UNIT-2

Operating system: Definition, Functions, Types, Classification, Elements of command based

and GUI based operating system. Computer Network: Overview, Types (LAN, WAN and
MAN), Data communication, topologies

Operating system-

➢ An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
➢ Every computer system must have at least one operating system to run other
programs. Applications like Browsers, MS Office, Notepad Games, etc., need some
environment to run and perform its tasks.
➢ Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows
Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

History Of OS

➢ Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape storage.
➢ The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early 1950s for their
IBM 701.
➢ In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks.
➢ In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed.
➢ The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by purchasing the 86-DOS
software from a Seattle company.
➢ The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when a GUI was
created and paired with MS-DOS.

Advantage of Operating System

• Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction
• Easy to use with a GUI
• Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications
• The operating system must make sure that the computer system convenient to use
• Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the hardware
components
• It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
• Acts as an intermediator between all hardware’s and software’s of the system

Disadvantages of Operating System

• If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored in
your system
• Operating system’s software is quite expensive for small size organization which adds
burden on them. Example Windows
• It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time.

Functions of Operating System

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the
following activities for memory management −
• Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part
are not in use.
• In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how
much.
• Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
• De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when
and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System
does the following activities for processor management −
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task
is known as traffic controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does
the following activities for device management −
• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.

File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are
often known as file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Functions

Following are some of the important Functions that an Operating System performs −
• Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
unauthorized access to programs and data.
• Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service
and response from the system.
• Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and
users.
• Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
• Coordination between other software and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.

Types of Operating System

Following are the popular types of OS (Operating System):

• Batch Operating System

• Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
• Multiprocessing OS
• Real Time OS
• Distributed OS
• Network OS

Batch Operating System

➢ This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly.
➢ There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and
group them into batches.
➢ It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs.
 Advantages of Batch Operating System:

➢ It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete.
Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in
queue.
➢ Multiple users can share the batch systems.
➢ The idle time for the batch system is very less.
➢ It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

➢ The computer operators should be well known with batch systems

➢ Batch systems are hard to debug
➢ It is sometimes costly
➢ The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails

Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements, etc.

2. Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems

➢ Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly.
➢ Each user gets the time of CPU as they use a single system.
➢ These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems.
➢ The task can be from a single user or different users also.
➢ The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is
over OS switches over to the next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

➢ Each task gets an equal opportunity

➢ Fewer chances of duplication of software
➢ CPU idle time can be reduced

Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:

➢ Reliability problem
➢ One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data
➢ Data communication problem

Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix, etc.

3. Distributed Operating System –

➢ These types of the operating system are a recent advancement in the world of
computer technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too,
with a great pace.
➢ Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other using
a shared communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory
unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. These system’s processors differ in size and function.
➢ The major benefit of working with these types of the operating system is that it is
always possible that one user can access the files or software which are not actually
present on his system but some other system connected within this network i.e.,
remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network.
Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

➢ Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent from each other
➢ Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
➢ Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
➢ Load on host computer reduces
➢ These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
network
➢ Delay in data processing reduces

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:

➢ Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication

➢ To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not well defined yet
➢ These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not
only that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet.

Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS, etc.

4. Network Operating System –

➢ These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
➢ These types of operating systems allow shared access of files, printers, security,
applications, and other networking functions over a small private network.
➢ One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are
well aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the network,
their individual connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly
known as tightly coupled systems.

Advantages of Network Operating System:

➢ Highly stable centralized servers

➢ Security concerns are handled through servers
➢ New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system
➢ Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems

Disadvantages of Network Operating System:

➢ Servers are costly

➢ User has to depend on a central location for most operations
 ➢ Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD,
etc.

5. Real-Time Operating System –

➢ These types of OSs serve real-time systems.

➢ The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very small. This time
interval is called response time.
➢ Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like
missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.

Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:

➢ Hard Real-Time Systems:

These OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict and even
the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life
like automatic parachutes or airbags which are required to be readily available in
case of any accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in these systems.

➢ Soft Real-Time Systems:

These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.
Advantages of RTOS:

➢ Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system, thus more

output from all the resources
➢ Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For
example, in older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in shifting one task to
another, and in the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
➢ Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to
applications which are in the queue.
➢ Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of programs are
small, RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
➢ Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
➢ Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.

Disadvantages of RTOS:

➢ Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very
less on few applications to avoid errors.
➢ Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and
they are expensive as well.
➢ Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer
to write on.
➢ Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts
signals to respond earliest to interrupts.

Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are: Scientific experiments, medical imaging

systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

Multiprocessing Operating system

➢ Multiprocessor Operating System refers to the use of two or more central

processing units (CPU) within a single computer system.
➢ In operating systems, to improve the performance of more than one CPU can be used
within one computer system called Multiprocessor operating system.
➢ Multiple CPUs are interconnected so that a job can be divided among them for faster
execution. When a job finishes, results from all CPUs are collected and compiled to
give the final output.
➢ Jobs needed to share main memory and they may also share other system resources
among themselves. Multiple CPUs can also be used to run multiple jobs
simultaneously.
➢ These types of systems are used when very high speed is required to process a large
volume of data.
➢ These systems are generally used in environment like satellite control, weather
forecasting etc. The basic organization of multiprocessing system is shown in fig.
For Example: UNIX Operating system is one of the most widely used multiprocessing
systems.

Classification of Operating Systems

i) Multiuser OS:
➢ In a multiuser OS, more than one user can use the same system at a same time through
the multi I/O terminal or through the network.
➢ For example: windows, Linux, Mac, etc.
➢ A multiuser OS uses timesharing to support multiple users.

ii) Multiprocessing OS:

➢ A multiprocessing OS can support the execution of multiple processes at the same time.
It uses multiple number of CPU.
➢ It is expensive in cost however, the processing speed will be faster. It is complex in its
execution.
➢ Operating system like Unix, 64 bit edition of windows, server edition of windows, etc.
are multiprocessing.

iii) Multiprogramming OS:

➢ In a multiprogramming OS more than one programs can be used at the same time. It
may or may not be multiprocessing.
➢ In a single CPU system , multiple program are executed one after another by dividing
the CPU into small time slice.
➢ For example: Windows, Mac, Linux,etc.

iv) Multitasking OS:

➢ In a multitasking system more than one task can be performed at the same time but they
are executed one after another through a single CPU by time sharing.
➢ For example: Windows, Linux, Mac, Unix,etc.
Multitasking OS are of two types:
a) Pre-empetive multitasking
b) Co-operative multitasking
➢ In the pre-empetive multitasking, the OS allows CPU times slice to each program. After
each time slice, CPU executes another task. Example: Windows XP
➢ In co-operative multitasking a task can control CPU as long as it requires . However, it
will free CPU to execute another program if it doesn’t require CPU.
 ➢ For Example: windows 3.x, multifinder,etc.

v) Multithreading:
➢ A program in execution is known as process. A process can be further divided into
multiple sub-processers. These sub-processers are known as threads.
➢ A multi-threading OS can divide process into threads and execute those threads. This
increases operating speed but also increases the complexity.
➢ For example: Unix, Server edition of Linux and windows.

Elements of command based and GUI based operating system

➢ Command line interface (CLI) is a text-based interface that is used to operate software
and operating systems while allowing the user to respond to visual prompts by typing
single commands into the interface and receiving a reply in the same way.
➢ CLI is quite different from the graphical user interface (GUI) that is presently being
used in the latest operating systems.
➢ CLI is an older method for interacting with applications and operating systems and is
used to perform specific tasks required by users.
➢ CLI is a text-based interface, unlike the GUI, which uses graphical options that enable
the user to interact with the operating system and applications.
➢ CLI allows a user to perform tasks by entering commands. Its working mechanism is
very easy, but it is not user friendly. Users enter the specific command, press “Enter”,
and then wait for a response. After receiving the command, the CLI processes it
accordingly and shows the output/result on the same screen; command line interpreter
is used for this purpose.
➢ CLI was introduced with the teletypewriter machine. This system was based on
batched processing. Modern computers support CLI, batch processing and GUI in one
interface.
➢ In order to best make use of CLI, a user must be able to enter a bundle of commands
(one by one) quickly. There are many applications (mono-processing systems) that
still use CLI for their operators. In addition, some programming languages, such as
Forth, Python and BASIC, offer CLI. Command line interpreter is used to implement
the text-based interface.
➢ Another feature of CLI is command prompt, which is employed as a sequence of
characters used in the user interface, or shell. Command prompt is used to notify users
that CLI is ready to accept commands.
➢ MS-DOS is the best example of CLI.
➢ GUI is an interface that allows users to interact with different electronic devices using
icons and other visual indicators.
➢ The graphical user interfaces were created because command line interfaces were
quite complicated and it was difficult to learn all the commands in it.
➢ In today’s times, graphical user interfaces are used in many devices such as mobiles,
MP3 players, gaming devices, smartphones etc.
Elements in Graphical User Interface
Graphical User Interface makes use of visual elements mostly. These elements define the
appearance of the GUI. Some of these are described in detail as follows −
Window
This is the element that displays the information on the screen. It is very easy to manipulate a
window. It can be opened or closed with the click of an icon. Moreover, it can be moved to
any area by dragging it around.In a multitasking environment, multiple windows can be open
at the same time, all of them performing different tasks.
There are multiple types of windows in a graphical user interface, such as container window,
browser window, text terminal window, child window, message window etc.
Menu
A menu contains a list a choices and it allows users to select one from them. A menu bar is
displayed horizontally across the screen such as pull down menu. When any option is clicked
in this menu, then the pull down menu appears.
Another type of menu is the context menu that appears only when the user performs a
specific action. An example of this is pressing the right mouse button. When this is done, a
menu will appear under the cursor.
Icons
Files, programs, web pages etc. can be represented using a small picture in a graphical user
interface. This picture is known as an icon. Using an icon is a fast way to open documents,
run programs etc. because clicking on them yields instant access.
Controls
Information in an application can be directly read or influences using the graphical control
elements. These are also known as widgets. Normally, widgets are used to display lists of
similar items, navigate the system using links, tabs etc. and manipulating data using check
boxes, radio boxes etc.
Tabs
A tab is associated with a view pane. It usually contains a text label or a graphical icon. Tabs
are sometimes related to widgets and multiple tabs allow users to switch between different
widgets. Tabs are used in various web browsers such as Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera,
Safari etc. Multiple web pages can be opened in a web browser and users can switch between
them using tabs.
Computer Network-

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:
 o LAN(Local Area Network)
o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:

• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed
software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all
the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost
of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 • The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer
good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is
not able to secure centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues
related to software setup and hardware failures.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically

within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
 o Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

• It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
• Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

• It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
• Distance limits.

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-
3, ADSL, etc.
 o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to
WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers.

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices
situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client
devices.

Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and
network administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired
and wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.
Examples Of Wide Area Network:
o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices.
This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom
company.

Data Communication

➢ Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or
more computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications
network that allows computers to exchange data.
➢ Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver
via form of transmission media such as a wire cable.
➢ The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using
either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the
Internet.
Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one

person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile,
telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone
mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are
the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by
either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali
sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand
Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

What is Topology?

➢ Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical
topology.
➢ Physical topology emphasizes the physical layout of the connected devices and nodes,
while the logical topology focuses on the pattern of data transfer between network
nodes.

or

➢ The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender
and receiver is referred to as network topology.
Types of Network Topology

Bus Topology

o In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this main
cable through drop lines.
o There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the main cable. Since all the
data is transmitted over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a
main cable can have.

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
 o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals
of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.

Star Topology

All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a
point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and
hub. The hub device can be any of the following:

• Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

• Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
• Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to

the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
 o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is
one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.

Ring Topology

o In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating
a circular network structure.
o When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent
to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts.
o Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the
ring is a point of failure.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.

Mesh Topology
o In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.
o This topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may
also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.

o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between
other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router
and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain
and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link
failure goes undetected.

Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the
data.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of
the rest of the network.
 o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that
the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the
Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs
are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with
each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are
the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide
broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore,
we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments
known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus
cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.