Ans 1) SQL (Structured Query Language) is a programming language for storing, managing,

manipulating, and processing data in relational databases. SQL has been around since the 1970s,
and was standardized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986.
SQL was first developed in the early 1970s at IBM by a team led by Donald D. Chamberlin and
Raymond F. Boyce. The original name of the language was SEQUEL, which stood for
"Structured English Query Language." SEQUEL was designed to be a simple and intuitive way
to access and manipulate data stored in IBM's System R relational database management system.
SEQUEL was later renamed to SQL, and IBM released the first commercial implementation of
the language in 1981 as part of their System R relational database management system
(RDBMS).
SQL quickly became the standard language for interacting with relational databases, and it was
soon adopted by other RDBMS vendors such as Oracle, Sybase, and Microsoft. The American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO)
published official SQL standards in 1986 and 1987, respectively.
SQL Commands

Types of SQL Commands

There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table,
altering a table, etc.
o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all
the changes in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o TRUNCATE

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:
 1. CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]);

Example:

1. CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DA

TE);

b. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.

Syntax

1. DROP TABLE table_name;

Example

1. DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either to
modify the characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:

To add a new column in the table

1. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;

To modify existing column in the table:

1. ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY(column_definitions....);

EXAMPLE

1. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));

2. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));

d. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space
containing the table.

Syntax:

1. TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:

1. TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of
changes in the database.
o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently
save all the changes in the database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

o INSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE

a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row of
a table.

Syntax:

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. (col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
3. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

For example:

1. INSERT INTO javatpoint (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS");

b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the
table.

Syntax:
 1. UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [W
HERE CONDITION]

For example:

1. UPDATE students
2. SET User_Name = 'Sonoo'
3. WHERE Student_Id = '3'

c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.

Syntax:

1. DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

For example:

1. DELETE FROM javatpoint

2. WHERE Author="Sonoo";

3. Data Control Language

DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

o Grant
o Revoke

a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example

1. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example

1. REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

4. Transaction Control Language
TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE only.

These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot be used
while creating tables or dropping them.

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

o COMMIT
o ROLLBACK
o SAVEPOINT

a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.

Syntax:

1. COMMIT;

Example:

1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. COMMIT;

b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already been saved
to the database.

Syntax:

1. ROLLBACK;

Example:

1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. ROLLBACK;

c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling
back the entire transaction.
Syntax:

1. SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

5. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

It uses only one command:

o SELECT

a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is used to
select the attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax:

1. SELECT expressions
2. FROM TABLES
3. WHERE conditions;

For example:

1. SELECT emp_name
2. FROM employee
3. WHERE age > 20;

Answer 2. A view is a subset of a database that is generated from a user query and gets
stored as a permanent object. In a structured query language (SQL) database, for
example, a view becomes a type of virtual table with filtered rows and columns that
mimic those of the original database

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.

A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in the database.

You can add SQL statements and functions to a view and present the data as if
the data were coming from one single table.
A view is created with the CREATE VIEW statement.

CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the
view, every time a user queries it.

SQL CREATE VIEW Examples

The following SQL creates a view that shows all customers from Brazil:

CREATE VIEW [Brazil Customers] AS

SELECT CustomerName, ContactName
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Brazil';

We can query the view above as follows:

Example
SELECT * FROM [Brazil Customers];

The following SQL creates a view that selects every product in the "Products" table with a price
higher than the average price:

Example
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS
SELECT ProductName, Price
FROM Products
WHERE Price > (SELECT AVG(Price) FROM Products);

We can query the view above as follows:

Example
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price];
SQL Updating a View
A view can be updated with the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement.

SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

The following SQL adds the "City" column to the "Brazil Customers" view:

Example
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW [Brazil Customers] AS
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, City
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Brazil';

SQL Dropping a View

A view is deleted with the DROP VIEW statement.

SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name;

The following SQL drops the "Brazil Customers" view:

Example
DROP VIEW [Brazil Customers];
ANSWER 2 A) advantages of View
1. Complexity: Views help to reduce the complexity. Different views can be created on the
same base table for different users.
2. Security: It increases the security by excluding the sensitive information from the view.
 3. Query Simplicity: It helps to simplify commands from the user. A view can draw data
from several different tables and present it as a single table.
4. Consistency: A view can present a consistent, unchanged image of the structure of the
database. Views can be used to rename the columns without affecting the base table.
5. Data Integrity: If data is accessed and entered through a view, the DBMS can
automatically check the data to ensure that it meets the specified integrity constraints.
6. Storage Capacity: Views take very little space to store the data.
7. Logical Data Independence: View can make the application and database tables to a
certain extent independent.

ANSWER 3 (A) SET operators are special type of operators which are used to combine the
result of two queries.

Operators covered under SET operators are:

1. UNION
2. UNION ALL
3. INTERSECT
4. MINUS

o The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more SQL SELECT
queries.
o In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same in both the
tables on which UNION operation is being applied.
o The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.

Syntax

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. UNION
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

The First table

ID NAME

1 Jack
 2 Harry

3 Jackson

The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

Union SQL query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. UNION
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

2. Union All
Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set without removing
duplication and sorting the data.

Syntax:
 1. SELECT column_name FROM table1
2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example: Using the above First and Second table.

Union All query will be like:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

3. Intersect

o It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns the
common rows from both the SELECT statements.
o In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the same.
o It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.

Syntax

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example:

Using the above First and Second table.

Intersect query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4. Minus

o It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to display the
rows which are present in the first query but absent in the second query.
o It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.

Syntax:

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. MINUS
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example

Using the above First and Second table.

Minus query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. MINUS
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

 ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

ANSWER 3 (B)

Difference between Inner Join and Outer Join

S.No Inner Join Outer Join

1. It replaces the merged tuple between two or more It replaces the merged tuple from a particular table
tables. even if the join condition fails.

2. In the case of inner join, if the attributes are not In outer join, there is no common attribute. If the
the same, it will not return anything. attribute is blank, it will be considered NULL.

3. The inner join is faster than the outer join. In general, the outer join is slow as compared to the
inner join.

4. We perform this operation to fetch the information We perform this operation to fetch the complete
about any particular attribute. information.

5. SQL Syntax: SQL Syntax:

select *
select *
from table1 LEFT OUTER JOIN / RIGHT
from table1 INNER JOIN / JOIN table2 OUTER JOIN /
ON table1.column_name = FULL OUTER JOIN / FULL JOIN table2 ON
table2.column_name;
table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

ANSWER 3B
 Creating new table with single-column foreign key
CREATE TABLE student (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,

first_name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,

last_name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,

city_id INT FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES city(id)

);

ANSWER 4 (A)
Explain Aggregate function in detail with queries?

o SQL aggregation function is used to perform the calculations on multiple rows of a single
column of a table. It returns a single value.
o It is also used to summarize the data.

Types of SQL Aggregation Function

1. COUNT FUNCTION

o COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database table. It can work on
both numeric and non-numeric data types.
o COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the rows in a specified
table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.

Syntax

1. COUNT(*)
2. or
3. COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Sample table:

PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example: COUNT()

1. SELECT COUNT(*)
 2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

10

Example: COUNT with WHERE

1. SELECT COUNT(*)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
3. WHERE RATE>=20;

Output:

Example: COUNT() with DISTINCT

1. SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

Example: COUNT() with GROUP BY

1. SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY;

Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3
Com3 2

Example: COUNT() with HAVING

1. SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY
4. HAVING COUNT(*)>2;
Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3

2. SUM Function
Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It works on numeric fields
only.

Syntax

1. SUM()
2. or
3. SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example: SUM()

1. SELECT SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

670

Example: SUM() with WHERE

1. SELECT SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. WHERE QTY>3;

Output:

320

Example: SUM() with GROUP BY

1. SELECT SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. WHERE QTY>3
4. GROUP BY COMPANY;
Output:

Com1 150
Com2 170

Example: SUM() with HAVING

1. SELECT COMPANY, SUM(COST)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY
4. HAVING SUM(COST)>=170;

Output:

Com1 335
Com3 170

3. AVG function
The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the numeric type. AVG function
returns the average of all non-Null values.

Syntax

1. AVG()
2. or
3. AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT AVG(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

67.00

4. MAX Function
MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This function determines
the largest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax
 1. MAX()
2. or
3. MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT MAX(RATE)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
30

5. MIN Function
MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This function determines
the smallest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax

1. MIN()
2. or
3. MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT MIN(RATE)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

10
ANSWER 4 (B)
(1)SELECT MAX(SALARY) FROM Employee; This will give you the output as 15000, i.e
the highest salary in the table above

(2) CREATE DATABASE BCA

USE BCA
CREATE TABLE COMPANY(
EMPLOYEE_ID INT PRIMARY KEY,
EMPLOYEE_NAME VARCHAR(10),
DEPARTMENT_NAME VARCHAR(10),
SALARY INT);
INSERT INTO COMPANY VALUES(1,'RAM','HR',10000);
INSERT INTO COMPANY VALUES(2,'AMRIT','MRKT',20000);
INSERT INTO COMPANY VALUES(3,'RAVI','HR',30000);
INSERT INTO COMPANY VALUES(4,'NITIN','MRKT',40000);
INSERT INTO COMPANY VALUES(5,'VARUN','IT',50000);
SELECT * FROM COMPANY;
SELECT EMPLOYEE_NAME, DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM COMPANY WHERE DEPARTMENT_NAME IN
(SELECT DEPARTMENT_NAME FROM COMPANY
GROUP BY DEPARTMENT_NAME HAVING COUNT(*)<3);