DBMS (SHORT ANSWERS)

Q1) Explain cloud architecture.

Ans) Cloud architecture is the blueprint for designing and building cloud-based systems. It
defines how various components like servers, storage, networks, and software services work
together to deliver resources on-demand over the internet.
1. Components: Imagine cloud architecture as a layered cake. At the bottom lies the
infrastructure layer, consisting of physical servers, storage devices, and network
equipment. This layer is abstracted by virtualization technology, creating a pool of
resources that can be dynamically allocated.
2. Delivery Models: Cloud architecture offers different deployment models catering to
specific needs:
o Public Cloud: Resources are shared among multiple users over the internet.
o Private Cloud: Resources are dedicated to a single organization and can be
on-premises or hosted by a cloud provider.
o Hybrid Cloud: Combines public and private cloud environments for
flexibility and control.
3. Benefits: Cloud architecture offers advantages like:
o Scalability: Easily adjust resources up or down based on demand.
o Cost-efficiency: Pay only for what you use, eliminating upfront hardware
costs.
o Agility: Quickly deploy and configure new applications.
o Availability: Access data and applications from anywhere with an internet
connection.
Cloud architecture provides a flexible and efficient way to build and manage IT
infrastructure, making it a popular choice for businesses of all sizes.

Q2) Explain various performance measures of disks.

Ans) When evaluating disk performance, several key metrics come into play:
1. Capacity: This refers to the total amount of data a disk can store, typically measured
in gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB).
2. Access Time: This measures the time it takes for the disk to locate and begin
transferring data. It's composed of two elements:
 o Seek Time: The time it takes for the disk's read/write head to move to the
desired track on the spinning platter.
o Rotational Latency: The time it takes for the desired sector to rotate under
the read/write head.
3. Data Transfer Rate: This indicates how quickly data can be transferred between the
disk and the computer's memory, typically measured in megabytes per second (MB/s).
4. IOPS (Input/Output Operations Per Second): This metric reflects the number of
read/write operations a disk can handle in a second. It's crucial for applications
involving frequent data access.
5. Reliability: This encompasses factors like Mean Time to Failure (MTTF), which
indicates the average lifespan before a disk failure, and Mean Time to Repair
(MTTR), the average time to fix a failed disk. These metrics are important for
ensuring data availability and minimizing downtime.
By considering these performance measures, you can choose the right disk for your needs,
balancing capacity, speed, and reliability for optimal system performance.

Q3) Describe functional dependency. Give examples.

Ans) In relational databases, a functional dependency (FD) is a rule that governs relationships
between attributes (data points) in a table. It essentially says that one set of attributes
determines the value of another set of attributes.
1. Determinant and Dependent:
• An FD is written as X → Y, where X is the determinant and Y is the dependent.
• The determinant (X) is a set of attributes that uniquely identifies a record in the table.
• The dependent (Y) is another set of attributes whose values are determined by the
value of the determinant.
2. Example: Imagine a Students table with attributes Student_ID, Name, and Major. The
FD Student_ID → Name holds true. This means that knowing a student's ID
(determinant) uniquely identifies their name (dependent) in the table. There won't be
duplicate student IDs with different names.
3. Importance:
• Functional dependencies help in database normalization, a process of organizing
tables to minimize data redundancy (repeated values) and ensure data integrity
(accuracy).
• By understanding FDs, you can design efficient databases that avoid data
inconsistencies and improve query performance.
Q4) Discuss the goal of query optimization. Why is it important?
Ans) Query optimization strives for one primary goal: to retrieve the desired data from a
database in the most efficient way possible. This translates to two key objectives:
1. Faster Response Times: Optimized queries execute quicker, delivering results to
users with minimal delay. This enhances the overall user experience of any
application that interacts with the database.
2. Efficient Resource Utilization: Optimized queries minimize the resources required
to process them. This translates to reduced processing power needed from the
database server, leading to lower energy consumption and improved overall system
performance.
Here's why query optimization is crucial:
• Improved Scalability: As data volumes grow, well-optimized queries can ensure the
database keeps up with increasing demands without performance degradation.
• Cost Savings: By reducing resource usage, optimized queries can help lower
hardware and software expenses associated with database operations.
• Data Integrity: Faster queries minimize the time window where data is locked during
retrieval, reducing the risk of inconsistencies or errors in concurrent operations.
In essence, query optimization acts as a tuning knob, ensuring the database runs smoothly,
delivers results promptly, and utilizes resources effectively.