Module 4

Syllabus
• Machinery Fault Diagnosis I
 Natural frequency and resonance tests (Practical approach),
 Time and Frequency domain analysis to identify
 Unbalance,
 Bent shaft,
 Misalignment,
 Soft foot conditions,
 Mechanical looseness

Natural Frequency

 The natural frequency is the frequency of free vibration of a system, in which a system
vibrates to dissipate its energy.
 The natural frequency (ωn) of an equipment, expressed in radian per second, is a function
of its stiffness (k) and its mass (m), as shown by the following equation:

𝐤
𝛚𝐧 =
𝐦

Modifying Natural Frequency

 If we want to modify the natural frequency of a body, we have to either change the stiffness
or the mass. Increasing the mass or lowering the stiffness will lower the natural frequency
while reducing mass or increasing stiffness will increase natural frequency.
How can we operate critical equipment if we can’t change the natural frequency?

 If we cannot change the stiffness or the mass of the equipment, two possible choices are
offered to us.
(i) One easy solution is to change the operating speed of the equipment by 20 to 30
percent, but this is not usually an option.
(ii) Another solution is to install a dynamic absorber on the equipment to significantly
reduce the vibration levels of the equipment. The dynamic absorber is a spring-
mass system that is installed in series with the resonant system to create an out-of-
phase exciting force to effectively counteract the initial exciting force.
 Resonance is probably one of the five common causes of excessive machine vibration.
Identifying a resonance frequency effectively can be challenging.
 We need to positively identify the natural frequency by performing at least two different
tests such as impact test, coast down peak hold, coast down peak phase or impact test using
a force hammer.
 Once the resonance is confirmed, either change the mass or the stiffness of the equipment
to change its natural frequency.
 If it cannot be accomplished, try to change the operating speed of the equipment.
 If that fails, consider installing a dynamic absorber to counteract the initial exciting force.

Resonance Test (Practical Approach)

 Many experts working in the field of vibration analysis will agree that resonance is a very
common cause of excessive machine vibration.
 Resonance is the result of an external force vibrating at the same frequency as the natural
frequency of a system.
 Natural frequency is a characteristic of every machine, structure and even animals.
 Often, resonance can be confused with the natural frequency or critical frequency.
 If equipment is operating in a state of resonance, the vibration levels will be amplified
significantly, which can cause equipment failure and plant downtime.
 It is, therefore, important that the running speed of equipment be out of the resonance range.
Identifying a Resonance Frequency

 Many techniques can be used to identify and/or confirm a high vibration level caused by a
resonance frequency.
 It is very important to confirm a resonance phenomenon by at least two different types of
tests before trying to correct it.
 We will look at a few techniques commonly used in the industry.

Techniques used to confirm a resonance

1. Impact Test

 One of the most commonly used methods for measuring a system’s natural frequency is to
strike it with a mass and measure the response.
 This method is effective because the impact inputs a small amount of force in the
equipment over a large frequency range.
 When performing this technique, it is important to try impacting different locations on the
structure since all of a structure’s resonant frequencies will always be measurable by
impacting at one location and measuring at the same location.
 Both drive point and transfer point measurements should be taken when attempting to
identify machine resonances.
 This type of test must be performed with the equipment off.
 This way you can easily identify the natural frequencies of the equipment. (Figure1)

Figure 1: Impact Test

 Figure 2: Output of Impact Test

2. Impact test using an instrumented hammer:

 Also known as Experimental Modal Analysis.

 This test is basically the same as a regular impact test, except that an instrumented
hammer is used to excite the system.
 This hammer, equipped with an accelerometer at one end, is used in tandem with the sensor
used to measure the vibration.
 A two-channel vibration analyzer is needed, in which one channel is connected to the
instrumented hammer and the other to the vibration sensor. (Figure3)
 Figure 3: Impact Test using Instrumented Hammer

Figure 4: Determination of Frequency Response Function (FRF)

 Using this technique, you can effectively measure the force induced to the system by the
instrumented hammer and the response at different frequencies.
 Figure 5: Phase changes during resonance

 180 degree phase change occurs when shaft speed passes through resonance.
 When the phase shifts by 90 degrees, the frequency at which it occurs is a natural
frequency.
 The advantage in using this method is that it allows you to monitor phase shifts and
coherence. With this information, you can create operating deflection shapes to visualize
the vibrating body.

Figure 6: Output of Impact Test with Force Hammer

3. Coast down peak hold:

 Another method used is to monitor the vibration level using a peak hold function, while
shutting down the equipment, as performed normally.
 The vibration level should drop at a steady rate.
 If the vibration levels start rising at any time while the equipment is being shut down, the
speed at which the amplitudes increase is a possible natural frequency.

Figure 7: Output of Coast Down Peak Hold

4. Coast down peak phase:

 Like the coast down peak hold, this test is to be conducted while the equipment is being
shut down.
 By installing a photo tachometer and a piece of reflective tape on the rotating shaft of the
equipment, you can monitor the vibration and its phase.
 This will allow you to see the amplitude and phase shift at all running speeds of the
equipment.
 If there is no resonance excited by the turning speed, the vibration levels should drop at a
steady rate.
 If the vibration peaks at a certain speed and the phase shifts by 180 degrees, this
indicates a natural frequency of the equipment or structure.
  The actual natural frequency is the frequency situated in the middle of the phase shift (90
degrees).

Figure 8: Output of Coast Down Peak Phase

(i) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLaFAKnaRJU
(ii) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ECMCHE51Ij0
(iii) Vibration Analysis Know-How: Diagnosing Resonance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HMEfPQmjKf0
(iv) Bump Test, Frequency Response Function, Resonance problems solving by ADASH
Vibration analyzer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FI9w3B1GouE
(v) Impact Testing for Modal Analysis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tBRjPN8m6zE
Important Signal Patterns

Harmonics

 Harmonics, also called a harmonic series, are components of a spectrum which are
integral multiples of fundamental frequency (1x).
 A harmonic series in a spectrum is the result of a periodic signal in the waveform.
 Harmonic series are very common in spectra of machinery vibration.

Sub harmonics

 Sub harmonics are synchronous components in a spectrum that are multiples of 1/2, 1/3,
or 1/4 of the frequency of the primary fundamental.
 They are sometimes called “sub-synchronous” components.
 In the vibration signature of a rotating machine, there will normally be a component at the
turning speed along with several harmonics of the turning speed.
 If there is sufficient looseness in the machine so that some parts are rattling, the spectrum
will usually contain sub harmonics.
 Harmonics of one-half turning speed are called “one-half order sub harmonics”, etc.
Unbalance (Imbalance)

 Unbalance is one of the most common types of machinery faults that occurs in rotating
machines.
 Unbalance is due to a net uneven distribution of the mass of a rotating component about
its axis. The unbalance force acts radially and is proportional to the square of the angular
rotational speed of the shaft.
 For a typical rotor disc with an unbalance and rotating at 1740 RPM, the vibration spectrum
of the vibration signal measured at the non-drive end (NDE) bearing is shown in Figure .

Figure 9: Vibration spectrum in vertical direction of NDE bearing for unbalanced rotor system at 1740 rpm

 The unbalance force induces additional fatigue load on the bearings and may lead to
premature failure of the bearings and rotating shafts.
 High-speed machines are precision balanced so that the reaction forces at the bearings are
reduced. For long rotors, like those in a multistage compressor or turbine, the unbalance
forces can be in different axial planes.
 Unbalance forces in multiple planes leads to couples as well as radial forces in different
planes. Balancing of such long rotors is usually done in multiple planes and is known as
dynamic balancing.
  For radial fans, a single-stage pump with one set of impellers, balancing in one plane,
suffices. The in situ field balancing techniques for balancing of a disc in a single plane is
known as static balancing and a couple of methods of balancing are given in Appendix A3.
 Since the balancing forces are radial in direction, the horizontal and vertical vibrations in
the radial plane of the rotating disc are usually the same.
 The unbalance mass m is at a distance of e from the center of the axis about which the disc
is rotating. The grade of the balancing quality is designated as the product of the
eccentricity e and the rotational velocity ω in radian/s. Table 7.1 shows the quality of
balance grade as per the ISO 1940 standard. The most superior balance quality is G 0.4 and
the most inferior

Figure 10: Types of Unbalance (Source: Ludeca)

Static Unbalance

 It is also known as Single plane unbalance and is usually the easiest problem to diagnose.
 Generally produced by non-uniform radial surface wear on rotors in which its length is
negligible compared to its diameter.
 The source of the vibration is a centrifugal force which causes a displacement of the axis
of rotation in the radial direction.
  In the absence of other problems the unbalance generates a pure sinusoidal waveform and
therefore the spectrum presents dominant vibration with a frequency equal to 1xRPM of
the rotor.

Figure 11: Static Unbalance (Source: Power MI)

Symptoms

(i) Radial vibration at 1xRPM.

(ii) Phase difference between a bearing horizontal and vertical direction of approximately 90°,
allowing an acceptable variation of ±30°.
(iii) There are no significant phase differences in the phase readings between both sides of the
shaft in the same radial directions.

Correction

 To correct the problem it is recommended to balance the rotor in a single plane (at the rotor
center of gravity) with the proper mass at the angular position calculated with a balancing
instrument.

Q. Draw Spectrum for a rotating disc with a static unbalance and rotating at 2040 RPM.
Dynamic Unbalance

 It is also known as two plane unbalance.

 In this case the origin of the unbalance is not a force, but a pair of forces.
 The dynamic unbalance occurs in medium and long rotors and it is mainly due to
simultaneous radial and axial wear on the rotor surface.

Figure 12: Dynamic Unbalance (Source: Mobius Institute)

Symptoms

(i) High 1X peak in the spectrum.

a. High Radial; Minimal Axial
(ii) Radial vibration at 1xRPM.
(iii) Phase difference between bearing horizontal and vertical directions of approximately 90°,
allowing an acceptable variation of ±30°.
(iv) The radial phase reading will indicate that both sides of the shaft have a phase shift of 0º-
180º.

Couple Unbalance

 In this case the origin of the unbalance is not a force, but a pair of forces. But, two forces
of equal magnitude and opposite direction i.e. special case of dynamic unbalance.
 The spectrum exhibits dominant vibration and simultaneous sway at a frequency equal to
1xRPM of the rotor.
 Figure 13: Couple Unbalance (Source: Power MI)

Symptoms

(i) Radial vibration at 1xRPM.

(ii) Phase difference between bearing horizontal and vertical directions of approximately 90°,
allowing an acceptable variation of ±30°.
(iii) The radial phase reading will indicate that both sides of the shaft have a phase shift of 180°.

Correction

 To correct the problem, it is recommended to balance the rotor in two planes with the
appropriate masses and at the angular positions calculated with a balancing instrument.

Overhung Unbalance

 It occurs in rotors at the end of a shaft.

 It is produced by wear on the rotor surface and bending of the shaft.
 The spectrum presents dominant vibration at 1xRPM of the rotor, very notorious both in
axial and radial directions.

Symptoms

(i) Radial vibration at 1xRPM.

(ii) Axial vibration at 1xRPM.
(iii) Phase difference between bearing horizontal and vertical directions of approximately 90°,
allowing an acceptable variation of ±30°.

Figure 14: Overhung Rotor (Source: Power MI)

(iv) Axial phase readings between bearings normally in phase.

(v) Phase measurements in radial direction between the bearings might be out of phase.

Correction

 To correct the problem, first check that the rotor has no eccentricity and that the shaft is
not bent, and then proper balancing must be performed.

 Diagnosis of unbalance can be complicated by the fact that many different malfunctions can
produce 1X vibration.
o Mechanical and electrical runout, rotor bow, thermal bow, electrical noise, coupling
problems, shaft cracks, loose rotating parts, trapped debris or fluids, rub, decreasing
foundation spring stiffness, and various electric motor problems can all produce 1X or
near 1X vibrations.
 Because so many malfunctions can behave, as unbalance, the machinery diagnostician should
be careful to establish unbalance as the root cause before balancing a machine.
 A loose rotating part can cause an intermittent or continuous change in 1X vibration.
Eccentricity (Not mentioned in syllabus)

 Eccentricity is defined as the offset between the axis of rotation and the axis of symmetry.
 Eccentricity can take place in different types of mechanical elements, such as pulleys, gears
and in any relative positioning between two concentric pieces, as for example the rotor and
the stator of an electric motor.

Figure 15: Types of eccentricity (Source: Power MI)

 Due to the general improvement in manufacturing processes eccentricity is nowadays not

a common phenomenon, having its root-cause mainly in an uneven surface wear. This is
the case of wear on pulley grooves.
 In electric motors, eccentricity caused by the incorrect relative positioning between the
rotor and the stator is related to a progressive decrease of the air gap by the manufacturers
with the objective of increasing the motor efficiency.
 Eccentricity manifests differently in a pure mechanical element, such as a pulley, than in
the case of an electric motor where there is also present a magnetic field.

Pulley Eccentricity

 Eccentricity manifests in the same way as unbalance, with a strong vibration component at
the turning frequency of the pulley in the radial direction.
 If it is diagnosed as an unbalance, the problem may be corrected, but the eccentricity is
usually dependent on the load, so when the load conditions change with respect to those
during the balancing, then vibration levels can increase.
 The phase is a parameter that is available to differentiate eccentricity from unbalance.
 With unbalance there is a 90° difference between the two radial readings; In the case of
eccentricity, a periodic variation in the belts tension is produced.
 The reaction force on the pulleys causes a movement of the pulleys in the direction of the
this force so if radial phase readings are taken on the pulley, these readings will be in phase
as shown in Figure .

Figure 16: Pulley Eccentricity (Source: Power MI)

 In a spectral reading taken in line with the two pulleys, the frequency of the worn pulley is
usually seen from the other pulley.
 If the belts are removed and the rotating speed harmonic is significantly reduced, it is quite
likely that the problem is wear on the pulley's outside diameter.
Bent Shaft

 A rotor is considered bent when it loses its symmetry with respect to its rotating axis.
 The bent can have its origin in thermal growth or radial and axial overload.
 A bent shaft manifests in the spectrum at the shaft rotating frequency. However unlike the
unbalance, a significant axial vibration will be measured, with a frequency spectrum
featuring a second harmonic, accompanying the first harmonic of the rotating speed.
 If you try to balance the rotor, a large correction weight is typically necessary.

Figure 17: Bent Shaft (Source: Power MI)

 The presence of axial vibration is not exclusive to a bent shaft, but is also found in overhung
rotor unbalance and in coupling or bearing misalignment.
 The parameter that helps us in giving a more accurate diagnosis, as in many other cases, is
the phase.
 It is necessary to take readings in the axial direction on both bearings. A phase shift of 180°
indicates that the shaft is bent.
 On the other hand, in most cases of bent shafts, the phase readings in the horizontal and
vertical directions of both bearings are of equal value.
Misalignment

 Misalignment is one of the most frequent vibration problems in rotating machinery and is
due to the difficulty of the alignment of two rotors with their respective supports.
 Misalignment occurs when there is little accuracy in the alignment between pairs of
components, such as coupling elements, bearings, shafts and pulleys.
 Misalignment can happen due to very different causes such as: excessive reliance on the
use of elastic couplings and self-aligning bearings, machine deformation during operation
that leads to displacements of the driving or driven system, etc.
 Misalignment will produce very high levels of vibration in the vicinity of the coupling that
can precipitate bearing degradation, coupling blocks wear, bolt breakage, driver
overheating due to an increase in the electrical power consumption, etc., so it is
recommended to correct it before it causes additional considerable damage that can lead to
a machine stop.
 Offset misalignment can be measured using dial indicators and corrected with metal shims
under the feet of the machine's free system (usually the motor).
 Misalignment usually manifests with strong vibration in the axial and radial directions.
o Axial readings can present the first harmonics of the rotating speed, 1x, 2x and 3x
RPM.
o Radial readings normally exhibit activity at 1x and 2x RPM.
o Low amplitude at the third harmonic frequency and at higher harmonics.
 However, in some machines the predominant vibration due to misalignment occurs at
1xRPM and may be mistaken with unbalance. In these cases it is recommended to perform
a phase analysis that will allow us to distinguish between problems of unbalance and
misalignment.
 On the other hand, the time waveform is characterized by a repetitive pattern with no
impacts in acceleration.
 A phase analysis allows us to confirm the diagnosis of misalignment and is characterized
by an important phase difference between the bearings closer to the coupling in the same
measurement directions.
  Another symptom of misalignment is that the phase difference between horizontal readings
is not similar to the phase difference between vertical readings.

Types of misalignment

 There are two types of misalignment, angular misalignment and offset or parallel
misalignment as shown in Figure .
 In most cases real world misalignment is a combination of both.

Figure 18: Shaft misalignment: (a) parallel, (b) angular.

Angular misalignment

 There is angular misalignment when the center lines of two shafts are crossed at an angle.
 The presence of strong axial vibration at 1x RPM characterizes this type of misalignment,
which may be accompanied by harmonics of the shaft rotating speed with low amplitudes.
 Figure 19: Angular Misalignment (Source: Power MI)

Symptoms:

(i) Strong axial vibration at 1x RPM possibly with 2x and 3x harmonics.

(ii) The 2x RPM harmonic in the axial direction can reach a value equal to or even higher than
1x.
(iii) Vibration in the radial direction, probably of smaller amplitude than in the axial direction,
in 1x, 2x and 3x.
(iv) The axial phase measurements on both sides of the coupling are 180° out of phase.

Parallel Misalignment (Offset)

 Two shafts suffer parallel misalignment when they are parallel and at a certain distance
apart.
 Misalignment can be vertical or horizontal and manifests in the spectrum with a strong
radial vibration at 1x and 2x RPM of the shaft, being able to present higher harmonics of
less amplitude.
 Figure 20: Parallel Misalignment (Source: Power MI)

Symptoms:

(i) Strong radial vibration in 1x RPM with 2x and 3x harmonics.

(ii) The 2x RPM harmonic in the radial direction can reach a value equal to or even greater
than 1x.
(iii) The radial phase measurements on both sides of the coupling are 180° out of phase.

Bearing Misalignment

 Regardless of whether there is good alignment at the coupling, there may be misalignment
between the shaft and the bearing.
 Bearing misalignment may be caused by a distortion in the machine or improper mounting.
 If one foot of the machine is not in the same plane as the others or if the base plate is not
flat, the tightening of the anchoring bolts will cause a deformation and consequently a
misalignment.
 Another example of bearing misalignment occurs on large fans where the bearing housings
are mounted on the metal structure of the fan.
 If the metal structure does not have sufficient rigidity, it will deform under load conditions
and cause misalignment. Generally, the greater deformation is usually produced at the
bearing near the impeller, causing axial misalignment.
  Misaligned ball or cylindrical roller bearings are characterized by axial vibration
regardless of the balancing status. Vibration can appear at 1x, 2x, 3x RPM or at the number
of bearing balls or rollers multiplied by the rotating speed.
 Anti-friction bearing misalignment produces radial and axial vibration, usually at 1x and
2x RPM of the rotating speed.
 Bearing misalignment is often accompanied by rotor unbalance, so that a balancing of the
rotor will reduce radial and axial vibration.

Figure 21: Bearing misalignment (Source: Power MI)

Symptoms:

 Strong axial vibration at 1x RPM possibly with harmonics at 2x and 3x.

 The 2x RPM harmonic in the axial direction can reach a value equal to or even greater than
1x.
 The axial phase readings at the bottom, left, top and right of the bearing are 90° out of
phase.

Misaligned Pulleys (Not required)

 Two pulleys are considered misaligned when they are not in the same plane.
 This problem produces high axial vibration at 1x RPM of the driver or the driven system,
although generally the driven.
  A good measurement of the vibration amplitudes is heavily influenced by the location
where the data is acquired.
 The belt pass frequency and its harmonics are also present in the vibration signature.
 Keep in mind that belt frequencies also tend to appear when there is wear on them, so it is
sometimes convenient to check their status. To solve the problem, the pulleys must be
aligned both in terms of angle and offset.

Figure 22: Pulley Misalignment

Symptoms:

(i) High axial and radial vibration at 1x RPM of the driver or driven system.
(ii) The vibration is more important in axial than in radial direction (this fact allows to discard
unbalance).
(iii) Uneven wear in axial direction on pulleys and belts.
Soft Foot Condition

 The term soft foot is used to describe machine frame distortion.

 It can be caused by a condition where the foot of a motor, pump or other component is not
flat, square and tight to its mounting, or many other things, such as machining errors, bent
or twisted feet and non-flat mounting surfaces.
 Many machines operate with high levels of vibration due to soft foot. These same machines
often have a decreased life span due to this condition.
 Soft foot increases vibration and puts undue stress on bearings, seals and couplings.
 Soft foot on a motor distorts the stator housing creating a non-uniform rotor to stator air
gap resulting in vibration at two times line frequency.

Reasons for Soft Foot:

 The soft foot condition can manifest in several ways:

(i) Too many shims: Using too many shims, typically more than 5, under a machines feet can
result in a spongy mount.
(ii) Dirty/corroded base: The condition of the base is often cause for soft foot. Before placing
a component on its mount, ensure the base is clean.
(iii) Loose/soft base: Hold down bolts on a base should be tight. All bolts that have loosened
in concrete need to be replaced to ensure a firm mount for machinery.
(iv) Short foot: The bottoms of a component’s feet are not necessarily machined to be in the
same plane. Often it is found that either one or two motor feet are shorter than the others
and create a soft foot condition.
(v) Angled foot: As well as feet are not necessarily in the same plane, they are also often angled
such that one portion of the foot contacts the base before the rest of the foot.
Different Soft Foot Conditions
 Parallel Soft Foot:

Parallel soft foot exists when a foot does not

reach the base and creates a gap between the
foot and the base. This condition is the easiest
to detect.

Figure 23: Parallel Soft Foot

Angular Soft Foot:

Angular soft foot (aka “sprung foot”) occurs

when a machine foot is touching the base on
either the outside or inside portion of the foot,
with the other side of the foot bent away
Figure 24: Angular Soft Foot creating an angle between the base and the
bottom of the foot.

Squishy Soft Foot:

Sometimes referred to as spring foot, squishy

soft foot exists when the gap between the foot
and base is filled with shims that have become
worn out or contaminated by oil or dirt,

Figure 25: Squishy Soft Foot

impairing proper seating of the machine.
 Stress induced Soft Foot:

Probably the most difficult soft foot condition

to detect, stress-induced soft foot is caused by
forces that are external to the machine. It can be
the result of pipe strain, drastic misalignment or
stresses induced by electrical connections.
Eliminating this type of soft foot may require
Figure 26: Stress induced Soft Foot
more than one check as stress-induced forces
can be created at any stage of the alignment
process.

Soft Foot Spectrum Analysis

 Soft foot is often presented as elevated amplitude of 1x vibration.

 This increased 1x vibration is due to misalignment. Misalignment due to soft foot occurs when
the feet of a machine are tightened to their base.
 If machines experience one of the conditions stated earlier, upon tightening, the bearing
housing becomes distorted and misalignment of the bearing occurs.
 On a motor, there are additional indications soft foot may exist.
 Soft foot can additionally distort the stator creating uneven spacing between the stator and rotor
resulting in a 2x line frequency vibration.
 In Figure 7, spectrum represents a misaligned motor with 2x line frequency vibrations.

Figure 27: Misaligned motor with 2x line frequency vibrations

 Soft foot of a pump may result in ½ harmonics of run speed with additional indications in the
waveform with energy exerted primarily in one direction.
 Misalignment due to soft foot may cause rub because of insufficient clearance between the
impeller and the housing as shown in Figure .

Figure 28: Time wave showing axial rub

 Phase can be used to identify soft foot while the machine is in operation.
(i) Measure vertical phase between the foot and its mounting surface.
(ii) If the joint is tight, the phase angle is the same between surfaces.
(iii) If the phase angle is different by more than 20º, the foot is loose or the machine frame
is cracked or flimsy.
 Figure is shows the phase measurement and phase shift across a soft foot.

Figure 29: Phase shift across soft foot

Looseness

 Mechanical looseness can be of very different nature: not enough tightening between
different mechanical elements (loosening of bolts, fracture of fixations, etc.), increase of
tolerances produced by wear and tear (excessive gaps in rolling element bearings, sleeve
bearings, gears, etc.), etc.
 Looseness manifests in the vibration measurements provided that there is a source of
excitation due to a problem other than looseness, such as unbalance, misalignment, etc., so
that small external excitation forces can result in high vibration amplitudes, in the presence
of looseness.
 Looseness is characterized by the presence in the frequency spectrum of multiple
harmonics of the shaft rotating speed.
 The vibration levels experienced by the machine are often important. Depending on the
evolution of the looseness, harmonic peaks of the rotating frequency (1x, 2x, 3x, etc.), half
harmonics (1.5x, 2.5x, 3.5x, etc.) and even sub harmonics of that same frequency (0.5x)
can appear in the spectra.
 On the other hand, the time waveform will be characterized by being erratic and without
any pattern of repetition.
 We can make a general classification of looseness, distinguishing between looseness of
rotating elements (rolling element bearings, sleeve bearings, couplings, rotors, etc.) and
structural looseness (benches, casters, anchor bolts, etc.). Each one of these has its own
characteristics.

Rotating element looseness

 This type of looseness is characterized by a spectrum containing many frequencies related

to the rotating frequency of the rotor, being able to distinguish: harmonics (1x, 2x, 3x, etc.),
sub harmonics (0.5x) and half harmonics (1.5x, 2.5x, 3.5x, etc.).
 They generally manifest more clearly in the radial directions of measurement (horizontal
and vertical) than in the axial direction.
 Figure 30: Rotating Element Looseness (Source: Power MI)

Structural Looseness

 This refers to looseness associated with the mechanical non-rotating elements of the
machine: bench fixings, joints between pipes, bearing casings, etc.
 Normally, it manifests more clearly in the radial measurement directions than in the axial
ones, with the presence in the frequency spectrum of several harmonics of the rotating
speed of the shaft.
 The comparison of the amplitude of the 2x and 3x harmonics with respect to the frequency
at 1x provides an indication of looseness severity, so that an amplitude of these harmonics
above 50% of the amplitude of the peak at 1x, points to a greater severity of the looseness.
 The reason why this kind of looseness manifests in frequency spectra with several
harmonics of the rotating frequency (1x, 2x, 3x, 4x, etc.) is illustrated in the following
figure.

Figure 31: Structural looseness (Source: Power MI)

Watch Video on Diagnosing Looseness: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUXtBfxcpn0