DEFINITION Acuita (2000) describes definition as “a linguistic device that provides an explanation or demonstration about the uss of a term.” It is quite clear, based on this description, that when we attempt to define a word, the word becomes clearer and easier to understand and not the other way around. However, not all definitions are good definitions. There are many types of definition which we use many times but we never realize their ineffectiveness. Kinds of Definitions 1. Use of Synonym This is the most familiar type of definition which we like using. This type defines a term by substituting a not so familiar term with a more familiar one. Using this type of definition will likely lead you to commit errors in definition known as circular definitions. Example: Obnoxious means repulsive. 2. Reportive Definition This is the type of definition that you find in dictionaries. This type defines 1 term by providing information about the standard use or meaning of the word. Again, this way of defining a word is inadequate because words are not always used according to their conventional or standard use, or meaning. What if a word is used in a special way? Surely, the dictionary could not provide an accurate definition of the word. Example: Whale is a very large aquatic mammal. 3. Stipulative Definition This type of definition defines a word by showing how the word is used in a special way. This definition is used to define technical words only. Then again, this could not be used for all words since not all words are used in a special way. Example: Toxic means a very busy work in the hospital. 4. Operational Definition ‘This definition is used to define terms that are used to signify dispositional concepts. The extension of these concepts does not exhibit directly observable characteristics of their intension. Their manifestation becomes observable only through the performance of certain operations or procedures. This definition necessitates the use of performable operations either, instrumental operation or verbal operation to make the meaning clear. Example: Speed is measured by dividing distance covered by the amount of time spent to cover the distance (verbal operation). Speed is what is indicated by the speedometer (instrumental).5, Logical definition ‘This type of definition was formulated by earlier linguistic philosophers in ‘an attempt to provide a more accurate means of defining terms. ‘This type of definition defines a term using two categories namely: definiendum and definiens The definiendum refers to the word being defined while the definiens refers to the defining properties of the definiendum. The defining properti¢s of the word have two sub-categories: the genus'and the differentia. Genus refers to the wider concept in which the definiendum is a member. The differentia is the characieristic of the definiendum that distinguishes it from the other members of the genus. Example; A mammal is an animal that has mammary glands. Mammal is the definiendum, animal that has mammary glands is the definiens. Animal is the genus and having mammary glands is the differentia. 6. Analytic definition This is an improvement of the logical definition. It makes use of three categories to define a term: definiendum, definiens, and denotata. The denotata is a sample of the members of the extension of the concept signified by the concept. Example: A mammal is an animal that has mammary glands like human beings, whales, etc. RULES FOR GOOD ANALYTIC DEFINITIONS fall the types of definitions mentioned, analytic definition is, by far, the only one that satisfies the criteria of what a good definition should be. To make sure that you are providing a good analytic definition, here are some rules that one has to follow (Acusia 2000): 1 Avoid using metaphors and other figures of speech. ‘The purpose of a definition in logic is to make the meaning of the word clearly understandable by the mind. Figures of speech such as metaphors only muddle the intended meaning of the word by appropriating other words which have no logical nor real bearing to the word to be defined. They are effective only 4s literary device in poetry but not as a linguistic clarification instrument in logic. For example: “Love is like a rosary full of mysteries” or “Tiger is the king of the jungle.” 2. It must be general enough to include legitimate members. ‘The word definition comes from the Latin definire that means “to enclose” or to “cover within-a fence.” Definition therefore etymologically means to set a conceptual boundary within which a term may be rightly used. A good definition should include all possible things inside its legitimate boundary. It must not “4discriminate those which need to be included. The definition “Mammals are land animals” is too specific because it does not include whales which, although considered marine animals, are legitimately mammals because they also have, like any other mammal, mammary glands used for feeding their babies. 3. It must not be too general to include non-members. | A good definition also sets a boundary outside of which it may not be legitimately employed. It should only cover those which have sufficient bearing to its conceptual boundary by eliminating from within it those which are inappropriate as members. The definition “Chalk is a writing instrument” is too general because it inchides ball pen and pencil. It has to be stated more specifically by saying that “Chalk is an enamel writing instrument for blackboard.” 4, Avoid stating the definition in the negative. A. good definition should describe what constitutes the thing being described and not its opposite, hence a good definition has to be stated in a positive. Negative statement only indirectly provides for what a thing is not, it does not directly clarify the matters necessary for understanding what a thing really is. The definition of “table” es “a furniture which is not a chair nor a cabinet” does not make the meaning of the word sable itself instructively clear, but only segregates it from other words which also have meanings of their own. Like wise “Asleep is not being awake” is a bad definition. Some terms however ‘can only be defined negatively such as “Darkness is the absence of light,” or “Spirits are immaterial substances.” 5. Avoid circular definition. In definition, the meaning of a word is understood by other words. Words to be defined and those contained in the definitions should be able to stand on their own, but when they are used to support one another the definition is said to be circular. Usually, definitions by synonyms commit this mistake such as “Big is large,” but it is the same in other way around that “Large is big.” Also the defining expression (definiens) should not contain the word to be defined (Gefiniendum). “Honesty is the virtue of being honest” is also a cireular definition.SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 8 Date ‘Name Teacher A, Fill in the blanks. 1. One of the mést important inventions of man is the. 2 When the different letters in the alphabet are combined, they form a 4. With the use of words to represent our ideas, the system of is significantly improved. 4, The use of words likewise played a significant role in the advancement of 5. Words re not only limited to communication but more importantly they are also used in i 6. When words are used in arguments, they are known as 7. When the intended meaning which one wants to convey is not what reaches the receiver, then the problem of arises. 8 states that the meaning of a word lies ints referent, states that the meaning of a word lies in its use. 10."The discussion on the __—____is an attempt to avoid the problem of miscommunication. WL. refers to the way the mind understands what a term is. 12. refers to the linguistic device that provides an ‘explanation or demonstration about the use of the term. 13,'___ refers to the way the mind enumerates the, members that fall under the understanding of a term.14, Wittgenstein formulated his “Use Theory of Meaning” in his work 15. also means the actual object being referred to by a tem. . B, Identify the kind of definition described in the following: 1 Defining a word by naming the members of its extension. Substitution of a not so familiar word with a more 3.°______A definition that makes use of two categories. 4. provides information about how a word is used ina special way. 5. ____It- makes use of the definiendum, definiens, and denoiaia to define a word. 6. % “It defines a word by the use of a procedure or an operation. _____it gives information about how the standard use ‘oF meaning of the word. 8. Defining by pointing. 9 It is used to define technical terms. 10. It is used to define dispositional concepts. C. Briefly answer the following: 1. Why is the alphabet considered one of the most important inventions of man? 47 | ce‘i aden 2 State the Referential Theory of Meaning and criticize 3 Stemmtihe Se Teun amd acticiae it ‘Seu yar owe point of tice: wich theory is bet? Why? = See mE Se Se pS of deSeiton which Gee fox you is he tex?4, Bachelor 5. Spinster 6. Compass 7. Bedroom 8. School 9. Manager 10. Human Being E. Give an example of a definition that violates the following rules: 1. Avoid using metaphor and other figures of speech. 2. Itmust be general enough to include legitimate members. 3. Itmust not be too general to include non-members 4. Avoid stating the definition in the negative, 5. Avoid circular definition. “0 LL 6006 ==.9 JUDGMENT AND PROPOSITIONS S STATED EARLIER, OUR MAIN objective in studying Logic is to learn ways on how to improve our reasoning skills. This we shall achieve ‘through a thorough analysis of arguments. And that is why we started with the most basic component of an argument—the term , which when. put togetherr, it results to the creation of a proposition. Propositions, in tum, when put together create an argument. Just as terms are verbal expression of concepts, propositions are verbal expressions of judgments. JUDGING AND JUDGMENT ‘The act of judging is a crucial element in the process of reasoning. This is precisely so because in the process of reasoning, the mind evaluates the truth and falsity of what is being said. But the determination of truth or falsity only comes through the analysis of relationship of concepts. This means that the mind cannot ‘make any judgment of whether what is said is.true or false by merely looking at fone concept.The concept has to be related to another concept so the mind can ‘make a pronouncement whether the agreement or disagreement between the two are either true or false. Judgment is defined as a process whereby the mind sees the relationship of concepts and pronounces an agreement or disagreement between them. For le, a judgment about the concept dog can only be made when we try to it with another concept, like animal. Of course, it is pressuposed that we 'e an understanding of what a dog is and what an animal is. Relating the two requires the formation of a proposition. Thus, if the mind understands concepts dog and animal, it can make a judment when one says, “A dog is an Judgment is a very important consideration in Logic because it is through this process that we come to classify statements as true or false, The ‘truth-value of ‘statement, on the other hand, is also very important in the determination whether a given argument is sound and valid. 51= ~ NFR sed verbally through propos a bes — js aT aa ig a mental process, it can pi : aeectand tot re ad conoretly. That is why, if We Want to s relationship of Socoul with another concept, We need to analy, assertions or statements they make. SENTENCE AND PROPOSITIONS To give a better understanding of what propositions or statements are, yy need to be introduced first to a brief discussion on sentences. This is im because students commit the common mistake of interchanging a proposition wig a sentence, A proposition is a sentence but a sentence is not always a propositig, This is because a proposition essentially has a truth-value, which means itis eth true or false while other kinds of sentences do not have this character, It may by recalled that in grammar sentences are classified into the following types: Five Types of Grammatical Sentences 1. Interrogative sentence is a type of sentence used to express questions 2. Imperative sentetice is used to express a command, order, or request. 3. Exclamatory sentence is used to express intense feelings/emotions 4. Expletive sentence is used to express wishes or things that will happen in the future 5. Declarative sentence is used to express the relationship of the subject and the predicate as being affirmed or denied. In other words only ‘declarative sentence also known as statement or proposition because it has truth-value. This is a very important element of statements which ‘We shall be giving attention in the analysis of arguments, What we have to know in logic is that not all the five types of ‘are qualified to be used in arguments. Only sentences that have truthevalu, that, {hey can be said to be either true or false, are the only types of sentence chat can be used in an argument. A question cannot be known 10 be true or fale, alos a tue or false, In other words, declarative sentences are the only that be sed in logical argument and they are also known as propositions. st“ Only declarative sentences are qualified to be used in an argument because cof truth-value inherent in them, But how does one determine the mifcvalue of Statements? How does one come to the. determination that the statement, 82— “Triangles have four sides”, is false. How did we know that the statement, “M; dog is barking at my neighbor's door” is true. And the statement, “Cheating wrong.” is a ttue statement? From these questions, we realize that there are basically three types of statements as far as the determination of their truth-value is . Kinds of propositions based on how their truth-values are determined 1. Analytic propositions. ‘The truth-value of these statements is known through the application of the “Coherence Theory of Truth” which states that the statement is true if there is no between the subject and the predicate. 2, Empirical propositions. ; The truth-value of these statements is known through the application of the “Correspondence Theory of Truth” which states that the statement is true if the ‘statement corresponds with the state of affairs itis referring to, otherwise false if ‘it does not. There is a need then to observe before one can say whether the ‘Statement is true or false. Perhaps, the statement, “My dog is barking at my ‘neighbor's door” is true since my dog indeed is barking at my neighbor's door “when I check it. 3. Evaluative propositions ‘The truth-value of these statements are known through the application of “Pragmatic Criterion of Truth” which states that the truth or falsity of a ‘on the belief of the one asserting it as to whether it benefits ‘or not in accepting the statement to be true or false. ‘Statements can be further classified as categorical or compound using their 1. Categorical propositions ‘These are assertions about the relationship between two classes of terms, subject term and the predicate term. These are considered simple propositions they usually contain one subject and one predicate.All bachelors are unmarried men. 2. Compound propositions These statements are assertions about the relationship between two o more statements thereby involving more than one subject and predicate, Examples: Conditional Statement Tf you pass all the exams, then you pass the course, Bi-conditional Statement ‘ «You will go to Boracay if and only if you pass all your subjects. Disjunctive Statement «Either you bring your parents next meeting or you will bbe dropped from the class. Conjunetive Statement My teacher in Logic is an excellent teacher and he is a very good lawyer too. This will be tackled in detail when we go to symbolic logic later.‘SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 9 eee ee Date A. Fill in the blanks. : 1. _______ isthe process whereby the mind sees the relationship between two concepts and pronounces the agreement or disagreement between them. 2. Relating the two concepts requires the formation of a 3. ________ refers to the element by which statements are classified as true or false. 4. is a type of sentence used to express intense feelings or emotions. 5 is a type of sentence used to express questions. is a type of sentence used to express wishes or ‘things that will happen in the future. 1 is a type of sentence that has truth-value. 4 8. is a type of sentence used to express a command, “order, or request. is a proposition whose truth-value is known Through the application of the “Coherence Theory of Truth”. 10. is a proposition whose truth-value is known through the application of the “Correspondence Theory of Truth”. Il. is a proposition whose truth-value is known Ghrough the application of the “Pragmatic Criterion of Truth’. 12, states that the truth-value of a statement depends on the belief of the one asserting it. oe 13. states that the statement is true if it E ‘corresponds with the state of affairs it is referring to.14, 1s. no Inconsistency between the subject states that the staternent is true if there is i and the predicate. propositions are considered simple propositions B. Classify the following sentences. 2 Are you taking the test? What an awful thing to say! Thou shall not steal. Carry your load and follow me. ‘The examination is quite easy. I wish I have a million bucks. That’s disgusting! Our professor is six-feet high. Will I get the promotion? Iwill marry you someday. Please come in. Iplan to have three children, How can I help you? This is embarrassing! ‘There are black and white marbles in my pocket.C. Classify the following statements as Empirical, Analytic, or Evaluative ‘name the theory used to determine their truth-value 1 Ghosts are earth-bound spirits. ._A spinster is an unmarried old lady. |. Thave ten dollars in my pocket. }. Cheating is morally wrong. . My professor is 45 year old. Mammals have mammary glands. This water is clean. Prayers can heal any sickness. —_—— ). Supernatural beings do exist. pela tat ARE 10. Clocks tell time. ose Sala s7CATEGORICAL 1 0 PROPOSITIONS It is described as any proposition that makes an assertion about the relation between two classes of terms, either a relation of inclusion or exclusion, complete or partial. These two classes of terms are known as the subject term and the predicate term. It is a simple, proposition, as differentiated from compound propositions, as it only involves two classes of terms, one subject ‘and one predicate. Example: All criminals are lawbreakers. There is only one subject, “criminals,” and one predicate, “lawbreakers.” A CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION IS THE simplest form of proposition, BASIC PARTS OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION ‘A categorical proposition is made up of the following necessary elements: 1, Subject Term ‘The subject is that about which the assertion is made whether thet something is affirmed or denied. It is the subject matter of the proposition. in the example, “Some priests are good homilists,” “priests” is the subject. 2. Predicate Term ‘The predicate is that which is affirmed or denied of the subject term. It is that class of term that gives a description about the subject term. The logical predicate of propositions is quite different from the grammatical predicate of sentences since the former always expressed in “noun” forms. This is so because the logical predicate of propositions does have quantities too just like the subject In the example “Birds fly”, it is necessary to recast this statement to correspond !° logical form. It is therefore restated as, “Birds are animals that fly”, making “animals” now the logical predicate,3. Copula _Copula is what has always been known as linking verb. It is the part of the sition that reveals the quality of the proposition. The copula should always expressed in the present tense because judgment as to whether the proposition true or false is affected by time. In the example, “Some students will become jors", the proposition that docs not reveal its truth-value because of time rent. It must therefore be restated in the present tense to make its truth-value inable, thus, “Some students are individuals who will become doctors”. ¢ linking verb “are” is the copula, QUALITY AND QUANTITY Besides the subject, copula, and predicate, there are two important ‘considerations that one must consider in the analysis of categorical propositions. ‘These are the quality and the quantity of propositions, Quality is an element that is found in every categorical proposition. Quality of the proposition provides the information as to whether the subject is included or excluded from the predicate. There are two types of quality that position can have; either affirmative or negative. An affirmative proposition ‘asserts that the class of the subject term is included, either entirely or partly, thin the class of the predicate term. Example: “All dogs are animals” is affirmative since the proposition asserts that the entire extension of the class of dogs, which the subject, is included in the class of animals, and in the example, “Some logicians are not mathematicians” is negative because a part of the class of ‘Jogicians, which is the subject, is excluded from the class of mathematicians. Affirmative propositions denote the objective identity of the subject and predicate: that they are expressions representing one and the same object. In negative "propositions, the copula ‘is not’ signifies the objective diversity of the terms: the ‘predicate is not applicable to the object denoted by the subject. ‘The copula is the one which indicates the quality of the proposition. ‘Normally, the presence of the word “not” or any word of its equivalent, which follows immediately after the copula indicates that the proposition is negative. Remember that we are only taking into account the quality of the proposition as far as the proposition’s form is concerned and not its substance or meaning, categorical proposition, on the other hand, indicates how many/much of the subject term is included/excluded with/from the class of the predicate term. The quantity of the proposition is universal if it asserts that the entire members of the class of the subject term are included/excluded with/from the class of the predicate term. Example, “All tables are not chairs.” But if the proposition refers to only a part of the members of the class designated by its subject term, its quantity is particular. Example, “Some flowers are roses. The quantity of a 59In most cases, the quantity is indicated by words that a the proposition we call quantifiers. Some of the more sos ae uber for Tiniversal propositions are; all, every, each, any, whatever, whos¥=s © ts for particular proposition; some, many, several, few, the articles". 1S 2 tes of tn explicit quantifier, the quantity must be determined by wnferccniaa the thought being asserted by the proposition. In the case of the proposition, Apples tre 12d: we keow that ths is particular since we know that there are green apples, Since each categorical proposition has quality (either affirmative or negative) and quantity (either Universal or Particular), it follows that there ae only four basic types of eategorical propositions. That is because there two types of quality and there are also two types of quantity. FOUR BASIC TYPES OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION Universal Affirmative All S are P Universal Negative All S are not P Particular Affirmative Some S are P Particular Negative ‘Some S are not P For purposes of making our discussions a lot simpler, we shall be representing these four types of categorical propositions with the following symbols: 7 Symbols Type of Proposition A Universal Affirmative E Universal Negative I Particular affirmative ° Particular Negative You can observe from the foregoing that the symbols used in naming the four basic types of categorical propositions are letters of the alphabet. Although, there is no particular reason for the choice of symbol and what it represents, it is believed that earlier logicians, who introduced these symbols, have coined these letters from the words “affirmo” which literally translate to “I affirm” and “nego” which literally means “I deny.” A and I are the first two vowels of the word “affirmo” while E and O are the vowels of the word “nego.” |STANDARD FORM OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION ‘Since propositions are expressed in varied forms, it is expected that this will pose problems in our analysis of propositions later. In order to make our analysis of propositions a lot easier, we are required, in the process, to express oF translate-all categorical propositions we shall be using in our argument in @ uniform pattern we shall call “standard form.” The standard form of categorical propositions contains the following; a quantifier, a subject, a copula, and.a Consider the following illustration: Type Quantifier Subject Copula Predicate A Al Dogs Are animals E All Angels are not mortals 1 Some Logicians are ‘mathematicians ° Some Politicians are not lawyers Note that we only use two standard quantifiers. The quantifier “All” is used for universal proposition and the quantifier “Some” is used for particular proposition. ‘The following categorical propositions need to be translated to their ‘standard form: 1. Anything lighter than air floats. {All things lighter than air are things that float. 2. No student from UE topped the 2005 bar examination, ‘All students from UE are not the individuals who topped the 2005 bar examination. 613, Mothers love their children. ‘Some mothers are people who love their children. 4, Not all that glitter are gold. ‘Some things that glitter are not gold. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PREDICATE The quantity of a proposition may refer to the entire or part of the members of a class of the subject term whereas the quality of the proposition indicates whether the predicate is distributed or undistributed. This only goes to show that just as the subject has quantity, the predicate likewise has to be quantified. It has been said that if a class of term refers to the entire members of the class, meaning it is universal, then the term is distributed. But if the term only refers to part of the entire members of the class, meaning particular, then the term is undistributed. remember these two simple guidelines: 16. The predicate of an affirmative proposition is always particular/undistributed. | | In determining the quantity/distribution of the predicate term, just | | | 17. The predicate of a negative sition is alwys | universal/distributed. ee ; e | In the example, “All birds are animals”, the subject “birds” is distributed | precisely because of the quantifier “All.” But the predicate “animals” is | undistributed because only part of the predicate is being referred to in relation to the subject “All birds.” Common sense tells that not all animals are birds, only some of them. ts In the example, “All birds are not mammals,” agai ject is | distributed, and bn predicate “mammals” is likewise distributed ase seiee the negative copula. The proposition entails that we ‘won't find a single bird. can check every mammal but W® In “Some politicians are liars,” obviously the subject ind i 1 m are liars, t “Some birds” is undistributed since the proposition only refers to & portion of the once ins Of politicians. The predicate “liars” is likewise undistributed becuee tre conceit ts only referring to «part ofthe entire class of “ars in elation tothe sub oe eS SR NTR‘The proposition, “Some animals are not camivores” has an undistributed and a predicate which is distributed. The following are important reminders: reposts elec atemate ae e lve mite ted 9 Pr Pee ee ee ae proposition is particular affirmative, has a particular subject and a particular icate. proposition is particular negative, has a particular subject and a universal cate.SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 10 Date Name ss eather 5 re A. Fill in the blanks. 1 a proposition that makes an assertion about the rl between two classes of terms. ‘Onship refers to that about which the assertion is made, 3 refers to what is affirmed or denied from the subject tem, provides information whether the proposition is affimnative or negative. 5, ______ indicates how many of the subject is included/excluded, 6. ‘The quantity of propositions is usually indicated by __ 7 is also known as linking verbs. 8. The symbol for universal affirmative propositions is 4 9. The symbol for universal negative propositions is : 10. The symbol for particular affirmative propositions is 11. The symbol for particular negative propositions is 12.4 _______ proposition includes/excludes the entire class of subject term. BA ition includes/excludes of te cas of 4 Sema Momo incadstexcudes only «pat dé hn ee ocak the subjet a pecans "Psion affirms the relationship between 15.4 socship peruse? > utjaena epee esto negates the relationshipB. Provide the needed information in the following chart: Distribution Status Quantity of Proposition Quality Subject Predicate C. Classifying Propositions. Use the symbols to identify the items. ‘A — universal affirmative categorical proposition E — universal negative categorical proposition I~ particular affirmative categorical proposition = particular negative categorical proposition NCP — not a categorical proposition 1.____ Some cars are not fout-wheeled vehicles. k 2.___Close the door. 3.____Not all scholars are bright students. 4,___No philosophers are bald-headed. 5,___All bachelors are unmarried men, 6,____ Professors are kind people. 7.____ Some panthers are Carolina football players. 8.____I wish to be a successful accountant someday. 9, ____ Human beings are mammals. 10,____Have you made up your mind? 11. __Not every student is a follower of rules. Gaming ome12, _Nuns are not married women 13,__Whata spectacular show! 14. __Dogs are friendly animals. 15,___I will attend your party next year- 16.___ Most of my classmates past the test- 17, __Some mangoes are grown in Cebu. 18,___Each child deserves a good future. 19.___Anyone caught bringing prokibited drugs will go to jail. 20. __Americans are not kind people. D. Analysis of Proposition. Indicate the following: ‘A. Quantity of the Subject B. Quality of the Proposition C. Symbol or kind of Proposition D. Quantity of the Predicate 1. All trapezoids are not round. SOB> 2. Some truths are facts stronger than fiction. pOw> 3. Elephants are animals with long nose.4. Several vegetables are not fresh. A. B. c D. 5. Some cities are premiere cities. A. B. ic D. 6. Some policemen are violent crowd dispersers. A. B. (% D. 7. Mushroom is a plant. A B. Cs D. 8 No man is an island. pOwp 9. Eighty percent of the population is Catholic. A. B. C D. 10, Few tabloids are not good reading materials. ooE> 67