
these difficulties by studying hard.
4. The party is Tuesday, but in the meantime I have to shop and prepare the food.
5. They will be here soon. Meanwhile, let’s have coffee.

VI. Exemplification
For instance, for example, to illustrate
Examples
1. Women generally live longer than men. For instance, in the United States life
expectancy for women is 75, while it is 73 for men.
2. Earthquakes can be highly destructive. To illustrate, the earthquake which occurred in
Erzinacn in 1939 devastated the whole town, killing more than 35,000 people.

VII. Particularization
In particular, particularly, specifically
Examples:
1. Shopping in small markets is quite advantageous. In particular, one can find
specially items that larger stores do not contain.
2. We still needed to arrange several details for the trip. Specifically, we had to
make plane and train reservations as well as decide on the final itinerary.

VIII. Explanation:
That is, namely, in other words, that is to say
Examples:
1. The brochure dealt with travelling in Morocco. Namely, it discussed
transportation, currency, and language.
2. Good readers should be able to read between the lines; in other word, they should
be able to make inferences about information that is conveyed indirectly or given
only partially.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 92

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

3. As a child grows up, he learns how to behave in ways which are appropriate to the
society into which he is born. That is to say, he acquires the patterns of behavior
which accepted as normal in his society.

IX. Emphasis
In fact, indeed, as a matter of fact, actually
Examples:
1. He is quite wealthy. In fact, he is one of the richest men in Turkey.
2. I like reading. As a matter of fact, it is my favorite pastime
3. Mural is a highly talented musician. Indeed, he has an extraordinary gift for
music.

X. Refutation:
On the contrary
Examples:
1. She is not ugly. On the contrary, she is a good-looking girl.
2. I don’t hate classical music. On the contrary, I’m very fond of it.

XI. Reformulation:
In other words, to put it in a different way, put differently
Examples:
1. He is a conservative. In other words, he favors the preservation of old institutions
in their original form
2. Is there a cheaper solution? In other words, can you make a cheaper device?

XII. Transition:
As for, as to, with regard to, with respect to, regarding, as far as X is concerned
Examples:
1. Both Orkun and Ozkan are my friends. Orkun studies law at Ankara University.
As for Ozkan, he studies mechanical engineering at METU.
2. As far as comfort is concerned, a car is definitely much better than a bicycle.
3. METU and ITU are similar in several respects.

XIII. Negative condition:

Or else, otherwise
Examples:
1. I must leave now, or else I’ll be late.
2. You must study hard. Otherwise, you may fail

XIV. Summation/ Conclusion

In summary, in brief, in short, in conclusion, to be brief, to sum up, all in all
Examples:
1. This is our most disastrous and embarrassing defeat ever; in short; it is a fiasco.
2. The system lacked originality, efficiency and ingenuity. In conclusion, it was a
complete failure.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 93

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Connectors

In a text, propositions group together into larger and larger units. It is the idea of
“GROUPIING” that is important. Certain relations connect these propositions, such as
(Reason-Effect) , (Condition- Consequence), (Means-Result), (Purpose-Means), (Concession-
Contra-expectation), (Grounds-Result), (Grounds-Exhortation) . Sometimes a proposition can
be a (Delimitation) or a (Description). It can also be a (Parentheses) or a (Comment).
Relations can be (Sequential) or (Simultaneous). In English, the Sequential relation is
indicated by such words such as First, After that, And then, Next, And, and other forms.
Simultaneous relation is indicated by such words as Meanwhile, At the same time, While,
And, etc.

 Coordinating Conjunctions:

To Add:
and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too,
next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.),

To Compare:
whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the
contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but,
although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true

To Prove:
because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover,
besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is

To Show Exception:
yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes

To Show Time:
immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly,
first (second, etc.), next, hence, thence, henceforth and then

To Repeat:
in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted

To Emphasize:
definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively,
naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically,
unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation

To Show Sequence:
first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this
time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously,
before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 94

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

To Give an Example:
for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation,
take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate

To Summarize or Conclude:
in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have
said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole

 Subordinating Conjunctions:

 Cause:
as, because, in order that, since, so that
 Concession and comparison:
although, as, as though ,even though, just as, though, whereas, while
 Condition:
even if, if, in case, provided that, unless
 Place:
where, wherever
 Time:
after, as soon as, before, once, still, till, until, whenever, while

 Correlative Conjunctions:

Both … and, not only … but also, not … but, either… or, neither…nor, whether… or, as
… as

 Conjunctive Adverbs:

however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result

 Connectives and Conjunctions in Arabic:

- Wa-‫و‬
It is of the highest frequency of all Arabic connectives to signal additive relationships.
Sentences within expository texts are often initiated with (wa) as well. It can also
function as an additive term within sentences to link clauses, phrases, and words.

- Fa-‫ف‬
It can have sequential meaning' and then'; a resultative meaning 'and so'; a contrastive
meaning 'yet', or 'but'; a slight shift in topic 'and also', or 'moreover'; or a conclusive
meaning 'and therefore', or 'in conclusion'. It may also start a sentence in a text, or knit
elements together within a sentence.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 95

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

- Bal-‫بل‬

It introduces a clause whose content conveys the idea of something additional but also
different from the main clause.

- Ith- ‫إذ‬

It introduces a clause providing a rationale or reason meaning 'since' or 'as much as'.

- Ithan- ‫إذن‬

It initiates a clause or question that comes as a result or conclusion from a previous

statement meaning 'thus',' therefore', 'then', 'so', and 'in that case'.

- Hatta ‫ حتى‬+ past tense: until

It introduces a clause that follows the consequence or result of the previous clause,
referring to an event or action in the past.

- Adverbial Conjunction of place:

- Haythu '‫'حيث‬: where

It denotes the concept of 'where' or 'in which'.

- Adverbial Conjunction of time:

- Bayn-a- maa ‫' بينما‬while', 'whereas'

It has both a temporal meaning 'during the time that', and also a contrastive meaning
of 'whereas'.

- Ba'd-a-maa ‫' بعدما‬after'

It is usually followed directly by a past tense verb. It is necessary to use it before a

clause beginning with a verb.

- Ba'd-a-'an ‫' بعد أن‬after'

It means essentially the same as ba'd-a-ma when describing a situation that has taken
place in the past.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 96

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

- Ba'd-a-idhin ‫' بعدئذ‬after that'; 'then'; 'subsequently'

It is equivalent in most situations to the adverbial conjunction ‫ثم‬.

- Hin-a-maa ‫ حينما‬and Hinn-a ‫' حين‬when'; 'at the time when'

- 'Ind-a-maa ‫' عندما‬when'; 'at the time when'
- Ind-a-idhin ‫' عندئذ‬then'; 'at that point in time'; 'at that time'

- Qabl-a'an ‫ قبل أن‬+ subjunctive 'before'

It refers to an action anterior to the action in the main clause even if the verb
occurring after it is past tense.

- Thumm-a ‫' ثم‬then';'and then'; 'subsequently'

It indicates a sequential action, coming later in time than the action in the preceding
sentence or clause.

- Disjunctions:
- Aw ‫' أو‬or '

It indicates an option between two or more elements, but that option is inclusive, that
is, it may include one, both, or all elements.

- 'Am ‫' أم‬or'

It indicates an exclusive option; one or the other, but not both or all.

- 'Immaa…'aw ‫… أو‬.‫' ;اما‬immaa…wa-'immaa ‫'اما…واما‬either…or'

It conveys the idea of an exclusive choice: one or the other, but not both.

 Relative Clauses:
- Restrictive (Defining) Clauses:
 They are clauses without which the sentence will make no sense.
 They are used with: who, whose, whom, which, and that.
 There are no commas in restrictive clauses.
 The relative pronoun can be omitted

- Non-Restrictive (Non-defining) Clauses:

 They are clauses that give extra information about something or someone already
mentioned.
 (That) can not be used in such clauses
 The relative pronoun can not be omitted

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 97

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

e.g. Compare the following:

My son, who is a doctor, came to visit me yesterday
My son who is a doctor came to visit me yesterday

On translating relative clauses into Arabic, the main difficulty lies in differentiating between
restrictive and non-restrictive clauses in rendering. Restrictive clauses could be translated into
Arabic by a relative clause qualifying a defined noun (i.e. ‫ جملة‬+ ‫اسم موصول‬+ ‫اسم معرفة‬
‫)الصلة‬. For instance:
*What is the name of the tall man who has just come in?
‫ما اسم الرجل الطويل الذى حضر للتو‬
There is another method to provide a relative clause qualifying an unidentified noun in
Arabic. For instance:
*Have you got something that will get ink out of a carpet?
)‫هل لديكم أية مادة تزيل الحبر من السجاد ؟ (هل لديكم ما يزيل الحبر من السجاد ؟‬

Non-restrictive relative clauses could be rendered by (‫ واو العطف‬+ a clause with a defined
noun). For instance:
*My mother, who now lives alone, does the Times crosswords every day.
.‫إن والدتى و التى تقطن بمفردها اآلن تقوم بحل الكلمات المتقاطعة بجريدة التايمز يوميا‬
One technique that could be used to translate non-restrictive relative clauses is through
introducing the main piece of information in accordance with the logic of Arabic, then
providing extra information hereafter. Another technique could be used as well; it is
providing an idiomatic combination in Arabic with the relative clause introduced by ( ‫ )مما‬/
(‫)األمر الذي‬. For instance:

*The Egyptian champion won, which was a surprise to everybody.

.‫فاز البطل المصرى األمر الذى أدهش الجميع‬

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 98

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 99

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Eight

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore the differences between modals and articles in
English and Arabic, and how professional translators handle the differences. They
will also practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice
versa. Assessment 3 will be given in this session.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- contrast articles in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately modals from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Assignments:

- Controlled practice on translating modals and articles.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 100

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Models and Articles

Definite Article8 "The":

1. Particular Things
- Have you seen the spider in the living room?

2. Class
- The poor are modest.

3. National groups
- The Irish have their own language.

4. Titles/ places + of
- The President of the States is to be elected soon.

5. Geographical Places (with exceptions)

- My wife likes the sea but I prefer the mountains.

6. Unique things
- The earth revolves around axis.

7. Emphasis
- A Laundromat is the place where we have our clothes washed.

8. Musical Instruments and other devices

- She plays the piano.
- The cat is on the T.V.

9. Parts of the body

- He was shot in the leg.

10. Newspaper names

- The Times, the Washington Post …etc.

11. Superlative
- This is the most expensive hotel in town.

12. All forms of entertainment (with exceptions)

- It is great to go to the cinema on weekends.

8
Adapted from Practical English Usage and the Contrastive Analysis Study Guide

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 101

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Indefinite Articles "a/ an":

1. General things with countable nouns
- A spider has eight legs.

2. Unknown people
- A Mr. Smith showed me the way.

3- Something belonging to someone

- A Michael Angelo hangs in their room (painting).

4. Expressing (a type) or (a portion of) a noun with uncountable nouns (an exception)
- Have you got a cream for oily skin?

5. Jobs
- She is a dentist.

6. Measuring (per)
- I go walking three hours a week.

7. Illnesses
- I have got a horrible cold
(Exception: appendicitis- toothache takes Zero article)

Zero Articles:
1. Generalization with uncountable and plural nouns
- Doctors work for long hours.
- I love cheese.

2- Names and Proper Nouns

- Michael Angelo is one of my favorite artists.

3. Unique Organizations
- UN, UNESCO. …etc.

4. Days, months or seasons coming after or before the mentioned time

- See you on Thursday.

5. Means of transportation
- Let's go by train.

6. Forms of entertainment (as an exception)

- What's on T.V. tonight?

7- Some institutions as art forms or professions

- Cinema is different from theatre in many ways.
- He worked as an engineer in T.V.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 102

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Definite and Zero Articles

THE DEFINITE ARTICLES: THE ZERO ARTICLES:

1. Rivers 1. Countries (except group countries

2. Seas and THE SUDAN)
3. Oceans 2. Lakes
4. Plural Countries (U.S.A – The 3. Continents
Netherlands – The British 4. Single Mountains ( SUMMITS)
Kingdom) 5. Universities
5. Series of Mountains (The Alps) 6. Airport
6. Deserts 7. Meals
7. Hotels 8. Sports
8. Museums
9. News
10. Acronyms AND Abbreviations

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 103

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫التعريف والتنكير‬
‫االسم النكرة‪:‬‬
‫ما لم يدل على معين من أفراد جنسه فهو نكرة‬
‫مثال‪ :‬رجل‪ ،‬بلد‪ ،‬أمير‪ ،‬شقيق‬
‫سواء قبل التعريف بال مثل رجل – الرجل أم لم يقبلها مثل ذو‪ ،‬ما الشرطية‬

‫االسم المعرفة‪:‬‬
‫كل اسم دل على معين من أفراد جنسه فهو معرفة‬
‫مثال‪ :‬أنت‪ ،‬خالد‪ ،‬بيروت‪ ،‬هذا‪ ،‬األمير‪ ،‬شقيقى‪ ،‬رجل البيت‬
‫** المعارف سبعة‪ :‬الضمير و العلم و اسم اإلشارة و االسم الموصول و المعرف بال و المضاف إلى معرفة و النكرة‬
‫المقصودة بالنداء‬

‫التنكير والتعريف فى اللغة العربية‬

‫النكرة‪ :‬اسم شاع لدى الناس أى ما يندرج تحته أفراد كثيرون ال نختص به واحدا و يدل على الشيوع العموم‪.‬‬
‫مثال‪:‬‬
‫طالب‪ /‬كتاب‪ /‬شجرة‬

‫المعرفة‪ :‬اسم وضع ليدل على ما هو محدد و معين‬

‫أسماء المعارف‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬الضمائر‪ :‬أنا النبى ال كذب ‪ ...‬أنا ابن عبد المطالب‬
‫‪ -2‬اسم العلم‪ :‬على طالب ذكى‬
‫‪ -3‬أسماء اإلشارة‪ :‬إن هذا القرآ ن يهدى الكافرين‬
‫‪ -4‬االسم الموصول‪ :‬إن الذين يتدرجون فى العلم يلهجون احسنه‬
‫‪ -5‬المعرف باإلضافة‪ :‬شوقى أمير الشعراء‬
‫‪ -9‬المعرف بال‪ :‬اإلنسان عبد اإلحسان‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 104‬‬

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪Translate the following Arabic sentences into English, paying due attention to the differences‬‬
‫‪between the defined and undefined nouns in the source language and the definite, indefinite and zero‬‬
‫‪articles in the target language:‬‬

‫‪ -1‬إنه ولد عنيد‪.‬‬

‫‪ -2‬يعزف على آلة الكمان‪.‬‬
‫‪ -3‬يعد الحوت األبيض حيوان مهدد باإلنقراض‪.‬‬
‫‪ -4‬تتسم الحياة بالبساطة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -5‬ركل الولد زميله فى ساقه‪.‬‬
‫‪ -6‬إن العالقات األمريكية الفرنسية متوترة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -7‬تتميز الجبال بطبيعة خالبة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -8‬ذهبت فى رحلة إلى الجبال مع بعض األصدقاء‪.‬‬
‫‪ -9‬تطل هذه البلدة على بحيرة جنيف‪.‬‬
‫‪ -11‬سافرت إلى الفلبين و مكثت بها بضعة أيام‪.‬‬
‫‪ -11‬تستطيع السفن أن تبحر من البحر المتوسط إلى البحر األحمر من خالل قناة السويس‪.‬‬
‫‪ -12‬يصدر القطن المصرى إلى العديد من البلدان‪.‬‬
‫‪ -13‬شربت قهوة بعد اإلفطار‪.‬‬
‫‪ -14‬إن القهوة و الشاى مشروبات ال يناسبان األطفال‪.‬‬
‫‪ -15‬معظم القصص التى يرددها الناس عن األيرلنديين ليست حقيقية‪.‬‬
‫‪ -16‬إنه لشرف لى أن أدعوك لتقابل مثل هذا الرجل المرموق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -17‬إن الماء و الدفء عنصران ضروريان للحياة‪.‬‬
‫‪-18‬يؤكد السياسيون عزمهم على مواصلة المفاوضات‪.‬‬
‫‪ -19‬عاد الطفل إلى البيت‪.‬‬
‫‪ -21‬إنها تعانى من مرض فى القلب‪.‬‬
‫‪ -21‬إنها تعانى من نوبة قلبية‪.‬‬
‫‪ -22‬سنذهب إلى المدرسة سيرا على األقدام‪.‬‬
‫‪ -23‬تناولت طعام الغداء بالشوكة و السكين‪.‬‬
‫‪ -24‬تناولت الملكة إليزابيث العشاء مع رئيس الواليات المتحدة األمريكية‪.‬‬
‫‪ -25‬تناولت الملكة العشاء مع الرئيس‪.‬‬
‫‪ -26‬إن لبن األم أكثر فائدة من اللبن الصناعى‪.‬‬
‫‪ -27‬سوف يمكث اللص فى السجن لمدة سبع سنوات‪.‬‬
‫‪ -28‬إن االبن األكبر موضع اهتمام والديه‪.‬‬
‫‪ -29‬رب فقير ودود خير من غنى فظ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -31‬يعد نهر النيل أطول أنهار العالم‪.‬‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 105‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Exercise:
Compare the following sentences then translate them into Arabic paying due attention to
the use of defined and undefined nouns in Arabic:
1. I have been to the doctor.
A doctor must like people.

2. Could you pass me the salt?

Salt comes from the sea.

3. Have you fed the dogs?

Do you like dogs?

4. My brother is going out with a French girl.

My brother is going out with the French girl.

5. Jane is hospital.
Jane is in the hospital.
I left my coat in the hospital when I was visiting Jane.

6. I met her at college.

I will meet you at the college.

7. Who smokes in class?

Who smokes in the class?

8. Man and woman were created equally.

A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle.
The man who stole your car is in jail.

9. What is on T.V?
What is on the television?

10. Cinema is different from theatre.

It was a great treat to go to the cinema or the theatre when I was a child.

The following English Sentences have definite, indefinite and zero article cases. Translate
these sentences into Arabic, paying due attention to the use of defined and undefined
nouns in Arabic:

1- The English are very conservative.

2- You don't know the Andersons, do you?
3- My wife likes the seaside but I prefer the mountains.
4- Have you seen the Alps.
5- The history of Egypt is full of immortal figures.
6- I have stopped reading the newspapers because they are too depressing.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 106

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

7- A child needs love.

8- A doctor must be patient.
9- Is there a post office near here?
10- It is interesting to read a Charles Dickens.
11- A Mr. Jones called you while you were out.
12- Have you got a shampoo for dry hair?
13- I do aerobics three times a week.
14- She is a nice person.
15- I have a terrible cold.
16- We are having terrible weather these days.
17- She speaks very good English.
18- Oil has nearly doubled in price.
19- Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
20- She is afraid of rats.
21- I am interested in the 1960's novels.
22- How long does this trip take by bus?
23- Man and woman are created equal.
24- She is in hospital.
25- Mom went to the hospital to visit a friend.
26- I met her at college.
27- Let's meet in front of the college.
28- He has worked in radio all his life.
29- I usually listen to the radio while I am driving.
30- He is a stubborn boy.
31- He is playing the violin.
32- The white whale is endangered.
33- Life is simple.
34- We studied the life of Taha Hussein.
35- The boy kicked his colleague in the leg.
36- US-French relations are tense.
37- This town is on Lake Geneva.
38- The River Nile is the longest river in the world.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 107

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

39- The Thames River is in Britain.

40- Italy overlooks the Mediterranean.
41- The ship sank in the Pacific Ocean.
42- We spent the holiday at Lake Michigan.
43- Lake Michigan is in the United States of America.
44- Egypt is in Africa.
45- Brazil is known for coffee beans.
46- Violence prevails in the Middle East.
47- The United Kingdom comprises Britain and Ireland.
48- Holland is known for its windmills.
49- The Alps is in Europe.
50- Mount Everest is the highest summit on earth.
51- The Sahara separates Egypt from Libya.
52- Oxford University is one of the most famous universities in the world.
53- I will go to Cairo Airport.
54- I will stay in the Sheraton.
55- I went to the British Museum.
56- I read the times everyday.
57- Do you have a car?
58- I washed the car yesterday.
59- I watch T.V. everyday.
60- Please, put this clock on the T.V.
61- He decided to be an engineer.
62- My sister is a dentist.
63- Where is the cheese?
64- I love cheese.
65- The wife of the president of the USA is known as the first lady.
66- The largest ocean in the world is the Pacific Ocean.
67- Hong Kong used to be part of the British Empire.
68- Slovakia is part of the European Community.
69- The Amazon rain forest covers several countries in South America.
70- A friend of mine, who lives in Crete, has never left the island.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 108

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

71- A recent report predicted that all sea water will be polluted by 2040.
72- On the news today, there were reports of two plane crashes.
73- The weather tomorrow will be the same as today.
74- Fruits and vegetables contain vitamins.
75- Honesty is the best policy.
76- When I was at school, I used to love mathematics.
77- Power stations produce energy.

III) Translate the following text paying due attention to the use of definite, indefinite and
zero articles in English and the use of defined and undefined articles in Arabic:

Spanish is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. It is spoken all over South
America except for Brazil. Like Italian and Portuguese, the Spanish language is related to
Latin. A recent report stated that the number of Spanish speakers in the United States of
America will be higher than the number of English speakers by the year 2090. As a result of
this, nearly all North American schools teach Spanish. The language with the most speakers
in the world is Mandarin Chinese.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 109

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Nine

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will explore the different places where the components of a
sentence can be placed. They will also practice different translation techniques from
English into Arabic and vice versa.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- shift components of a sentence in different places appropriately.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 110

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Thematic Organization of Information

The order of words in sentences indicates the order of meanings. Languages differ in this
respect. Some languages have relatively restricted word order. Such languages express
semantically what is expressed by inflection in languages of relatively free word order. Each
language has its own share of flexibility. Words take their characters when they are
sequenced in a sentence. For this reason it's not only important to know what to say, but it is
also important to know how to say it.
http://scholar.najah.edu/sites/default/files/all-thesis/5171602.pdf

Exercise
"The meaning or content of a sentence is conveyed by its deep structure, while the form of
a sentence is given by its surface structure." Bearing this in mind, provide a
methodological rendering of the following utterances into Arabic.

1. Never have I heard such a thing.

______________________________________________________________
2. Only when he is here, does he speak English.
______________________________________________________________
3. Little help will you get from him.
______________________________________________________________
4. No thought did you give to my distress.
______________________________________________________________
5. Up went the window and out popped a head.
______________________________________________________________
6. Into the room came the boy I wanted.
______________________________________________________________
8. Had I met you before, we might have been friends.
______________________________________________________________
9. There is no one less suited for the work than he.
______________________________________________________________
10. Here is the house I am going to buy.
______________________________________________________________
11. Thus should you act and not otherwise.
______________________________________________________________
12. He stupidly refused to speak.
______________________________________________________________
13. He refused to speak stupidly.
______________________________________________________________
14. I told her the story.
______________________________________________________________
15. I told the story to her.
______________________________________________________________

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 111

 ‫‪Arabic and Translation Studies Division‬‬

‫‪16. They never do come in time.‬‬

‫______________________________________________________________‬
‫‪17. Rarely does he come to see me now.‬‬
‫______________________________________________________________‬
‫‪18. Out in the street ran the weeping girl.‬‬
‫______________________________________________________________‬

‫‪"The meaning or content of a sentence is conveyed by its deep structure, while the form of‬‬
‫‪a sentence is given by its surface structure." Bearing this in mind, provide a‬‬
‫‪methodological rendering of the following utterances into English.‬‬

‫‪ .1‬ممنوع االقتراب أو التصوير‬

‫______________________________________________________________‬
‫‪ .2‬ممنوع التدخين‬
‫______________________________________________________________‬
‫‪" .3‬إياك نعبد وإياك نستعين"‬
‫______________________________________________________________‬

‫‪ .4‬الشعب يريد الحرية والعدل والمساواة‬

‫______________________________________________________________‬
‫‪ .5‬ما يرد الشعب إال الحرية والعدل والمساواة‬
‫______________________________________________________________‬

‫‪ .6‬وأشارت لجنة اإلنتخابات الرئاسية إلى أنه ال يجوز التصريح بالتغطية اإلعالمية إال للصحفيين المصريين المقيدين‬
‫بنقابة الصحفيين واإلعالميين التابعين التحاد اإلذاعة والتليفزيون والقنوات الفضائية المصرية المرخص لها واإلعالميين‬
‫الدوليين المعتمدين لدى الهيئة العامة لالستعالمات‪.‬‬
‫___________________________________________________________________________‬
‫___________________________________________________________________________‬
‫___________________________________________________________________________‬
‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫‪ .7‬ليس أمامى ما أتوجه به إليكم ردا على الثقة الغالية التى أوليتمونى إياها بانتخابى رئيسا لالتحاد االشتراكى العربى إال‬
‫ما تعهدت به من قبل‪ ،‬وهو أن أعطى كل جهدى وكل إخالصى بل كل نفس فى حياتى الستكمال المسيرة التى قادها جمال‬
‫عبد الناصر على طريق الحرية والوحدة وإننى ألرجو أن أجد فى ذلك كل العون من مؤتمركم (المؤتمر القومي) الذى هو‬
‫أعلى سلطة سياسية فى البالد‪.‬‬
‫___________________________________________________________________________‬
‫___________________________________________________________________________‬
‫___________________________________________________________________________‬
‫___________________________________________________________________________‬

‫‪Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics‬‬ ‫‪Page 112‬‬

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Arabic and Translation Studies

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics
Time: 40 minutes
I. The following paragraph (100-120 words from …) depends heavily
on sentence connectors to achieve coherence. Translate the
paragraph into Arabic conveying the function of the connectors
appropriately. (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)

II. Translate the following sentences into Arabic pay attention to the
meaning of the adverbial phrase(s). (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
III. State the function(s) of the punctuation marks in the following
sentences and translate them appropriately: (Suggested time 10 min.
Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
IV. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news
items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized,
their meaning is still unambiguous. Translate with focus on appropriate
rendering of the relative clauses. (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 113

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Ten

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will practice translation at the paragraph level from English
into Arabic, and vice versa. The final project will be distributed in this session.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- translate a paragraph from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 114

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 115

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Eleven

Description of Session and Main Activities:

In this session, students will practice translation at the paragraph level from English
into Arabic, and vice versa.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the class session, students will be able to

- translate a paragraph from English into Arabic and vice versa.

Material:

Material developed at ATS

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 116

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 117

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting

Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Session Number: Tweleve

Description of the session and main activities:

Discission of the projects.

Description of the final project:

- In session 10, students will take a translation project.

- Students send the projects by email by session 11.
- The instructor returns the corrected projects by email 2 days before session 12.
- On session 12, each student will be asked to comment on one of the project
items, explaining pitfalls and points of difficulty.
- The grade is out of 30: 20 marks for the written part, and 10 marks for the
presentation.

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 118

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

Arabic and Translation Studies

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics
Time: 120 minutes
I. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news items,
websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their meaning is
still unambiguous. State the function of the underlined structures, and translate
into English so that the function(s) is conveyed in the target language.
The question should cover (tense&aspect, voice, connectors, relative clauses,
models, and articles)
(Suggested time 30 min. Points 10)

1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. .
10. .

II. The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news items,
websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their meaning is
still unambiguous. State the function of the underlined structures, and translate
into Arabic so that the function(s) is conveyed in the target language.
(Suggested time 30 min. Points 10)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. .
10. .

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 119

 Arabic and Translation Studies Division

III. The following paragraph (about 100-120 words, from Source) depends heavily
on sentence connectors and punctuation to achieve coherence. Translate the
paragraph into Arabic with focus on conveying the function(s) of the connectors
and punctuation appropriately, rendering the thematic organization of the
paragraph appropriately, and paying attention to stylistic features such as the
translation of collocation, affixation etc. (Suggested time 30 min. Points 10)

IV. The following paragraph (about 100-120 words, from Source) is coherent
although it lacks sentence connectors and punctuation marks. Translate the
paragraph into English with focus on conveying coherence appropriately,
rendering the thematic organization of the paragraph appropriately, and paying
attention to stylistic features such as the translation of collocation, affixation etc.
. (Suggested time 30 min. Points 10)

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics Page 120