Chapter Two

Optical Fibers
Two Parts:
I. Optical Fiber Structures and Light Guiding Principles
II. Optical Signal Attenuation and Dispersion
I. Optical Fiber Structures and Light Guiding
Principles
❖ Some of the questions that arise concerning optical fibers are
a. What is the structure of an optical fiber?
b. How does light propagate along a fiber?
c. Of what materials are fibers made?
d. How is the fiber fabricated?
e. How are fibers incorporated into cable structures?
f. What is the signal loss or attenuation mechanism in a fiber?
g. Why and to what degree does a signal get distorted as it travels
along a fiber?
2.1 Geometrical-Optics Description
(valid when core radius a >>λ ,wavelength of light )

(typically a ∼ 10
𝜇m and b = 62.5
𝜇m)

Refractive Index: n=c/v; Step-index fiber: Graded-index fiber:

abrupt index change the refractive index decreases
c=light speed in vacuum at the core-cladding gradually inside the core
v=light speed in material medium interface
A. Step-Index Fibers
- Snell’s law :

- critical angle 𝜙c:

𝜙 > 𝜙c: the ray undergoes
total internal reflection at
the core-cladding interface

- numerical aperture (NA):

Fig: Light confinement through total - pulse broadening (dispersion):

internal reflection in step-index
fibers. Rays for which 𝜙 < 𝜙c are NA: light-
refracted out of the core gathering
capacity of an - information-carrying capacity:
optical fiber
or bit rate distance product :
 B. Graded-Index Fibers (GRIN)
- Refractive index profile:

A parabolic-index fiber corresponds to 𝛼 = 2

- pulse broadening ( dispersion):

Fig: Ray trajectories in a graded-index

fiber
- bit rate-distance product:
 2.2 Wave Propagation
• Maxwell’s Equations: propagation of optical fields in fibers is governed by Maxwell’s equations.
• For a dielectric medium without free charges:

(2. 1)

• Frequency domain wave equation:

(2.2)

• In general, permittivity is complex:

• refractive index n and the absorption coefficient 𝛼 by the definition:
• The wave equation or Helmholtz equation:
(2.3)
 2.2.1 Fiber Modes
• An optical mode is a specific solution of the wave equation or Helmholtz equation that satisfies all appropriate boundary
conditions and has the property that its spatial distribution does not change with propagation.
• Modes of optical fibers can be classified as guided modes, leaky modes, and radiation modes
• To take advantage of the cylindrical symmetry, wave equation or Helmholtz equation in written in the cylindrical
coordinates 𝜌, 𝜙, and z as

(2.4)

where for a step-index fiber of core radius a, the refractive index n is of the form:

(2.5)

Note: ” ρ “ is used instead of “r”

• Equation (2.4) is written for the axial component Ez of the electric field vector
and A similar equation can be written for Hz .
• It is customary to choose Ez and Hz as the independent components and obtain
E𝜌 , E𝜙 , H𝜌 , and H𝜙 in terms of them.
• Equation (2.4) is easily solved with the method of separation of variables by
writing Ez as

(2.6)

• By using Eq. (2.4) in Eq. (2.6), we obtain the following three ordinary
differential equations:

(2.7)

(2.8)

(2.9)
Modal Solutions of Equations (2.7) to (2.9)
This is for Planar waveguide!
Solutions of Equations (2.7) to (2.9):
• Equation (2.7) has two solutions of the form Z = exp(±i𝛽z), where 𝛽 has the
physical significance of the propagation constant.
• Similarly, Eq. (2. 8) has solutions Φ = exp(±im𝜙), but the constant
m is restricted to take only integer values because Ez must be periodic in 𝜙
with a period of 2𝜋.
• Equation (2. 9) is the well-known differential equation satisfied by the
Bessel functions:
(2.10)

where A, A′, C, and C′ are constants, Jm, Ym, Km, and Im are different kinds of
Bessel functions , and the parameters p and q are defined as
(2.11)
 Bessel Functions and Modified Bessel Functions

First kind

Bessel function
first kind Modified Bessel functions
Second kind
• Considerable simplification occurs when we use the boundary condition that F(𝜌)
for a guided mode should be finite at 𝜌 = 0 and decay to zero at 𝜌 = ∞.
• Since Ym(p𝜌) has a singularity at 𝜌 = 0, F(0) can remain finite only if A′ = 0.
• Similarly F(𝜌) vanishes at infinity only if C = 0.
′

• The general solution of Eq. (2. 4) is thus of the form

(2.12)

• The same method can be used to obtain Hz, which also satisfies Eq. (2.4). Indeed, the
solution is the same but with different constants B and D, that is,

(2.13)
• The other four components E𝜌 , E𝜙 , H𝜌 , and H𝜙 can be expressed in terms of Ez and
Hz by using Maxwell’s equations

(2.14)

(2.15)

(2.16)

(2.17)

• These equations can be used in the cladding region after replacing p2 by -q2.
• Equations (2.12) through (2.17) express the electromagnetic field in the core
and cladding regions of an optical fiber in terms of four constants A, B, C, and
D
• These constants are determined by applying the boundary condition that the
tangential components of E and H be continuous across the core cladding
interface
• By requiring the continuity of Ez, Hz, E𝜙, and H𝜙 at 𝜌 = a, we obtain a set of
four homogeneous equations satisfied by A, B, C, and D
• These equations have a nontrivial solution only if the determinant of the
coefficient matrix vanishes
• After considerable algebra, this condition leads us to the following eigenvalue
equation

(2.18)
• where a prime denotes differentiation with respect to the argument.
• The dimensionless parameter V is defined as
(2.19)

• It is called the normalized frequency (V ∝ 𝜔) or simply the V parameter.

• For a given set of the parameters, k0, a, n1, and n2, Eq. (2.18) can be solved
numerically to determine the propagation constant 𝛽 .
• In general, it has multiple solutions for each integer value of m.
• It is customary to enumerate these solutions in descending numerical order and denote
them by 𝛽mn for a given m (n = 1, 2, … .).
• Each 𝛽mn corresponds to one possible mode of propagation of an optical field
launched into the fiber.
• The spatial distribution of any mode does not change with propagation.
• In general, both Ez and Hz are nonzero (except for m = 0).
• For this reason, these modes are referred to as hybrid modes and are denoted by HEmn
or EHmn, depending on whether Hz or Ez dominates .
• In the special case, m = 0, HE0n and EH0n are also denoted by TE0n and TM0n,
respectively, as they correspond to the transverse-electric (Ez = 0) and transverse-
magnetic (Hz = 0) modes of propagation.
• A different notation LPmn is often used for weakly guiding fibers for which Ez is
nearly zero for all modes (LP stands for linearly polarized modes).
• A mode is uniquely determined by its propagation constant 𝛽
• It is useful to introduce the quantity n̄ = 𝛽/k0, called the mode index or effective index.
• n̄ has the physical significance that each fiber mode propagates with an effective
index n̄ whose value lies in the range n1 > n̄ > n2.
• A mode ceases to be guided when n̄ ≤ n2 . This can be understood by noting that the
optical field of guided modes decays exponentially inside the cladding layer as
(2.20)
• When n̄ ≤ n2, q2 ≤ 0 from Eq. (2.11), and the exponential decay does not occur. The
mode is said to reach cutoff when q becomes zero or when n̄ = n2.
• From Eq. (2.11), pa = V when q = 0. It is useful to introduce a normalized
propagation constant b as

(2.21)
Fig: a plot of b as a function of the V parameter for several
low-order fiber modes
- A fiber with a large value of V
supports many modes.

- A rough estimate of the number of

modes for such a multimode fiber is
LP01 LP11
given by V 2 /2.

- However, the number of modes

decreases rapidly as V is reduced.

- a fiber with V = 5 supports seven

Cutoff, modes.
V=2.405
LP21 - Below a certain value of V, all
modes except the HE11 mode reach
LP02 cutoff. Such fibers support a single
mode and are called single-mode
fibers.
Spatial Shapes of the first six modes
Reading Assignment (thoroughly with
mathematical formulation) on:
a. Field polarization ( linear, circular and elliptical polarization)
b. EM Modes
c. Bessel functions
d. Solution of second order partial differential equations
e. Fiber’s birefringence and spot size

Note: Unless we know the concepts in a to d, it is difficult to understand all

concepts and mathematical formulations in this chapter!!
 2.2.2 Single-Mode Fibers
• Single-mode fibers support only the HE11 mode, also known as the
fundamental mode of the fiber.
• The fiber is designed such that all higher-order modes are cut off at the
operating wavelength.
• As seen in b-V Figure, the V parameter determines the number of modes
supported by a fiber and only the HE11 mode exists for V < 2.4 .

Single-Mode Condition :
• The single-mode condition is determined by the value of V at which the TE01 and TM01
modes reach cutoff
• The eigenvalue equations for these two modes can be obtained by setting
m = 0 in Eq. (2.18) and are given by

(2.22)
• A mode reaches cutoff when q = 0. Since pa = V when q = 0, the cutoff condition for
both modes is simply given by J0(V) = 0.
• The smallest value of V for which J0(V) = 0 is 2.405.
• A fiber designed such that V < 2.405 supports only the fundamental HE11 mode. This
is the single-mode condition.
• The mode index n̄ can be obtained by using Eq. (2.21) as
(2.23)

where b is estimated from b-V curve for the specific value of V for the fiber.
The analytic approximation becomes
(2.24)

is accurate to within 0.2% for V in the range of 1.5–2.5.

• The spatial distribution of the fundamental mode is obtained from Eqs. (2.12) through (2.17).
• The axial components Ez and Hz are quite small for Δ ≪ 1, i.e., the HE11 mode is almost linearly
polarized in weakly guiding fibers.
• It is also denoted as LP01 mode.
• One of the transverse components can be taken as zero for a linearly polarized mode. If we set
Ey = 0, the Ex component of the electric field for the HE11 mode is given by

(2.25)

where E0 is a constant related to the power carried by the mode

• The dominant component of the corresponding magnetic field is given by Hy = n2(𝜖0∕𝜇0)1∕2 Ex.
The same fiber supports another mode linearly polarized along the y axis.
• In this sense, a single-mode fiber supports two orthogonally polarized modes that are
degenerate and have the same mode index.
Fiber’s Birefringence:
▪ The degenerate nature of the orthogonally polarized modes holds only for an ideal
single-mode fiber with a perfectly cylindrical core of uniform diameter
▪ Real fibers exhibit random variations in the shape and size of their core along the
fiber’s length
▪ They may also experience a nonuniform stress that breaks fiber’s cylindrical
symmetry.
▪ Degeneracy of the orthogonally polarized fiber modes is removed because of these
factors, and the fiber acquires birefringence.
▪ The degree of modal birefringence is defined as

(2.26)

where n̄x and n̄y are the mode indices for the orthogonally polarized fiber modes
▪ Birefringence leads to a periodic power exchange between the two polarization components.
▪ The period, referred to as the beat length, is given by LB = 𝜆∕Bm. Typically, Bm ∼ 10-7, and LB ∼ 15 m
for 𝜆 = 1.5 𝜇m
▪ From a Physical viewpoint, light remains linearly polarized only when it is polarized along one of the
principal axes.
▪ Otherwise, its state of polarization changes along the fiber’s length from linear to elliptical,
and then back to linear, in a periodic manner over the length LB.
▪ The fast axis in figure below corresponds to the axis along which the mode index is smaller. The other
axis is called the slow axis
▪ In most fibers, birefringence changes randomly along the fiber, in both magnitude and direction,
because of variations in the core shape (elliptical rather than circular) and anisotropic stresses. As
a result, light launched into the fiber quickly reaches a state of unknown polarization
▪ Moreover, different frequency components of a pulse acquire
different polarization states, resulting in pulse broadening.
▪ This phenomenon is called polarization-mode dispersion (PMD) and
can become a limiting factor for lightwave systems operating at high
bit rates.
▪ It is possible to make fibers for which random fluctuations in the core
shape and size are not the governing factor in determining the state
of polarization. Such fibers are called polarization-maintaining fibers.
Spot Size :
▪ Since the field distribution given in Eq. (2.25) is cumbersome to use in practice, it is often approximated by a
Gaussian distribution of the form

(2.27)
where w is the field radius and is referred to as the spot size.

▪ It is determined by fitting the exact distribution to the Gaussian function

▪ Figure below shows the dependence of w∕a on the V parameter. A comparison of the actual field distribution
with the fitted Gaussian is also shown for V = 2.4 .
• The spot size can also be determined from an analytic approximation accurate to within 1% for
1.2 < V < 2.4 and given by
(2.28)

▪ The mode area, defined as am = 𝜋w2, is an important parameter for optical fibers as it determines
how tightly light is confined to the core.
▪ The fraction of the power contained in the core can be obtained by using Eq. (2.27) and is given
by the confinement factor

(2.29)

▪ Equations (2.28) and (2.29) determine the fraction of the mode power contained inside the core
for a given value of V.
▪ Although nearly 75% of the mode power resides in the core for V = 2, this percentage drops
down to 20% for V = 1.
▪ For this reason, most single-mode fibers are designed to operate in the range 2 < V < 2.4.
II. Optical Signal Dispersion and Attenuation
2.3. Dispersion in Single-Mode Fibers :
▪ In previous class we have seen that intermodal dispersion in multimode fibers can
lead to considerable broadening of optical pulses (∼ 10 ns/km) .
▪ The broadening is related to different speeds associated with different modes
▪ The main advantage of single-mode fibers is that intermodal dispersion disappears
simply because the entire energy of a pulse is transported by a single mode .
▪ However, pulse broadening does not disappear altogether because the effective index
n̄(𝜔) of the fundamental mode depends on frequency because of chromatic
dispersion
▪ As a result, different spectral components of the pulse travel at slightly different group
velocities, a phenomenon referred to as group-velocity dispersion (GVD) or intramodal
dispersion
▪ Intramodal dispersion has two contributions known as material dispersion and
waveguide dispersion
▪ We consider both of them and discuss how the GVD limits the performance of lightwave
systems employing single-mode fibers
2.3.1 Group-Velocity Dispersion
▪ Consider an optical pulse launched into a single-mode fiber of length L
▪ A specific spectral component at the frequency 𝜔 would arrive at the output end of the
fiber after a time delay T = L/vg, where the group velocity vg is defined as

𝒗𝒈 = 𝒅 𝜷Τ𝒅 𝝎 −𝟏 (2.30)

By using 𝛽 (𝜔) = n̄ k0 = n ̄(𝜔) 𝜔 /c in Eq. (2.30), we can show that vg = c∕n̄g, where n̄g is the group
index given by
ഥ𝒈 = 𝒏
𝒏 ഥ Τ𝒅 𝝎
ഥ + 𝝎 𝒅𝒏 (2.31)

▪ The frequency dependence of the group velocity leads to pulse broadening because different
spectral components of a pulse do not arrive simultaneously at the fiber’s output end.
▪ If Δ𝜔 is the spectral width of the pulse, the extent of pulse broadening for a fiber of
length L is governed by
𝒅𝑻 𝒅 𝑳 𝒅𝟐 𝜷
𝜟𝑻 = 𝜟𝝎 = 𝜟𝝎 = 𝑳 𝟐 𝜟𝝎 = 𝑳𝜷𝟐 𝜟𝝎 (𝟐. 𝟑𝟐)
𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝝎 𝒗𝒈 𝒅 𝝎

▪ The parameter 𝛽2 = d2𝛽 /d2𝜔 is known as the GVD parameter. It determines how
much an optical pulse would broaden on propagation inside a single-mode fiber.

▪ In some optical communication systems, the frequency spread Δ𝜔 is set by the range of
wavelengths Δ𝜆 emitted by an optical source
▪ By using 𝜔 = 2𝜋c/𝜆 and Δ𝜔 = (-2𝜋 c/𝜆2)Δ𝜆 , Eq. (2.31) can be written as

𝒅 𝑳
𝜟𝑻 = 𝜟𝝀 = 𝑫𝑳𝜟𝝀 (2.33)
𝒅𝝀 𝒗𝒈

where D is the dispersion parameter defined as [units: ps/(km-nm)]

𝒅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅𝒄
𝑫= = − 𝟐 𝜷𝟐 (2.34)
𝒅𝝀 𝒗𝒈 𝝀

▪ The effect of dispersion on the bit rate B can be estimated by using the criterion BΔT
< 1. By using ΔT from Eq. (2.32), this condition becomes

𝑩𝑳 𝑫 𝜟𝝀 < 𝟏 (2.35)
▪ Equation (2.35) provides an order-of-magnitude estimate of the BL product for
single-mode fibers.
▪ For standard silica fibers, D is relatively small in the wavelength region near
1.3 𝜇m [D ∼ 1 ps/(km-nm)].
▪ For a semiconductor laser, the spectral width Δ𝜆 is 2–4 nm even when the
laser operates in several longitudinal modes.
▪ The BL product of such lightwave systems can exceed 100 (Gb/s)-km.
▪ Indeed, the second-generation systems appeared around 1985 and operated at 1.3
𝜇m with a bit rate of up to 2 Gb/s and a repeater spacing of 40–50 km.
▪ Moreover, the BL product exceeded 1 (Tb/s)-km when single-mode
semiconductor lasers were used to reduce Δ𝜆 below 1 nm
▪ The operated wavelength shifted to 1.55 𝜇m for the third generation of lightwave
systems.
▪ The dispersion parameter D changes considerably when the operating wavelength
is shifted from 1.3 𝜇m.
▪ The wavelength dependence of D is governed by the frequency dependence of the
mode index n̄.
▪ From Eq. (2.34), and using (2.31) D can be written as

𝟐𝝅𝒄 𝒅 𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝒅ഥ
𝒏 𝒅𝟐 𝒏
ഥ
𝑫= − 𝟐 = − 𝟐 𝟐 +𝝎 𝟐 (2.36)
𝝀 𝒅𝝎 𝒗𝒈 𝝀 𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝝎

If we substitute n̄ from Eq. (2.23) and use Eq. (2.19), D can be written
as the sum of two terms
𝑫 = 𝑫𝑴 + 𝑫𝑾 (2.37)
where the material dispersion DM and the waveguide dispersion DW are given by

𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒏𝟐𝒈 𝟏 𝒅𝒏𝟐𝒈
𝑫𝑴 = − 𝟐 = (2.38)
𝝀 𝒅𝝎 𝒄 𝒅𝝀

𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝜟 𝒏𝟐𝒈 𝑽𝒅𝟐 𝒃𝑽 𝒅𝒏𝟐𝒈 𝒅 𝒃𝑽
𝑫𝑾 = − + (2.39)
𝝀 𝒏𝟐 𝝎 𝒅𝑽𝟐 𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝑽

▪ Here n2g is the group index of the cladding material and the parameters V and b are
given by Eqs. (2.19) and (2.21), respectively.
▪ In Eqs. (2.37) through (2.39), the parameter Δ is assumed to be frequency
independent.
2.3.2 Material Dispersion
▪ Material dispersion occurs because the refractive index of silica glass, the material
used for making fibers, depends on 𝜔.
▪ On a fundamental level, the origin of material dispersion is related to the atomic
resonance frequencies at which the material absorbs electromagnetic
radiation.
▪ Far from such resonances, the refractive index is well approximated by the
Sellmeier equation
𝑴
𝑩𝒋 𝝎𝒋
𝒏𝟐 𝝎 = 𝟏 + ෎ (2.40)
𝝎𝟐𝒋 −𝝎𝟐
𝒋=𝟏
where 𝜔j is the resonance frequency and Bj is the oscillator strength.
▪ The sum in Eq. (2.40) extends over all material resonances that contribute in the
frequency range of interest.
▪ In the case of optical fibers, the parameters Bj and 𝜔j are obtained empirically
by fitting the measured dispersion curves to Eq. (2.40) with M = 3.
▪ They depend on the amount of dopants and have been tabulated for several kinds
of fibers.
▪ For pure silica, these parameters are found to be B1 = 0.6961663, B2 = 0.4079426,
B3 = 0.8974794, 𝜆1 = 0.0684043 𝜇 m, 𝜆2 = 0.1162414 𝜇 m, and 𝜆3 = 9.896161 𝜇
m, where 𝜆j = 2𝜋c∕𝜔j with j = 1 to 3 .
▪ The group index ng = n + 𝜔 (dn/d𝜔) can be obtained by using these parameter
values.
Figure : Variation of refractive index n and group index ng with wavelength for fused silica. The dotted
line indicates the zero-dispersion wavelength.
▪ Figure above shows the wavelength dependence of n and ng for fused silica in the
range 0.5–1.6 𝜇 m.
▪ Material dispersion DM is related to the slope of ng through Eq. (2.38). It turns out
that dng∕d𝜆 = 0 at 𝜆 = 1.276 𝜇 m, the value marked by the dotted vertical line in
Figure above.
▪ This wavelength is called the zero-dispersion wavelength 𝜆ZD because DM = 0 at 𝜆
= 𝜆ZD. The dispersion parameter DM is negative below 𝜆ZD (normal GVD) and
becomes positive above that (anomalous GVD).
▪ In the wavelength range 1.25–1.66 𝜇 m, it can be approximated by the empirical
relation
𝑫𝑴 ≈ 𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝟏 − 𝝀𝒁𝑫 Τ𝝀 (2.41)
▪ It should be stressed that 𝜆ZD equals 1.276 𝜇 m only for pure silica.
▪ It can vary in the range 1.28–1.31 𝜇 m for optical fibers whose core is doped with
material to change its refractive index
2.3.3. Waveguide Dispersion
▪ The waveguide’s contribution to the dispersion parameter D is given by Eq. (2.39) and depends on the V
parameter of the fiber.
▪ It turns out that DW is negative in the wavelength range 1–1.6 𝜇 m.
▪ On the other hand, DM is negative for wavelengths below 𝜆ZD and becomes positive above that

▪ Figure below shows DM, DW, and their sum for a typical single-mode fiber.
▪ The main effect of waveguide dispersion is to shift 𝜆ZD by 30–40 nm so that the total dispersion is
zero near 1.31 𝜇 m.
▪ It also reduces D from its material value DM in the wavelength range 1.3–1.6 𝜇m that is of interest for
optical communication systems.
▪ Typical values of D are in the range from 15 to 18 ps/(km-nm) near 1.55 𝜇 m.
▪ This wavelength region is of interest for lightwave systems because a fiber’s loss becomes
minimum near 1.55 𝜇 m.
▪ However, high values of D limit the performance of lightwave systems operating in this wavelength
region
Figure : Total dispersion D and relative contributions of material dispersion DM and waveguide dispersion
DW for a conventional single-mode fiber. The zero-dispersion wavelength shifts to a higher value because of
the waveguide contribution
▪ As the waveguide contribution DW depends on a fiber’s parameters such as its
core radius a and its index difference Δ, it is possible to design a single-mode
fiber such that 𝜆ZD is shifted to the vicinity of 1.55 𝜇m. Such fibers are called
dispersion-shifted fibers.
▪ It is also possible to tailor the waveguide contribution such that the total
dispersion D is relatively small over a wavelength range extending from 1.3 to 1.6
𝜇 m. Such fibers are called dispersion-flattened fibers.
▪ Figure below shows typical examples of the wavelength dependence of D for the
standard, dispersion-shifted, and dispersion-flattened fibers.
▪ The design of dispersion-modified fibers involves the use of multiple cladding
layers and a tailoring of fiber’s refractive-index profile.
▪ In another kind of fibers, known as the dispersion-compensating fibers, GVD is
made normal and has a relatively large magnitude.
Figure: Typical wavelength dependence of the dispersion parameter D for standard, dispersion-
shifted, and dispersion-flattened fibers.
2.3.4 Higher-Order Dispersion
▪ It appears from Eq. (2.35) that the BL product of a single-mode fiber can be
increased indefinitely by operating at the zero-dispersion wavelength 𝜆ZD where D =
0.
▪ The dispersive effects, however, do not disappear completely at 𝜆 = 𝜆ZD.
▪ Optical pulses still experience broadening because of higher-order dispersive effects.
▪ This feature can be understood by noting that D cannot be made zero at all
wavelengths contained within the pulse spectrum centered at 𝜆ZD.
▪ Clearly, the wavelength dependence of D will play a role in pulse broadening.
▪ Higher-order dispersive effects are governed by the dispersion slope S = dD∕d𝜆 .
The parameter S is also called a differential-dispersion parameter.
▪ By using Eq. (2.34), it can be written as

𝟐𝝅𝒄 𝟐
𝑺= 𝜷𝟑 + 𝟒𝝅 𝒄Τ𝝀𝟑 𝜷𝟐 (2.42)
𝝀𝟐

where 𝛽3 = d𝛽2∕d𝜔 ≡ d3𝛽∕d3𝜔 is the third-order dispersion parameter.

▪ At 𝜆 = 𝜆ZD, 𝛽2 = 0, and S is proportional to 𝛽3.

▪ The numerical value of the dispersion slope S plays an important role in the
design of modern WDM systems.
▪ Since S > 0 for most fibers, different channels have slightly different GVD values.
▪ This feature makes it difficult to compensate dispersion for all channels
simultaneously.
▪ To solve this problem, new kind of fibers have been developed for which S is
either small (reduced-slope fibers) or made negative (reverse-dispersion
fibers).
▪ It may appear from Eq. (2.35) that the limiting bit rate of a channel operating at
𝜆=𝜆ZD will be infinitely large.
▪ However, this is not the case since S or 𝛽3 becomes the limiting factor in that
case.
▪ We can estimate the limiting bit rate by noting that for a source of spectral width
Δ𝜆, the effective value of dispersion parameter becomes D = SΔ𝜆.
▪ The limiting bit rate-distance product can now be obtained by using Eq. (2.35)
with this value of D. The resulting condition becomes

𝑩𝑳 𝑺 𝜟𝝀 𝟐 <𝟏 (2.43)
▪ For a multimode semiconductor laser with Δ𝜆 = 2 nm and a dispersion-shifted fiber
with S = 0.05 ps/(km-nm2) at 𝜆 = 1.55 𝜇m, the BL product approaches 5 (Tb/s)-km.
▪ Further improvement is possible by using single-mode semiconductor lasers
▪ Table below lists the dispersion parameters of several commercially available fibers.
▪ The first four row correspond to standard fibers with large D values in the 1550-nm
wavelength region.
▪ The last three rows correspond to dispersion-shifted fibers for which D has smaller values.
▪ The dispersion slope is also reduced for these fibers .
2.3.5 Polarization-Mode Dispersion

▪ A potential source of pulse broadening is related to a fiber’s birefringence.

▪ small departures from perfect cylindrical symmetry lead to birefringence because of
different effective mode indices associated with the orthogonally polarized components
of the same mode
▪ If an input pulse excites both polarization components, it becomes broader as the two
components disperse along the fiber because of their different group velocities.
▪ In fibers with constant birefringence (e.g., polarization-maintaining fibers), broadening of a
pulse can be estimated from the relative time delay ΔT between its two polarization
components
▪ For a fiber of length L, ΔT is given by

𝑳 𝑳
𝜟𝑻 = − = 𝑳 𝜷𝟏𝒙 − 𝜷𝟏𝒚 = 𝑳 𝜟𝜷𝟏 (2.44)
𝒗𝒈𝒙 𝒗𝒈𝒚

where the subscripts x and y identify the two orthogonally polarized modes and Δ𝛽1 is
related to the difference in group velocities along the two principal states of polarization
▪ The situation is different for conventional fibers whose birefringence varies along
the fiber in a random fashion
▪ The analytical treatment of PMD is quite complex in general because of its statistical
nature.
▪ A simple model divides the fiber into a large number of segments
▪ Both the degree of birefringence and the orientation of the principal axes remain constant
in each section but change randomly from section to section
▪ In effect, each fiber section can be treated as a phase plate using a Jones matrix

▪ Propagation of each frequency component associated with an optical pulse is then

governed by a composite Jones matrix obtained by multiplying individual Jones
matrices for each fiber section
Summarize Concisely the Following Concepts, Possibly Supported by Mathematical
Formulation and Diagrams/Figures

A. Signal Attenuation or Signal Loss in Fiber

▪ Attenuation Coefficient
▪ Material Absorption Assignment
▪ Rayleigh Scattering Date of Submission: Before or
▪ Waveguide Imperfections on Feb 10

B. Nonlinear Optical Effects

▪ Stimulated Light Scattering: Raman scattering and Brillouin scattering
▪ Nonlinear Phase Modulation : Self-Phase Modulation, Cross-Phase Modulation

C. Fiber Design and Fabrication Note (not assignment):

▪ Silica Fibers From the text book, try to attempt and solve
▪ Plastic Optical Fibers problems related to our lecture
▪ Cables and Connectors