COMPREHENSIVE COURSE

CONTENT
(GNS 302)

COMPILED BY

ADAOBI MUONAGOR (MRS)

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL
STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA, NSUKKA

NOVEMBER, 2021

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COURSE OUTLINE:
1. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
i. Explain the principles of letter writing
ii. Explain the components of a business letter
iii. Differentiate between a memo and a letter
iv. Prepare a portfolio of correspondence using different
presentation techniques: appointments, promotions, dismissals,
commendations, queries, condolences, congratulations.

2. COMPREHENSION
i. Read passages of expository and argumentative writing
ii. Trace the logic in the passages in 2. 1. Above
iii. Differentiate between facts and opinions
iv. Answer questions on what is read.

3. PROJECT REPORT
i. Explain the characteristics of a project report, viz. parts, format
and style.
ii. Select a suitable topic for a project report
iii. Explain the methods of gathering data from primary, secondary
and tertiary sources
iv. Use of reference materials for gathering data
v. Use appropriate citation and documentation styles e.g.APA, MLA
vi. Explain the procedure for writing a project report
vii. write an outline of a project report using appropriate numbering,
ranking and phrasing
viii. Write a project report

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Letter Writing
Letter writing is the oldest form of written correspondence known to man. It plays an important
part in our private, social and business life. It is more than an academic exercise, and its absence
in one form of communication or the other will bring a crippling effect on man’s social and
business life.

Letters are a form of written communication which contains information or message, sent by one
party to another in a business or private relationship.

Two Major Types of Letter

The two major types of letter are Formal and informal letter

Formal Letter: The type of letter written for business or professional purposes with a specific
objective in mind.

Definition of Formal Letters

A formal letter is any letter written in the professional language, with a prescribed format for a
formal purpose, i.e. it can be a recommendation letter, enquiry letter, complaint letter, cover
letter and so on. All business letters are formal, but vice versa is not possible. Such letters are
used for a variety of reasons like a formal invitation, proposal, reference, making a complaint or
inquiry, applying for a job. While writing a formal letter one should keep in mind the following
things:

 It should be in specified format.

 It should avoid the use of unnecessary words.
 It should be straight to the point.
 It should be relevant and objective.
 It should be complex and thorough.
 It should be polite, even if it is a complaint letter.
 It should be free from any mistakes, i.e. grammatical or spelling.

Business Letters

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A business letter is formal document written in a standard version of a language and follows
certain a well defined laid down formats and conventions. It is usually written for
official/business purposes such as, authorities, dignitaries, colleagues, seniors, etc. and not to
personal contacts, friends and family. Its subject matter is official and business-like hence, it
must maintain a professional standard. This type of letter is strictly impersonal and written to
persons in their official capacities. i.e, it is usually addressed not to the name of a person, but the
title or the designation of the person.

The appearance of a business letter is very significant because it tells the recipient something
about the personality o the writer. A good business letter should be neat, and should be free from
errors of grammar, spellings and punctuations.

Objectives of a Business Letter:

 i. To establish business relationship.
 ii. To make inquiry.
 iii. To create good will.
 iv. To reduce conflict.
 v. To keep records.
 vi. To save time and cost
 vii. To market or advertise the products/ services of a company/ organization.
 viii. To enhance the image of an organization.

Eight Exclusive Components of a business letter;

Return Address: This is known as the writer’s or sender’s address, or what is
traditionally called the addresser’s address. It is usually situated at the right
hand margin of the paper in a block and semi block formats of business
letter writing, but aligns to the left margin in a full block style. It tells us
where the letter originates from and who it originates from.
e.g
(Block Style)
Petroleum Training Institute,
P.M.B. 20,
Effurun,
Delta State.

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(Full Block Style)

Petroleum Training Institute,

P.M.B. 20,
Effurun,
Delta State.

Inside Address: This is conventionally referred to as the addressee’s

address. It represent the receiver’s address which contains the name and
title of the recipient, his company or business, the location etc. usually
positioned a few times below the return address at the left hand margin of
the paper in all formats of business letter writing (Full block, block & Semi-
block). It tells us the destination of the letter i.e., whom the letter is meant
for and where it is going. Eg:

The Director,
Department of Petroleum Resources,
7 kofo Abayomi Street,
Victoria Island,
Lagos.

Date: This identifies or authenticates the day the letter is sent. It serves as a
reference purpose and also makes for easier tracing of the letter wherever
the need arises. It comes two lines below the return address and can be
situated at the left or right hand margin of the paper, depending on the

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address style chosen by the writer. The most commonly used format are :
June 21, 2011 or 21st June, 2011.

Salutation: This enables the writer to offer greetings to the recipient in line
with the principle of courtesy or politeness. It marks the imitation of
communication between the correspondents, and usually ends with a colon.
It comes a line or two below the inside address. e.g:

‘Dear Sir:’, preferable and more appropriate when the letter is not addressed
to a specific person;

Dear Prof. Kunle or Dear Mr Obi is preferable when the recipient’s name or
title is known. But when the name or title is unknown, use “To whom it may
concern”. And if you do not know or are not sure of a woman’s marital status
or ignorant of her preferred title or choice of address, use MS.

Body: This is also known as development and is structured into well-

developed paragraphs. The body expresses your letter’s content and
represents the longest part of a letter which captures the intent of the
writers in detail. It is usually divided into three sub-categories; Introduction,
Development, and Conclusion. The Purpose of the letter is stated in the
introductory paragraph, the development conveys all necessary detailed
information of varying lengths running into several paragraphs; while the
conclusion restate the intent of the letter.

Complimentary Close; It is a word or short phrase that basically means

“good type”. It signifies the end of the letter expressed as Yours Sincerely,
Yours Faithfully, Yours Truly, Best regards/wishes. It varies in degrees of
formality with respect to the relationship between the correspondents.

Signature: This comes immediately below the complimentary close and

comprises signature and written name (full name & title of the sender)

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Title – This presents at a glance the propose of the letter. It comes a line
below the salutation. Eg.: APPOINTMENT TO THE POST OF CHIEF
CLERICAL OFFICER

OR

Appointment To The Post Of Chief Clerical Officer.

Optional Components of a business letter

Attention Line: This is a line of text denoting the intended recipient within
an organization, usually positioned the salutation, captioned “ATTN:”
followed by the name of the recipient and it comes immediately after the
inside address. it’s aim is to reach the recipient more quickly.

Typist’s Initials: When another person types the letter for the writer, the
writer initials is written in capital letters, while the typist’s initials appears in
lower case letters three lines below the writer’s signature, separates the set
of initials with a colon (:) or slash (/) e.g; NU/co

Enclosure: This becomes necessary when additional documents such as a

report, credentials, a cheque book or leaf, pamphlet, etc. is enclosed in a
letter. The enclosure line alerts the recipient that the said item has been
included in the letter. Any loss therefore, is easily identified. The word
“enclosure” appears by the left margin of the writing paper, after the
subscription and full name of the writer. e.g:
Enclosed: Two copies of my credentials.

Copy Notation: This is a necessary when a person other than the addressee
is to receive a copy of the original message or letter. It normally situated
below the closing, signature and name of the writer, at the left hand margin
of the paper. For example:

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 CC: All Directors
HODS
Staff
Students

Styles in Business Letter

i. Indented style
This style is best for letters from individuals to organization. This is
because most of such letters are hand-written.
An example of the indented form is seen below:
182 Ikwere Road
Mile 3, Diobu,
Port Harcourt,
12th April 1989
Our Ref: _______________
Your Ref: ______________

The Personal Manager,

Jeff-Kabie Co. Ltd.,
P.M.B. 1057,
Port Harcourt.

Dear Sir,

(TITLE)
……………………………………..

(BODY)
(Paragraph)

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

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 ……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
(Paragraph)

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

Yours faithfully,

(Signature)
D. Wobo
ii. FULL BLOCK STYLE
In the full block style, everything, including the writer’s address
and date must align from the left hand margin as indicated below:

182 Ikwere Road,

Mile 3, Diobu,
Port Harcourt.
12th April 2004

The Personnel Manager,

Jeff-Kabie Co. Ltd.,
P.M.B. 1057,
Port Harcourt.

Dear Sir,

(TITLE)
…………………………………………….

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 (BODY)
(Paragraph)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..
(Paragraph)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….

Yours faithfully,

(Signature)
Joe Chinda
Managing Director

iii. THE BLOCK STYLE

In the block style, the writer’s address and date remain on the
right hand margin. The addresses are block; the title starts from
the left-hand margin and the complimentary close also aligns from
the left-hand margin. The body of the letter must also reflect the
block style by having the paragraphs not identified. Each
paragraph must start from the left hand margin. Spaces are
created between paragraphs to give legibility. A sample of the
block style is shown below.

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 182 Ikwere Road,
Mile 3, Diobu,
Port Harcourt.
12th April, 2004
Our Ref: _______________
Your Ref: ______________

The Personnel Manager,

Jeff-Kabie Co. Ltd.,
P.M.B. 1057,
Port Harcourt.

Dear Sir,

(TITLE)
…………………………………………….

(BODY)
(Paragraph)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..
(Paragraph)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Yours faithfully,

(Signature)
Joe Chinda

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 Managing Director

iv. SEMI- BLOCK STYLE

The semi-block style is in-between the block and the indented
forms. Here both the addresses remain in block form, but the title
is centralized and the paragraphs in the body of the letter are
indented. The complimentary close aligns from the right hand
margin as is shown below:
182 Ikwere Road,
Mile 3, Diobu,
Port Harcourt.
12th April, 2004

Our Ref: _______________

Your Ref: ______________

The Personnel Manager,

Jeff-Kabie Co. Ltd.,
P.M.B. 1057,
Port Harcourt.

Dear Sir,

(TITLE)
…………………………………………….

(BODY)
(Paragraph)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
.......

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 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….………………………………………………………………………………………
(Paragraph)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
.......
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….…………………………………………………………………………………………

Yours faithfully,
(Signature)
Joe Chinda
Managing
Director

The Seven Principles of A Business Letter

Completeness: This entails the ability of the writer to give out information
in full. In business letter writing, a good writer should ensure that he does
not omit any of the vital part of the letter like date, addresses, or signature
and name. A complete business letter is that which contain all the facts
necessary for the required reaction of the receiver and also facilitates the
sender in achieving the desired goal as well as help build good will.
Completeness as a principle of business letter writing helps eradicate
ambiguity in meaning which may result from the giving of insufficient
information thereby bridging the communication gap between the sender
and the receiver.
I. Clarity: The aim of all communication act is understanding and
transfer of meaning from the source to the destination. This however,
is sometime hindered by the background of the communicators in
areas like culture, education, communication skills, social system that

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 defines and influences their understanding and interpretation of
messages. Clarity therefore, stresses the ability of the writer to give
out clear information in a language devoid of ambiguity and
vagueness, presented in sentences that are accurately punctuated,
written in legible hand writing and well-spaced paragraphs.
II. Correctness: This is concerned with statements or sentences that are
grammatical. Language as a medium of communication makes use of
parts of speech, which are governed by concord. A correct use of the
parts of speech in their union makes good grammar which is the
hallmark of any good communication or writing. Any deviation from
the standard therefore, upsets the reader as well as cuts him off from
the flow of the writer’s line of argument. It becomes imperative for the
writer to guard against grammatical incorrectness. Correctness in
letter writing is also concerned with the ability of the writer to use the
right word in the right context, this can be achieved by extensive
reading, which enables the writer expand his word bank; and a
sensible use of the dictionary. It also takes into consideration the
audience and the topic as they are determinant factors in word choices
and register selection.
III. Conciseness: A salient feature of any effective writing is economy of
words and expressions. Conciseness simply means precision in writing,
and a concise business letter is devoid of verbosity, unnecessary
repetition that ends up wasting not only the writer’s time but also that
of the receiver; and which may also mislead the readers. A good writer
should therefore choose words that convey the exact message in a
precise manner.
IV. Consideration: This principle gives priority to the reader by viewing
every matter from the point of view of the audience in respect to the
reader’s age, education background, culture, knowledge of the subject

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 matter etc. , being reader-oriented makes it the building block for
other principles of business letter writing.
V. Courtesy/Courteousness: This principle is an extension of the
principle of consideration. It is in line with politeness principles of any
good and effective communication. A good writer should be polite in
his use of language to enable him encourage good relationship and
mutual trust with his audience. Pleasantness in language helps
improve business relations. Courtesy as a principle is achieved by the
writer if he is able to avoid derogatory, hurtful, irritating remarks;
respond to letters promptly; imbibe tactful, thoughtful and
appreciative tone in language, and the humility to apologize politely
when necessary.
VI. Coherence: this principle borders on relationship of ideas in a letter.
It serves as a link between what the writer has written in the previous
paragraph and what he is writing in the present one thereby
establishing a logical thread among the paragraphs in a letter. It is
therefore considered as a very important principle of a business letter
enabling the writer to link his materials (ideas) together.
VII. Concreteness: This means to be specific, definite and vivid in
expression. This can be achieved by a writer by stating facts and
figures, the use of action verbs and imagery that help obliterate
vagueness and generalizations from our business writings.

What is a Memo?

Unlike business letters which addresses people in other organizations,

business memorandum (memos for short) addresses people within the
same organization that often reports briefly and directly on a very

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specific topic: an answer to a question, a progress report, an evaluation
etc.

A business memo is usually more informal in tone than a business letter.

Particularly if they know the addressee and very concise and mainly used
foe internal communication within an organization as it is used in
reporting the day to day operations of an establishment.

Characteristics of a memo.

 The memo has no return address, inside address, salutation, or

close.
 The heading of a memo typically consists of the date, the
addressee’s name, the writer’s name, and a subject description
or title.
 A memo is never signed, though you may initial your name in the
heading.
 A memo is direct and brief. In other words, be succinct in your
presentation.
 It is more informal in tone than a business letter.

Differences between a memo and a business letter

 A memo is an internal means of business communication in

organizations while business letters are external means of
communication within and outside an organization.
 A memo is underscored by succinctness and conciseness; a
business letter is usually lengthy and detailed.
 It is more informal in tone than the business letter because
sometimes the writer of a memo may know the recipient while in
business letters, the case is not usually the same.

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 A memo lacks addresses (inside & return addresses), a business
letter has both.
 A memo lacks salutation and close, while they are compulsory
requirements of a business letter.

Comprehension: The Goal of Reading

Comprehension, or extracting meaning from what you read, is the ultimate
goal of reading. Experienced readers take this for granted and may not
appreciate the reading comprehension skills required. The process of
comprehension is both interactive and strategic. Rather than passively
reading text, readers must analyze it, internalize it and make it their own.

In order to read with comprehension, developing readers must be able to

read with some proficiency and then receive explicit instruction in reading
comprehension strategies (Tierney, 1982).

General Strategies for Reading Comprehension

The process of comprehending text begins before children can read, when
someone reads a picture book to them. They listen to the words, see the
pictures in the book, and may start to associate the words on the page with
the words they are hearing and the ideas they represent.

In order to learn comprehension strategies, students need modeling,

practice, and feedback. The key comprehension strategies are described
below.

Using Prior Knowledge/Previewing

When students preview text, they tap into what they already know that will
help them to understand the text they are about to read. This provides a
framework for any new information they read.

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Predicting
When students make predictions about the text they are about to read, it
sets up expectations based on their prior knowledge about similar topics. As
they read, they may mentally revise their prediction as they gain more
information.

Identifying the Main Idea and Summarization

Identifying the main idea and summarizing requires that students determine
what is important and then put it in their own words. Implicit in this process
is trying to understand the author’s purpose in writing the text.

Questioning
Asking and answering questions about text is another strategy that helps
students focus on the meaning of text. Teachers can help by modeling both
the process of asking good questions and strategies for finding the answers
in the text.

Making Inferences
In order to make inferences about something that is not explicitly stated in
the text, students must learn to draw on prior knowledge and recognize
clues in the text itself.

Visualizing
Studies have shown that students who visualize while reading have better
recall than those who do not (Pressley, 1977). Readers can take advantage
of illustrations that are embedded in the text or create their own mental
images or drawings when reading text without illustrations.

Strategies for Reading Comprehension: Expository Text

Expository text explains facts and concepts in order to inform, persuade, or
explain.

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The Structure of Expository Text
Expository text is typically structured with visual cues such as headings and
subheadings that provide clear cues as to the structure of the information.
The first sentence in a paragraph is also typically a topic sentence that
clearly states what the paragraph is about.

Expository text also often uses one of five common text structures as an
organizing principle:

 Cause and effect

 Problem and solution
 Compare and contrast
 Description
 Time order (sequence of events, actions, or steps)

Teaching these structures can help students recognize relationships between

ideas and the overall intent of the text.

Main Idea/Summarization
A summary briefly captures the main idea of the text and the key details
that support the main idea. Students must understand the text in order to
write a good summary that is more than a repetition of the text itself.

Learning to navigate instructional and expository texts can be a challenge for

beginning readers. Students with limited exposure to formal education,
students with learning disabilities, and English Language Learners may also
have a difficult time identifying the structure of the text and comprehending
material with content - specific vocabulary. Providing students with direct
instruction, as well as scaffolded instruction in these skills, will increase
comprehension, improve recall of material, prepare students for note-taking,
and aid in the development of research skills.

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Expository Text Structure
Expository texts typically follow one of five formats: cause and effects,
compare and contrast, description, problem and solution, and sequence.
Students can learn to recognize the text structure by analyzing the signal
words contained within the text.
Typical Text Structures of Expository Text
Cause and Effect Ideas, events in time, or facts are presented as
causes or the resulting effects(s) or facts that
happen as a result of an event
Compare and Contrast Information is presented by detailing how two or
more events, concepts, theories or things are
alike and / or different
Description A topic is described by listing characteristics,
features, attributes and examples
Problem and Solution A problem and one or more solutions to the
problem is outlined
Sequence Items or events are listed in numerical or
chronological sequence, either explicitly or
implied.

Persuasive/Argumentative Comprehension: Analyzing The Structure

1. State your issue and point of view

2. Use the best arguments and evidence you have

3. Be logical and consistent

4. Use influential language (power words, persuasive writing techniques,

transitions

5. Write in present tense.

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Persuasive Comprehension: The Structure
In plain English, persuasive Comprehension is a piece or writing that offers a
polemical opinion and provides an argument and evidence to prove it. When
writing it, you want the audience to agree with you, so your task is to
convince them.

Persuasive Articles: The Language

Yes, the structure of persuasive articles is simple. But, as far as you
understand, it’s not what makes them so convincing. Clear yet emotional
language, concise writing styles, power words that reinforce a writer’s
opinion with facts and evidence – that’s only a few persuasive writing
techniques to use when structuring your essay.

A persuasive articles is a mix of emotive language, critical thinking, and

successful arguments with hard evidence. To convince the audience, you
need to write an essay with particular words, phrases, and persuasive
writing techniques in mind.

The basic strategies, also known as the rhetorical triangle, to use for that
are:

 Logos: Logic and facts to persuade the audience

 Ethos: Credibility and expertise (appealing to big names and their

reputation) to persuade the audience.

 Pathos: Emotional language to persuade the audience.

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 NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
In the modem complex world every society today is faced with serious
social, economic and political problems. These problems need systematic
intelligent and practical solution. Problem solving is a technical process. It
requires among all other things accumulation of new knowledge. Research
provides the means for accumulating such a fund of knowledge and wisdom.

In other words research is a systematic effort at gathering, analysis

interpretation of the problems confronted by humanity. It is a thinking
process and a scientific method of studying a problem and find solution.

Research is not the exclusive preserve of a chosen few. Any individual

belonging to any field of activity can undertake research or activities to
repeat a search. Research or activities to repeat a search. Research helps to
push the frontiers of knowledge beyond the horizon. It is an indepth analysis
based on reflective thinking of the various henomena or observed units to
make a generalization. Research is essential for building up of the knowledge
base in social science. It develops concepts, theories and tools of
measurement. It also provides the research investigator necessary skills to
analyse problems scientifically and find solutions

QUALIFIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

The success of any research to a very great extent depends on the qualities
of the researcher. The qualities are two fold -(I) General qualities that are
needed for any research (2) Particular qualities that are concerned with
particular research.

General Qualities

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The main general qualities needed for the success in the research work are
as follows:

1. Scientific attitude: The first essential quality of a successful research

worker is that he must possc.ss a scientific frame of mind. He must
have the determination and ability to get the naked facts and not to be
influenced by one’s own wishes. As human beings he has certain
praises and prejudices. He has also certain preconceived notions about
the problems being researched. He should keep all these things with
him. He who takes things at face value, lacks independence, can not
break away from customary ideas or is partial to be influenced by his
desires and wishes has not the making of a man of science. The
curiosity to know the unknown is the basis of all kinds of research
work. There is no material compensation for the sacrifice made by
them. Thirst for knowledge is the cause and satisfaction is the reward.

2. Imagination and Insight: The researcher must possess a high

degree of imagination. He should be able to go deeper and deeper into
the realm of abstract social phenomena and visualise the intangible
aspects of society.

3. Perseverance: The work of scientific research requires unlimited

patience and perseverance. He should not get easily discouraged. It is
not unoften that he might be faced with serious difficulties. For
example, the respondents might not cooperate. The season might be
uncooperative and he might be unwelcome to the place of research. It
is equally possible that he might subsequently feel that the choice of
the problem was wrong. Inspite ofll this he must have moral courage
to face the difficulties and work patiently and continuously over long
periods.

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4. Quick grasping power: The researcher should possess the power to
grasp the significance of things quickly. Circumstances may present
themselves with great suddenness, when the researcher is not
prepared to meet them. At such times he has to grasp their
significance at once and react in proper time.

5. Clarity of thin king : A good researcher should have clear idea about
the terminology that he is going to use. There should be uniformity in
that he should be clear about the meaning of the terms being used.
His whole will become defective in case he uses the terms differently
at different places or in different situations.

Specific Qualities

The specific qualities required are as follows:

1. Knowledge of the subject: The researcher should be an expert in

the study of the subject which he is going to research. Hence he
should read all texts on the matter, and form a clear cut idea about
the subject under study. Such knowledge helps him In preparing
questionnaire and schedule to get proper information. He can enter
into face to face discussion and remove any doubts arising the minds
of the people regarding the study.

2. Knowledge of the technique of research : The research worker

should also possess an intimate knowledge of the technique that is to
be applied to the problem. In his study he would be using different
research tools He should not use them simply for the sake of using but
fully well know their use. He should properly get himself trained in the
use of these tools so that ,tf difficulties arise be should be in a position
to overcome them.

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3. Personal taste in the study: A personal taste in the study will inspire
him and keep his morale high in times of difficulties. A forced work is
often monotonous and very tiresome.

4. Familiarity about the Information: The researcher should be familiar

with the people whom he is studying. Familiarity will help him to get
intimate information. For example, refugees from Sri Lanka would talk
more freely to a person knowing their language, culture or having than
to a stranger. Familiarity enables the researcher to appreciate the
problems more properly, John Howard (1726-1790) conducted his
prison research while actually living with the prisoners under the same
conditions.

5. unbiased attitude: The researcher should have no preconceptions

about the subject under study. He should go to his research with
absolutely a clean state, He should maintain an open mind and look for
data which world substantiate and give his theory a new meaning.

No researcher can be, without shortcomings It is therefore essential

that he should be fully aware of that so that while arriving at some
conclusions he is in a position to take into consideration his drawbacks
and shortcomings as well.

Steps in Preparing a Research Design

A research design usually comprises of the following major of steps.

Selection of research problem

The research problem may be selected from the following sources:

1. Theory

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2. Every day problems

3. Technological changes

4. Unexplored areas

5. Discussions with supervisor

The selection of research problem depends on whether research is being

conducted for obtaining a degree or it is for academic interest. If the
research is for Masters degree level, M.Phil. or Ph.D., the problem may be
more specific and limited in scope and may offer itself for completion within
a specified time. On the other hand if the research is for academic interest,
time should not be a binding factor. Here the sole objective is to enrich the
knowledge through the application of advanced research methods special
assignments, research reports and articles may suggest some additional
areas of needed research.

Title of the research project

The title should be brief, precise and should project the scope of the problem
in generalized terms.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of any research is the acquisition of knowledge. A brief mention
of the significance of the study area in the present context of social life
should be attempted highlighting the main purpose which prompted the
investigator to take up the present study.

Review of literature
As a next step the researcher should go through all the existing literature
relating to his problem. This is essential to know whether the problem has

26
already been investigated before. If so how and to what extent. Through the
review, the researcher will get acquainted with the different areas covered
by various studies. Finally a critical appraisal of previous studies is more
meaningful, useful and a correct approach in any field of investigation.

Statement of the problem

Once the researcher is able to get a complete knowledge of the subject
under study from various sources, he must be in a position to state his
research problem in unambiguous and more precise terms. He should be
very clear in his plan of research.

Scope of the investigation

The researcher should decide in the very beginning as so what he is going to
investigate. He should take into consideration the time, money available to
him, availability of sample, his ability to collect information from the
respondents etc. Once the scope of the investigation is delimited, the
investigator will report the scope in explicit terms while giving out the
limitations of his study.

Objectives of the study

If the researcher lacks a clean understanding of the purpose of his research
—its theoretical and practical implications, he is likely to be insensitive to the
nature of the problem to be studied, the type of data needed, the
appropriate approach and the level of precision required. Care has to be
taken that the objectives of the study are well within the scope of the
investigation envisaged by him.

Concepts and variables used in the investigation

27
It is desirable that the research worker should make himself familiar with the
concepts—normal and operational definitions used in the investigation. He
should also possess the intimate knowledge of the variables that are to be
applied to the problem. In the absence of such knowledge of the concepts
and variables the researcher is likely to commit methodological errors and
the deduction drawn by him may not be sound.

Selection of hypothesis
Hypothesis are tentative solution to a problem. The success of a research
study depends upon how best hypothesis has been selected by the
researcher. The hypothesis should be clear, specific, capable of empirical
test and must be related to body of theory and available technique. So the
researcher’s job is to clearly lay down the hypothesis for testing and
verification. This will help him in delimiting the scope of his study.

Selection of the sample

Sampling study is becoming more and more popular and important in any
investigation. The vastness of population, the difficulties of contacting
people, high refusal rate, difficulties of ascertaining the universe make
sampling the best alternative in case of research studies. While selecting the
sample, the investigator should consider the definition of the population, size
of the sample, representatives of the sample. The results and sampling
should attain a sufficiently high standard of accuracy.

Data collection
Collection of data is of at most importance for a research investigation. If the
data is not accurate and adequate, the findings are bound to be misleading.

The researcher should decide the method which are to be used for data
collection, whether it is questionnaire, an interview schedule, a case study

28
or observation method of any if these. All the same the researcher must be
unbiased sharp and courteous to respondents so that he can get proper
feedback relevant to the research problem.

Processing, analysis and tabulation of data

All collected data need to be processed for their inconsistencies on
inaccuracies. Planning of analysis in advance is not always possible because
new ideas occur to the investigator as he collects the information. Depending
on the nature of the data and the information required by the hypothesis the
investigator should subject the data to appropriate statistical analysis. Each
statistical technique serves a special purpose and has a special set of
assumptions which must be met before it can be used for analysis and
interpretation. The researcher is advised to tabulate the results in a
meaningful way. Each table should be followed by a discussion.

Interpretation of the results

Knowledge of previous studies will have a great impact on the interpretation
of results. The researcher should be very definite that his plan of research is
based on sound scientific lines, Be can safely generalize the findings
obtained in his study through inductive inference. The results of the
investigation are to be interpreted to uncover any additional factors which
could not be visualized by the investigator earlier.

Verification
The conclusion drawn through a research study is subject to verification at
any time. Verifiability presupposes that the phenomena must be capable of
being observed and measured: The results should not contradict the earlier
findings which were proved to be correct.

29
Conclusions
The results verified can be used for drawing Conclusions. Hence verification
helps in drawing specific conclusion.

Suggestions for future research

Research is not an end in itself. The researcher should be able to give right
directions to the future researchers from the insights he has gained during
the investigation.

Bibliography
In preparing the research design, the researcher is expected to give the
references for further information on various aspects of research work.
Name of the author, title, year, publication and page number should be
included in bibliography.

Appendixes
Appendixes are relatively short sections normally reported before
bibliography. Big tables, figures, notes, copy of questionnaire, case study, to
name a few are included in the appendixes.

To conclude, research design varies in its complexity and adequacy

depending on the nature of the problem, the data, the facilities for carrying
out the study, the research sophistication and competence of the
investigator.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION – 1

OBSERVATION
Definition

30
Goode and Hatt say, “Science begins with observation and must ultimately
return to observation for its final validation”. Moses and Kalton are of the
opinion that, “observation implies the use of the eyes rather than of the ears
and the voice”. Observation may be defined as systematic viewing, coupled
with consideration may be defined as systematic viewing, coupled with
consideration of the seen phenomena, in which main consideration must be
given to the larger unit of activity by which the specific observed phenomena
occurred (Young). Observing natural phenomena, aided by systematic
classification and measurement, led to the development of theories and laws
of nature’s forces. It is the classic method of scientific enquiry. The
accumulated knowledge of biologists, physicists, astronomers and other
natural scientists is built upon centuries of systematic observation, much of
it of phenomena in their natural surroundings rather than in the laboratory.

Components of Observation
Observation involves three processes, i.e., (1) sensation. (2) attention and
(3) perception. Sensation is gained through the sense organs which depends
upon the physical alertness of the observer. Then comes attention which is
largely a matter of habit. The third is perception which involves the
interpretation of sensory reports. Thus sensation merely reports the facts as
observed but perception enables the mind to recognize the facts.
Observation helps in studying collective behaviour and complex social
situations; following up of individual units composing the situations;
understanding the whole and the parts in their interrelation; and getting the
out of the way details of the Situation.

Characteristics of Observation
Firstly, observation is at once a physical as well as metal activity. The use of
sense organ is involved as in observation one has to see or hear something.

31
Secondly observation is selective because one has to observe the range of
those things which fall within the observation

Thirdly, observation is purposive. Observation is limited to those facts and

details which help in achieving the specified objectives of research. Fourthly,
observation has to be efficient. .. Mere watching alone is not enough. There
should be scientific thinking. Further, these observations should be baked on
tools of research which have been properly standardised.

Fifthly, in observation, the researcher makes direct study. It is a classical

scientific method for the collection of primary and dependable data.

Sixthly, through observation, it is possible to establish cause-effect

relationship in social phenomena. Last but not the least characteristic feature
of the observation method is that the investigator first of all observes things
and then collects data.

Aids of Observation
Diaries, note-books, schedules, photographs and maps are the commonly
used devices for observation. Diaries record data when the impressions are
fresh and vivid. Notes recorded in the note books serve as an aid to the
memory and are particularly useful in stamping impressions upon the minds
of the investigators. Schedules draw up lists of points to be covered and
helps the investigator to note down the answers. Photographs are more
realistic and revealing than words and they remind field workers of certain
details that the pen fails to record. Besides pictures lend authenticity to the
facts describe and preserve the actual character of social situations. Maps
are useful in gathering and analysing information. Different types of
information and facts can be shown on maps by plotting rainfall, vegetation,
distribution of soil conditions, location of schools etc.

32
Types of Observation
Subjective and objective observations: Observation has two
components: - the object (what is observed) and the subject (the
observer). Sometimes one may have to observe one’s own experience. This
is called subjective observation or self-observation or Introspection. In this
kind of observation, the observer takes stock of himself. Persistent self
observation and criticism by others may help in avoiding prejudices and
biases. It sensitises the observer to the problems of others and creates
sympathetic insight which helps in understanding the problems. In many
investigations the observer is an entity apart from the things observed. This
is objective observation or extrospection In recording social data, objective
observation is more appropriate as compared to subjective observation.

Intra-subjective and Inter-subjective observations If the repeated

observations of a constant phenomenon by the same observer yield const
data, the observation is said to be intra-subjective. If repeated observe a
constant phenomenon by different observers yield constant data,
observation is said to be inter-subjective. Validity and reliability are qualities
that are essential to the effectiveness of any data gathering procedure.

Casual and Scientific observation : An observation may be casual or

scientific Casual observation takes place without preparation and it is a
matter of chance that the right thing is observed at the right time and in the
rig place. On the other hand, scientific observation is carried out with the
help of tools of measurement.

Simple and systematic observation: Observation is found in almost all

research studies. Data collected through such observation is known as
simple observation. Its practice is not standardised. Systematic observation
employs standardised procedures, training of observes, schedules for

33
recording and other devices to control the observer-and sometimes even the
subject.

Direct and indirect observations: The direct method describes the

situation in which the observer is physically present and personally monitors
what takes place. This approach is very flexible because it allows the
observer to react to and report subtle aspects of events and behaviour as
they occur. He is also free to shift places change the focus of observation or
concentrate on unexpected events. A weakness of this approach is that the
observer’s perception may become overloaded. Observer’s fatigue, boredom
and distracting events can reduce the accuracy and completeness of such
observation. Indirect observation is the term used to describe studied in
which the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic
means. Such methods are less biased and less erratic in their recording
accuracy. Another advantage of this method is the permanent record which
can be reanalysed with respect of different aspects of an event. Electronic
devices are used more frequently in observation.

Behavioural and non-behavioural observations : The concept of

observation involves not only watching but also listening and reading. Thus
observation includes the full range of monitoring behavioural and non-
behavioural activities and conditions. Non-verbal analysis, linguistic analysis,
extra-linguistic analysis and spatial analysis are the four major categories of
behavioural observational study of persons. Record analysis, physical
condition analysis and physical process analysis are the three major
categories of non-behavioural study of persons.

Non-verbal behavioural observations: It includes observation of body

movement, motor expressions and even exchanged glances. Body
movement is an indicator of interest or boredom, anger or pleasure in a
certain environment. Motor expressions such as facial movements can be
34
observed as a sign of emotional studies. Finally exchanged glances might be
of interest in studies of interpersonal behaviour. Linguistic behaviour is a
second frequently used form of behavioural observation. The familiar
example is the annoying words or sounds which a professor utters during
the class.

There are four dimensions to extra linguistic activity viz, vocal, temporal,
interaction and verbal. Spatial relationship, analysis is a study as to how one
relates physically to others. A study about the effects of crowding in a work
place is an example of spatial relationship observation. Record analysis
involves analysis of historical or current records, public or private records,
written printed, sound recorded photographic or video recorded. The content
analysis of competitive advertising, the analysis of personnel records are the
examples of this type of observation. Physical condition analysis refers to
store audits, studies of plant, safety compliance, analysis of inventory
conditions etc. Physical process or activity studies include time studies of
manufacturing process, traffic flows in a distribution system, paper work flow
in an office and the study of financial flows in our banking system.

Participant and non-participant observations: Observation can also be

classified into participant observation and non-participant observation. If the
observer participates with the activities of the group under study, it is known
as participant observation. In this the observer makes himself a part of the
group. He freely mixes with the social activities of the group, their normal
working, functions and festivals. He has to maintain the relation and rapport
with the group. The members of the group should not have even slightest
doubt about the bonafide of the researchers.

Merits

35
1. The group can be observed in its natural behaviour as they do not
know that they are being observed.

2. The participant observer is much more loser and the group also
accepts him, places him in an advantageous position.

3. Being associated with the groups, one develops greater sympathy and
feelings to the group activities.

4. Participant observer can educate the people and is able to observe

what he wants to observe by “striking the iron when it is red”.

5. Being one of the group members he solicits better information than

the non-participant one.

Demerits

1. Participant observer, due to emotional involvement, sometimes kills

the objectivity by introducing his subjective judgments.

2. Participant observer acquires a certain status in the group and thereby

looses scientific reference.

3. Being a party to the activities in day-to-day life, the range of

experience as well as keenness to minute observation is diminished.

4. Sometimes a participant observer involves himself in group conflicts

and thereby forgets his original purpose.

5. In certain cases, there cannot be active participation, such as in

decoity etc.

36
Non-participant observation : When the observer does not actually
participate in the activities of the group, but simply observes them from
outside, it is known as non-participant observation. This situation in pure
form is rather non-achievable. Only quasi-participant observations are in
practice.

Advantages

1. The researcher is able to acquire information with influence because

he keeps himself away from the activities of the group.

2. Non-participant observation gives the observer an impartial status and

thereby objectivity is being achieved.

3. Observer remains stranger and gets advantage of the situation and

learns the weaknesses as well as makes minute observations without
attachment.

Disadvantages

1. The observer can observe only those activities that take place before
him, but they form only a small part of the whole range. He cannot
understand them in proper sequence unless he has actively
participated.

2. People who are being observed by a stranger sometime do not give

their valued and real actions, feelings as nobody open their treasure
(opinion, attitude) before a new man, with whom they have not
developed oneness.

“Structured and unstructured observation : One of the most

useful bases of classification of observational procedure is the degree

37
of structuredness. Accordingly observation may be structured or
unstructured. The structured observation is one in which the units to
be observed, information to be recorded, the selection of data for
observation and standardisation of conditions of observation are
clearly defined. It is used in studies designed to provide systematic
observation or to test casual hypothesis. The use of structured
observational technique presupposes that the investigator knows that
aspects of the situation under study are relevant to his research
purposes and is in a position to develop a specific plan for making and
recording observations before he begins the collection of data.
Structured observation may take place in the natural field setting or in
laboratory setting. Sound recording, motion pictures, radios, flannel
graphs, flash cards and televisions can also be used as a systematic
process of observation in structured observation. The reliability of
structural observation can be obtained by proper training of observers
and in developing the needed skill in categorising, recording, coding
and interpreting the observation.

The unstructured observation is diametrically opposed to the

structured observation. In this, the researcher becomes participant
observer and takes the role of a member of the group and participate
in its functioning. The unstructured observation is often used in
exploratory analysis. Everything cannot be observed in single
observation and by a single observer. Therefore, reasoning has to be
evolved on the clues of unanticipatory events. However, the technique
is of significance in formulating tentative generalisations or
hypotheses. Being unstructured in nature, it may need a very keen
observer with a sharp focus on the problems or events to be observed.
Regarding the time of recording the events, it should be on the spot
and during the events, because of disturbances in naturalness,

38
suspicion of the persons observed, divided attention and painstaking
elaborate statements. The best way to overcome the situation is to
write down the key words for guidance, using indexing system or
developing a certain code for elaborating the issues. But the detailed
write-up should be taken up as soon as possible. Accuracy of
observation and interpretation is generally difficult in unstructured
observation. For this, it is better to have two or more people to
observe the same event which provides opportunities to compare their
findings and check bias.

Uncontrolled observation : Pauline V. Young calls the uncontrolled

observation as unaided type of observation. In this, observation is
made in the natural environment without being influenced by outside
controls or external forces. The observer does not plan his study in
advance. As Young has observed the researcher resorts to careful
scrutiny of real life situations making no attempt to use precision
instruments. This results in the study of situations in natural
surroundings., Most life situations must be studied in the socio-cultural
setting as they occur, rather than in artificial surroundings created
through controls. Most of the knowledge about the social phenomena
generally is derived through this type of uncontrolled observation only.
This enables first hand acquisition of knowledge and collection of data.
In this the techniques are not standardised nor variables controlled.

One serious limitation in this type of observation is that the observer

may try to generalise from a single situation. As Bernard has generally
pointed out that the data are so real and vivid and feelings about them
are so strong that there are chances of making mistakes about the
emotions. In the uncontrolled observation, the observer has to collect
the data sometimes which is not relevant for the research purpose.

39
Thus this type of investigation consumes more resources, both human
and otherwise. Another danger is that because of the wider coverage,
due to absence of controls, data collected may not be directly related
to the phenomena under observation. The uncontrolled observations
may have bias, and sometime go without checks. Thus the conclusion
derived from such observations may not be of much significance for
making generalisations.

Controlled observation: Controlled observational technique has been

developed to overcome the problems faced in non-controlled
observation. The idea of such observation is to get a precise accurate
and objective data, having the characteristics of verifiability and
validity. It is done by controlling errors, biases as well as the influence
of outside var1able The control exercised in the observation is two
types: (I) Control over the phenomena and (2) control over the
observation or observer.

Control over the phenomena : In this type of controlled observation

method, the phenomena is put under the guided conditions and the
study is made. Since social research deals with social phenomena it is
not easy to put it in a laboratory or under controlled conditions.

Control over the observation or observer: In the systematic

observation the control has to be exercised over the observer and the
observed. But it is possible to exercise control over the observer only.
Following kinds of Control devices are generally used to carry out
controlled observation 1. Detailed observation plan;. 2. Observation
schedule; 3. Team observation; 4. Use of control groups; 5. Use of
hypothesis; 6. Use of sociometric scales and 7. Use of mechanical
appliances.

40
Organisation of field observation : For successful field observation,
organisation and planning has to be done. For valid and useful field
observation, the following steps have to be taken:

(a) Determination of the method of study : If the research is to

be carried on the basis of observation it is essential to determine
the method of study.

(b) Determination of the nature and limits of observation :

After determining the method of study, the plan of observation
has to be prepared on the basis of the hypothesis formulated.
This helps the observer in determining the factors to be
observed.

(c) Decision regarding directness of observation: The

relationship between observer and subject may be either direct
or indirect. The direct method describes the situation in which
the observer is physically present and personally minitors what
takes place. This approach is very flexible because it allows the
observer to react. In indirect observation recording in done by
mechanical, photographic or electronic means.

(d) Determination of expert investigators: In some cases, the

researcher has to seek the help of various experts to cooperate
in the task of observation.

Therefore, right type of field workers should be selected and

arrangement for their training should be made. They must be
explained as to what is to be observed and how.

(e) Determination of time, place and people to study: The next

step is to decide the time, place and people to be observed. The

41
 process of observation may be of short duration or may be
continued over long periods. For a period of long time, special
arrangements are needed. For both short and long period study,
prior determination of people to be observed and the place of
observation is necessary.

(f) Provision of mechanical appliances : In order to collect valid

and reliable data, the field worker must make use of various
instruments like photo camera, movie camera, tape recorders,
charts, maps etc. Arrangement should be made for the provision
of such appliances. The field worker must be trained to make use
of such aids and tools. The schedules must be pre-tested so that
the collected data is dependable.

(g) Collection of data : After the arrangements are made to

provide necessary tools and equipments the researcher should
collect data to test the hypothesis.

(h) Data analysis: Once the collection of data is complete, it should

be analysed and processed through classification tabulation etc.
in accordance with the subject matter. If several field workers
are employed, they should be called upon to give their
observations and processing should be done.

GENERALIZATION: Once the data are tabulated, it becomes possible to

give interpretations and inferences. On this basis, general conclusions may
be drawn. It is after generalisation, the research report is prepared. Only
when all these steps are successfully completed, observation can be
effective and useful. Advantages of observation. Observation is used
extensively due to many reasons.

42
1. Simplicity : The method of observation is simple and non-technical
and requires relatively less training to become a trained observer.

2. Direct and realistic study : It is the most direct means of studying a

wide variety of phenomena based on actual and first hand experience.

3. Useful for formulating and testing of hypothesis: In all social

sciences, the method of observation is the basis for formulating
hypothesis. Through observation, the researcher is able to know the
cause and effect relation. This forms the basis for hypothesis.

4. Accurate and reliable data : The data collected through this method
is accurate and reliable, because they are collected directly. It does
not depend upon reflection or retrospection.

5. Dependable results: As the data collected are accurate and reliable,

the results and conclusions are more dependable and convincing,

Problems of Observation

1. Difficulties in simultaneous observation of events.

2. Considerable time (delay) involved in waiting for the occurrence of

desired behaviour.

3. Non-occurrence of particular type of behaviour, while observation.

4. Behaviour may fail to reveal the true feelings of the individual.

5. Influence of other forces, factors or variables on the behaviour.

Limitations

Observation, although have wider use, have certain limitations.

43
1. The observer may not have the capacity to observe correctly and
relevantly. This may lead to faulty perceptions and it can be rectified
by training.

2. if the people are aware of the fact that they are being observed, it may
lead to unrealistic behaviour. This can be eliminated by informing the
subject and somehow taking the observation with standardised
instruments.

3. Interpretations are being mistaken to observation. This can be

overcome by recording the events by avoiding inferences.

4. Personal bias of the observer is yet another limitation of observation.

5. Another important limitation is the absence of system in observation.

Unsystematic, loose and unscientific observation cannot be used for

valid generalisation. The use of valid instrument like pretested,
prestructured schedule can contribute substantially in overcoming this
limitation.

6. Sometimes unforeseeable factors like weather conditions, alternate

attractions and the like interfere with the task of observation. The
observer, therefore, must keep these limitations and drawbacks of
observation method in mind while using it for data collection.

Questionnaire: Questionnaire is an important tool in obtaining the

important information in a particular field of enquiry. In general, the word
questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a
form which the respondent fills in himself. On the other and schedule is the
name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled in by

44
interviewer in a face to face situation. In both the cases, the wording of the
questions is the same for all respondents.

Structure of Questionnaire: An important feature of the questionnaire is

in the design of the questions; whose form and content depend upon the
research objectives and hypothesis. The questions should be such a to
translate fully the objective, minimise the distortion of the response and
elicit accurate replies as there is little opportunity to seek further
clarification.

The questions should reflect the main objective of the survey, that is, the
inclusion of every item in a questionnaire should give an answer that is
significant for hi central problem. Developing a questionnaire can be thought
of as moving from the ‘inside’ outward. The researcher should layout
tentatively the logical implications of his problem and then prepare questions
which are relevant for these logical implications. The researcher should
consult
colleagues, friends and experts on the problem to get their thinking on the
problem. On the basis of this ground work, a preliminary set of refined
questions is arranged. A pilot survey must be conducted to test the
usefulness of this final draft. The experience in the pilot survey enables the
researcher to redraft the questionnaire in a final form.
The structure of the questionnaire should be such as to minimise the
distortion of the response. Maximizing respondent orientation depends on
the bumber, sequence and language of the questions as well as on the kind,
quality and volume of information required.

a. To ensure the attention of the respondent, the questions should be

few, limited to facts and of interest to the informant. There is always a
temptation to ask too much or all interesting points. This tendency
should be resisted. Lengthy rambling questionnaires are as
45
 demoralising for the interviewer as for the respondent. (For eg., a
survey to ascertain what daily newspapers different kinds of people
read is undertaken. One may be tempted to ask details about reading
of periodicals, books, the money spent on these things, habits of going
to library etc. The questionnaire grows from a short list of questions to
a document. In a professional survey field, such unnecessary
questions are avoided.

b. The sequence or frame of reference should be such that one question

leads to another and makes its relevance self obvious. The ‘Funnel
approach’ or the flow from general to specific questions is often
advocated.

c. Question content is equally important. The wording of the question

must be in familiar language and unequivocal and straight forward.
The questions should be framed bearing in mind the common
language. Technical terms and Jargons are to be avoided in surveys of
general population. The questions should use the simplest words that
will convey the exact meaning.

A common mistake often made is to ask a general question when a specific

issue is wanted. If one is interested specifically in a canteen’s meal prices,
the quality of its service, then we should avoid questions like “Are you
satisfied or dissatisfied with your canteen?”. The questions to be asked
should touch the necessary frames of reference. The two questions to be
asked are

1. Are you satisfied/dissatisfied with the prices of meals in your canteen?

2. Are you satisfied or dissatisfied with the service in your canteen?

46
Ambiguous questions are to be avoided. If an ambiguous word creeps in,
different people will understand the question differently. The following
example from a University research survey makes the point clear. The
women respondents were asked a question—”Is your work made more
difficult because you are expecting a baby?” Suppose they were to answer
‘No’, it would mean, “No, I am not expecting a baby or “No, my work is not
made more difficult by the fact that I am expecting a baby.”

Vague questions should be avoided: For example, if one asks— “What

kind of house do you have?”, some may answer that it is suburban, others
may say that it is very pleasant.

Leading questions should b9 avoided: A leading question is one, which

by its content, structure or wording, leads the respondent in the direction of
a certain answer. (The question form ‘you don’t think do you?” leads to a
negative answer. The question form “should not something be done about
----?” leads to a positive answer.

Presuming questions should not be included: Questions should not

presume anything about the respondent. Question like’ How many cigarettes
a day do you smoke?” should be asked only after a filter question ‘Do you
smoke?’

Hypothetical questions are nut advisable for inclusion A question like

“what would you do if you were to win a lottery?” has an element of wishful
thinking. However such questions are included in market surveys of big firms
to gauge the reaction of the people to a proposed change.

It is often necessary to decide whether personalised questions should be

included or not. In a health survey 98 per cent of the respondents answered
‘Yes’ to the question “Do you think it is a good idea to have everyone’s chest

47
regularly checked for cancer?” But only 54 per cent answered ‘Yes’ to the
personalised question, “Have you ever checked your chest?”

Embrassing questions should not be included. Subjects which people do not

like to discuss in public present a problem to the questionnaire designer
Respondents are often embrassed to discuss private matters, to give low
prestige answers and to admit socially unacceptable behaviour. Respondents
may refuse to answer questions on sexual behaviour frequency of taking a
bath, or cheating in examinations. In such cases it is better to ask in an
indirect way—”Some women using this shampoo find a lot of fat it with it.
Can you guess what they are objecting to,”

Questions involving memory should be carefully worded. For example, a

question like “what programmes did you see yesterday on T.V.? Would take
some time for the respondent to think and there is always the possibility
that he may give a wrong programme. Instead, it is better to list all the
programmes to ask for the information.

To sum up the nature and content of the questions following points may be
noted.

a. Leading and loaded questions which suggest the required answer

should be avoided.

b. Questions which give scope for rationalised answers as well as vague

answers should be discarded.

c. The wording must be in a familiar language and straight forward.

d. Each question should be strictly limited to a single idea and global

questions should be avoided.

48
e. The information sought must be appropriate to the respondents’ level.

Otherwise he might be so embrassed that he would either not respond

at all or even he may pretend to respond when he does not know
anything at all.

f. The scope for answers must be such that it demands minimum time of’
the respondent.

g. Questions answerable only through personal interviews should be

avoided, where ever personal questions are asked and answered,
assurance must be given that they would be treated as confidential.

On the whole it is useful to make a personal appeal in a letter explaining the

purpose of the enquiry and appealing for the respondents co-operation. If
properly framed, the questionaire has the advantage of ensuring anonymity
to the respondent and so it gives more scope for reliable answers. But it also
affords the opportunity to read the questions ahead and thus ‘to adjust’ the
answers. On the whole questionnaire makes possible a great variety and a
number of alternative questions which may not be possible in a schedule or
interview.

Types of Questions

a. Structural Questions: Questions which allow only a few alternative

ways of answering are structural questions. The simplest example of a
structural questions “What is your age?”. There can be only one
answer to this question.

Of there are possibilities of different but definite answers, it will be of

the following form: Are you at present

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 (I) Single _________

(2) Married _________

(3) Divorced ________

(4) Separated _________

(5) Widowed__________

It is better to have structural question like about for marital status

because a general question like what is your marital status may result
in a confusing answer like ‘fine’:

b. Unstructural or open ended questions: When the question can get

any type of answer it is unstructural or open-ended question. Example
what factors about a job should one consider before accepting it?

There is a wide choice of answer for the respondent. Usually

unstruetural questions are included in the pilot surveys and the
answers obtained are used to prepare structural questions in the final
schedule or questionnaire.

c. Dichotomous Questions Dichotomous questions result in ‘Yes’ or

‘No’ answers or they are questions where only two alternative answers
are possible. a) Sex of the respondent Male/Female. (b) Are you a
member of Diner’s Club? Yes/No.

d. Multiple choice questions : Here the answer is selected ‘from

among several alternatives, care should be taken to include as many
alternatives as possible. To be on the safeguard, the last alternative
can be written as “any other”.

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Example
Nature of career you propose to take?

a. Business or industry

b. Government service.

c. Private.

d. Profession

e. Vocation

f. Any other (specify)

E. Ranking Item Questions: Here different alternative answers are

given for the question and the respondent is asked to rank them or
show his preference by numbering them 1,2,3 etc

Example: You are given a job, where would you like your posting to
be? Number your preference. 1) Delhi 2. Bombay 3. Madras 4. Nagpur.

(F) Factual versus opinion questions: Factual questions refer to

questions which seek information. The chief difficulty with factual
questions is to ensure that the respondents understand them. Opinion
questions seek the opinions of the respondents. It is always difficult to
elicit information on opinion questions because the respondent may
not have had any opinion on the matter yet try to answer it wrongly.

For example if the opinion of the respondent is sought on the capital

punishment he may not know what is capital punishment. Further
even if he knows it his opinion may be many sided. Thus he may be
against capital punishment on moral grounds, but may favour it on

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legal grounds. Due to intensity of opinions, the answers may be
biased. It is always easy to cross- check factual questions but not so in
the case of opinion questions.

Degree and Reliability of the Response: The degree and

dependability of response are related to three main factors: (1) The
subject of enquiry. (2) The class of respondents. (3) The structure of
the questionnaire.

In Under Developed Countries, where even such simple questions as

saving are treated as highly personal, the response will be both poor
and not very accurate for a Questionnaire. The schedule would be a
better device in such an environment. Where the respondents are not
civic conscious, the replies will be few and far between. But as in
U.S.A. where there is a highest degree of education and social
consciousness, even an enquiry into the very intimate problem of sex
behaviour could be successfully tackled.

Broadly speaking, a high reliability could be expected in answers to

objective and factual questions and low reliability from questions
regarding attitudes (opinion questions). Of the questionnaire is short
and simple and attractively worded without too many details reliability
is greater. The tendency to send out elaborate and vague
questionnaires should be avoided.

Advantages of Questionnaires: By its very nature the questionnaire

is likely to be a less expensive procedure than interview. It requires
much less skill to administer than an interview. In fact questionnaires
are often simply mailed or handed to respondents with a minimum of
explanation.

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 Questionnaires can often be administered to large number of
individuals simultaneously. An interview usually calls for questioning
each individual separately.

Questionnaires can often be administered to large number of

individuals simultaneously. An interview usually calls for questioning
each individual separately

Questionnaires can be sent through the post (mailed, Questionnaire).

This is not possible in interviewing. Therefore with a given amount of
funds, it is usually possible to cover a wider area and to obtain
information from more people by means of questions than by personal
interviewing of each respondent.

The impersonal nature of a questionnaire, standardised wording offers

some uniformity from one measurement situation to another. The
interviewing situation may or may not be uniform from one interview
to the next.

The respondents to questionnaires may have greater confidence in

anonymity and feel free to express their views. The respondents of an
interview may doubt even if he is assured about anonymity.
In questionnaire method the subjects have enough time for filling out
the questionnaire instead of giving any answer that comes to his mind.

5. Interview : The interview is the implement par excellence of the field

worker; particularly in an underdeveloped country both because of the
types of problems tackled and the environment from which data are to
be collected.

The interview is a conversation with a purpose. Therefore it is more

than a mere oral exchange of information. Its importance arises from

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the necessity to come into contact with individuals to get access to
facts and opinions and to receive facts directly from the persons.
Where the source is accessible to the investigator, the interview is the
device to tap it. Apart from accessibility, the controlling factor in the
success of the interview is the reaction of the personalities involved
namely the investigator and the respondent.

There are three necessary conditions for a successful interview: (1)

First is the ‘accessibility’ of the required information to the respondent.
(2) The second condition is that of ‘cognition’ or understanding by the
respondent of what is required of him. (3) Third condition is
‘motivation’ on the part of the respondent to answer the questions
accurately.

The Interviewer’s Task : The core of the interviewer’s task is to locate

or select her sample members, to obtain interviews with them to ask
the questions and record the questions as instructed. The amount of
time spent by an interviewer on different aspects of work depends on
the length of the questionnaire and the nature of the sample. Yet the
practical experience of

American Research Organizations has proved that only 1/3 of the time
was spent on interviewing. The other two thirds being divided between
travel time and locating respondents, editing the interviews and other
clerical work.

The interviewers are to be carefully selected and trained. Following are

considered as the qualities of an ideal interviewer (a) Interviewers
must be honest and scrupulous. (b) They should have real interest in
the work. (c) They should be accurate in their recording of answers in
the way they follow instructions. (d) The interviewers should be willing

54
to adopt to any type of circumstances in which he or she may have to
work. (e) The interviewer’s personality and temperament should be
congenial. While he should be friendly and interested, he should not
get too emotionally involved with the respondent and his problems. (f)
The interviewer must be intelligent enough to understand and follow
complicated instructions

The interviewers selected on the above basis should be trained. A

researcher wishing to train a team of interviewers might proceed as
follows. New interviewers should be given some insight into the
general work of the organisation and should be told why the survey is
being done. The importance of the interviewers role should be
explained. This should be followed by some instructions on
interviewing methods. Dummy interviews can be organised among the
trainees. In the last stage they can be given a chance of pre-testing
the questionnaire and instructions in the field.

When the interviewers are sent to the field they should be given clear
instructions and guidelines. Questionnaire instructions should be
printed on the questionnaire or given to him as, a separate document.
Some supervision of interviewers is essential when they are in field
work. The researcher should conduct ‘field work ‘checks’ to find out
whether an interviewer has really made all the interviews and whether
she has asked questions and interpreted them correctly according to
instructions.

These are the various aspects of formal interviews. There is also

informal interviewing. These are conversational or casual interviewers.
There is no set questionnaire. In some, the respondent is given a good
deal of eedom, to cover a given set of topics in a more or less
systematic way. This is known as ‘the guided or focused interview’.
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Informal interviewing requires greater skill for the interviewer than in
the case of formal interview. Informal interviewing may give rise to
personal influence and bias. The main advantage of informal
interviewing is the depth of information obtained. The interviewer can
dig deeper and get a richer understanding of a particular problem
which is not possible in a formal interview.

Usefulness of Interview Technique As A Research Tool : Being direct, it

is the only way in which certain types of information can be obtained.
It is as trustworthy a means of getting facts as participant observation.

Being highly flexible, it permits of maximum variations in directing the

enquiry and there in scores over the questionnaire. People unwilling to
answer even the shortest questionnaire, will talk and freely too owing
to the informality of the occasion. The interviewer helps to supplement
personal information and check on experience and ideas. The
interviewer uses his tool in the same way like a physician when he
talks to a patient to describe how he feels and what he thinks is the
matter with him.

Interviews can be used with almost all types of population. In this

respect it is better than the questionnaire which is appropriate for only
with some amount of education, complicated questionnaires requiring
extended written responses can be used only with a very small
percentage of population. The only problem with interviewing is to
limit the responses of the verbose and enthusiastic respondent.

Surveys conducted by personal interviews have another advantage.

They usually yield a much better sample of the general population
surveyed. Many people are willing to co-operate in a study where alt
they have to do is to talk. Questionnaires do not usually elicit so high a

56
 completion rate as either personal or telephone interviews. When
questionnaires are mailed, the proportion of returns is usually varying
between 10-50 per cent.

Another advantage of the interview is its greater sensibility to

misunderstandings by respondents. In a questionnaire, if a person
misinterprets the question, there is little that can be done to remedy
the situation. In an interview, there is the possibility of making sure
that questions are understood before the responses are recorded. Its
flexibility makes the interview a far superior technique for the
exploration of areas where there is little basis for knowing either what
questions to ask or how to formulate them.

The interview is the most appropriate technique for revealing

information about the complex emotionally laden subjects or for
probing the sentiments that may underline an expressed opinion. If a
verbal report is to be accepted at face value, it must be elicited in a
manner that encourages greatest possible freedom. On the other
hand, the more or less rigid structure of questionnaires, the inability to
explain fully in writing one’s anti-social or pro-social feelings and
behaviour, all these work against frank discussions of socially
controversial issues in response to a questionnaire.

THE RESEARCH REPORT

Leaning and purpose of a report :Report writing is the last activity of the
research process. Although the research process itself is often fascinating
sooner or Later it will be necessary to assemble the findings and determine
the validity of the conclusions. Further analysis of data seems unrewarding.

Research report writing is thus the culmination of the research investigation.

It is a brief statement of most significant facts that are necessary for

57
understanding the generalizations drawn by the researcher, it is a technical
activity which “requires considerable thought, effort, patience, skill and
penetration and an overall approach to the problem, data and analysis, as
well as firm control over language and greater objectivity”. The preparation
of the report is then the final stage of the research and its purpose is to
“convey to interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient
detail and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and
to determine for himself the validity of the concluditon”. It is the dissipation
of knowledge, broadcasting of generalization and helping further research in
the related field.

While writing the research report it is essential to keep in mind certain

issues.

A report could be simple to write all the relevant details which were finally
developed. It should be very carefully worded, understandable and represent
knowledge and wisdom of the researcher on the one hand, his drafting
capacity on the other. Besides, perfection in the research report is achieved
by continuous and persistent thought and creative and intelligent writing.
The problem of the researcher in the first instance is to find out whether the
report is meant for publication? who will do this job and what will be the
cost? The second step is that the report should be presented in an attractive
form ie. the researcher should know whether the report is to be typed?
mimegraphed? printed or photo lithographed. The third point is that the
researcher should know the level acknowledge of the readers. There are
three broad categories., of readers. (1) the layman and the general public,
(2) the administrator and the project sponsor and (3) the fellow researcher
and the technical expert.

2. Target group in report writing : The preparation of research report for

layman mast he interesting, simple and lucid. For the general public
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the emphasis should be on clarity, correct exposition, expression and
simplicity. For example if a businessman orders a market survey to be
conducted for his product, the report submitted must be non-technical
in nature. Otherwise he would not be able to make any use of it. More
and more reports are now being written by the journalists for the
society because utilitarian outlook is being considerably developed in
all the societies. For the administrator report should neither be too
general nor too technical, If the researcher tries to simplify it too
much, the report may become either too vast or too simple and unable
to carry the required impression. The report may contain some
technical aspect but on the whole simple and direct. Every branch of
knowledge has not only its technical terms but also its own specific
way of expression. Unless it is followed the report would appear simply
childish and would lose its research fervour. Therefore it is necessary
that in order to understand the report the reader himself has to rise
higher, rather than let the researcher stoop too low for him. For the
project sponsor the report should stress the relevance of the Study
and its contribution to the general knowledge. The research report
must contain the necessary information about statement of the
problem, the research procedure, the results and the implications of
the research study. For the fellow researcher, the research report must
be helpful to throw some new light which can make the building up of
a new hypothesis and a new theorizing. For the technical expert the
researcher is expected to give full account of the technical aspects
both in the sampling methods and subject matter. Fellow professionals
are more concerned about the methods employed. in fact the value of
the findings and therefore of the report itself depends on the
techniques adopted. Conceptual and analytical framework sample
design should be adequately explained. A technical report contains the

59
 research aspects like the problem and its nature, the method and
scientific accuracy, the data and their dependability, the logical
relationship logically and sequentially with simplicity, clarity and
brevity. Thus a report written for an expert must be more rigorous,
more informative than what is written for the general readers.

There may be various types of research reports e.g., thesis,

monograph, journal article and so on. Because of the spatial
limitations and selectivity, a journal article cannot discuss every aspect
of the research in details as can be done in a thesis. The style of the
report depends on purpose. It may not be the same everywhere but
by and large, a pattern emerges as we shall see a research report
usually follows a fairly standardised pattern given below:

3. Contents of a Re ort : The format is divided into three broad categories

namely (1) Preliminary section (2) main body of the report (3)
reference section. The Preliminary section will vary according to the
type of research one has undertaken. The headings below this-section
are meant as a guide and one may decide to omit some of them or to
amalgamate when this seems appropriate.

The main body of the report is divided into five Sub-sections, namely
introduction, review of the literature, design of the study, presentation
and analysis of data, summary and conclusions. Introduction is the
starting point.

We should say why we undertook the research—what the problem is

and why it is important Depending on the particular piece of research,
the review of literature is introduced. This division will show what is
known already and how our research will fill a gap in knowledge or
replicate earlier work.

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 The description of the design of our research will depend on the
particular project we have undertaken. It includes procedures,
methods and description of the findings. The section presentation and
analysis of data will interpret the results of the research. Tables,
figures will substantiate the analysis. The summary division will
organise the results and point out the implications of the findings for
policy or for other researchers and show what further research needs
to be done.

The last category namely the reference section should include

bibliography, appendices and index in a proper form.

4. Format of the Research Report:

(A) Preliminary Section:
a. Title page
b. Certificate
c. Declaration
d. Acknowledgements
e. Preface or Forward or Abstract
f. Table of contents
g. List of Tables (if any)
h. List of Figures(if any)

(B) Main Body of the Report:

1. Introduction
a. Statement of the problem
b. Significance of the study
c. Purpose
d. Definition of important terms
e. Objectives

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f. Hypothesis
g. Methodology
h. Period of study
i. The study area
j. The data
k. Chapterization

2. Review of the Literature:

a. Critical analysis of the previous research
b. Brief restatement of the present study

3. Design of the study:

a. Procedures used
b. Methods of gathering data
c. Description of data.

4. Presentation andAna1ys, of Data:

a. Text
b. Tables
c. Figures

5. Summary and Conclusion

a. Brief restatement of the study
b. Description of procedures used
c. Main findings and conclusions
d. Recommendations for further research
c. Reference Section:
a. Bibliography
b. Appendix

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 c. Index

Ten Key Characteristics of Final Year Undergraduate Dissertations

and Projects, please react

A dissertation or final year project will usually have several key

characteristics which are common to most, though not necessary all,
disciplinary or interdisciplinary areas whether undertaken on campus, in the
workplace or in the community. Dissertations and final year projects are
likely to require:

 An extended piece of work

 Research and inquiry
 An element of originality, innovation or creativity
 A discipline-based or interdisciplinary topic
 Work which is underpinned by relevant sources
 Critical thinking and assessment
 Contextualisation and recognition of the provisionality of knowledge
 Methodology
 Self-reflective commentary
 A build-up to conclusions
 It needs to be an extended piece of work.

1. This means that the dissertation or project tackles a central question or

issue in depth.

 It needs to be research or inquiry based.

2. There are a great variety of approaches to research, but central to all of

them is a desire to find out something significant about ourselves or our
world. For example, research can be qualitative, quantitative, laboratory
based, design based, artistic, ethnographic, participative, action research,

63
research ‘on’, ‘for’ or ‘with’ people, first person inquiry, or any other
scholarly approach.

 It needs an element of originality, innovation or creativity.

3. Dissertations and final year projects need to go beyond stringing together

facts from books. The originality could come from, for example, the
application of a theoretical framework to new data, critical evaluation of the
arguments surrounding a controversial issue, bringing together information
from multiple sources and presenting it in an innovative way, or applying
theory to real-life issues.

 It needs to be relevant to a discipline or take an interdisciplinary

approach.

4. The student usually has the opportunity to choose their subject matter,
but it should be relevant to the student’s areas of interest and hence maybe
disciplinary or inter-disciplinary in nature. Sometimes the project’s focus
may be work or community based.

 It needs to be underpinned by a range of relevant sources.

5. Sources that inform dissertations and projects include textbooks, journal

articles, interviews, experiments, blogs, wikis, practice reports and direct
personal experience. What is appropriate depends on the situation and the
purposes that the source is being used for, and it should be recognised that
all sources have strengths and limitations.

 It needs an element of critical thinking and evaluation.

6. Students are required to consider and examine relevant sources,

questioning what they learn and the ideas which are presented to them.

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They should consider a variety of ideas, leading up to their final and
reasoned conclusions and implement the skills that they have accumulated
throughout their degree to research, analyse, and discuss.

 It needs to be contextualised and show recognition of the

provisionality of knowledge.

7. It is essential that students understand and demonstrate the context of

the work on which they draw and are contributing to within their fields.
Dissertations and final year projects in higher education should recognise
that knowledge is uncertain and provisional.

 It needs a clearly defined methodology and appropriate methods

8. These provide a structure, purpose and rationale for the dissertation or

project and should be appropriate for its aims and objectives.

 It needs to be supported by an element of reflective commentary

9. This helps to understand the student’s reasoning and to place the

dissertation or project in its setting.

 It needs to build up to its conclusions.

10. Dissertations and final year projects should build on all the above points
to reach a coherent set of conclusions which relate to both the particular
topic and the research process.

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