Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S.

Murthy

ATMOSPHERE AND ITS COMPONENTS

Importance of the Atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere protects and sustains the planet's inhabitants by providing warmth
and absorbing harmful solar rays. In addition to containing the oxygen and carbon dioxide,
which living things need to survive, the atmosphere traps the sun's energy and wards off
many of the dangers of space.

Temperature
One of the most important benefits the atmosphere provides is maintaining the Earth’s
temperature. On the moon, which has no protective atmosphere, temperatures can range
from 121oC in the sun (250oF) to -157oC in the shade (-250oF). On Earth, however, molecules
in the atmosphere absorb the sun’s energy as it arrives, spreading that warmth across the
planet. The molecules also trap reflected energy from the surface, preventing the night side
of the planet from becoming too cold.

Radiation
The atmosphere serves as a protective shield against radiation and cosmic rays. The sun
bombards the solar system with ultraviolet radiation, and without protection, that radiation
can cause severe damage to skin and eyes. The ozone layer high in the Earth’s atmosphere
blocks much of this radiation from reaching the surface. Dense layers of molecular gases also
absorb cosmic rays, gamma rays and x-rays, preventing these energetic particles from
striking living things and causing mutations and other genetic damage. Even during a solar
flare, which can greatly increase the damaging output of the sun, the atmosphere is able to
block most of the harmful effects.

Physical Protection
The solar system may seem like a vast and empty place, but in reality it is full of debris and
small particles leftover from planetary creation or collisions in the asteroid belt. According
to NASA, more than 100 tons of space debris strikes Earth every single day, mostly in the
form of dust and tiny particles. When they encounter the molecules that make up Earth’s
atmosphere, however, the resulting friction destroys them long before they reach the ground.
Even larger meteors can break up due to the stresses of atmospheric re-entry, making
catastrophic meteor strikes an incredibly rare occurrence. Without the physical protection of
the atmosphere, the surface of the Earth would resemble that of the moon, pockmarked with
impact craters.

Weather and Water

The atmosphere also serves an important purpose as a medium for the movement of water.
Vapour evaporates out of oceans, condenses as it cools and falls as rain, providing life-giving
moisture to otherwise dry areas of the continents. According to the U.S. Geological Survey,
the Earth’s atmosphere holds around 12,900 km3 (3,100 cubic miles) worth of water at any
given time. Without an atmosphere, it would simply boil away into space, or remain frozen
in pockets below the surface of the planet.

Vacuum of Space
The vacuum of space is a region where there is very little pressure and air. It is a space of
emptiness that contains little to no matter (has mass and can be a solid, liquid or gas). The

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

atmosphere protects the Earth from the vacuum. The gasses and pressure of the atmosphere
allow living organisms to breathe. The atmosphere also prevents water from vaporizing into
space. Without the atmosphere, there would be no life on the Earth.

Composition of the Atmosphere

Atmosphere is composed of Gases, Water vapour and dust particles. The proportion of gases
change in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that Oxygen will be almost in
negligible quantity at a height of 120 Km. Similarly, Carbon dioxide and water vapour are
found only up to 90 Km from the Earth’s surface.

(1) Gases:

● Carbon dioxide is a very important gas as it is transparent to the incoming solar radiation
and opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation.
● It absorbs a part of the terrestrial radiation and reflects a part of it back to the surface of
the Earth.
● It is largely responsible for the Greenhouse effect.
● Volume of other gases is constant, while the volume of Carbon dioxide has been
increasing due to the burning of fossil fuels. This has led to the increase of air
temperature.
● Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere found between 10 and 50 Km
above the Earth’s surface.
● It acts as a filter and absorbs the Ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and prevents
them from reaching the surface of the Earth.

(2) Greenhouse gases:

● They are the gases emitted from human and animal activities.
● Carbon dioxide (CO2) – 77% of the gases released.
● Nitrous oxide (N2O) – 14% of the gases released.
● Methane (CH4) – 8% of the gases released.
● Hydro fluorocarbons (HFC’s), Perfluorocarbons (PFC’s) and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6) –
1% of the gases released.

(3) Reactive gas species:

● They play a major role in ozone destruction.

● Nitrogen species- Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide.
Primary source: Fossil fuel combustion, burning of biomass and lightning activity.
● Sulphur species- Sulphur dioxide and reduced sulphur.
Primary source: coal and oil combustion, copper smelting.
● Acid depositions- Includes acid rains, snow (wet deposition) and dry deposition of
particles.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

(4) Water vapour:

● Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere which decreases with altitude.
● In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for 4% of the air by volume, while in the dry
and cold areas (desert and polar regions) it may be less than 1% of the air.
● Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles.
● It acts like a blanket to the Earth by preventing it to become too cold or too hot.
● It also contributes to the stability and instability in air.

(5) Dust particles:

● The atmosphere has sufficient capacity to keep small solid particles which may originate
from various sources like sea salts, fine soils, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated parts of
meteors.
● Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere. However,
conventional air currents may transport them to greater heights.
● Higher concentration of dust particles is found in sub-tropical and temperate regions due
to dry winds.
● Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses
to produce clouds.

Chemical composition of the atmosphere

COMPONENT PERCENTAGE

NITROGEN (N2) 78.08

OXYGEN (O2) 20.95

ARGON (Ar) 0.93

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) 0.037

NEON (Ne) 0.0018

HELIUM (He) 0.0005

OZONE (O3) 0.00006

HYDROGEN (H2) 0.00005

KRYPTON (Kr) 0.00011

XENON (Xe) 0.00009

METHANE (CH4) 0.00017

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Structure of the atmosphere

Atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature. The different
layers of the atmosphere are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and
exosphere.

(1) Troposphere:

● It is the closest layer about 20 Km above the Earth’s surface.

● It is thin in the polar regions (about 10 Km) and thick in the equatorial regions (about 18-
20 Km).
● The thin layer shows steady decrease in temperature and it may decrease up to -600C in
the upper layers.
● The concentration of water vapour may range from 0 to 4% in lowest level of atmosphere
and it decreases gradually in the upper region.
● It is a very important zone for organisms since it is a turbulent zone of strong air
movement and all the climatic and weather changes take place in this region.
● The upper layer of the Troposphere which gradually merges with the next zone
(Stratosphere) is called Tropopause.

(2) Stratosphere:

● It lies between 14 Km and 50 Km above the Earth’s surface.

● The temperature increases from a minimum of about -600C to a maximum of 50C. This
increase is due to the presence of ozone which absorbs ultra-violet radiation from the
sun.
● The uppermost layer of the Stratosphere is called Stratopause which is of great
importance as it contains ozone which absorbs lethal ultra-violet radiation.

(3) Mesosphere:

● It extends from 50 Km to 90 Km in the coldest region of the atmosphere as temperature

falls with increasing height and reaches a minimum of about -950C.
● The upper layer of the Mesosphere is called Mesopause.

(4) Thermosphere:

● This layer is immediately above the mesosphere.

● The temperature increases with increasing height.
● This includes the region in which ultra-violet radiations and cosmic rays cause ionization
of molecules like oxygen and nitric oxide.
● This region is also called Ionosphere.

(5) Exosphere:

● The region above the Thermosphere is called Exosphere.

● It is the outermost surface which extends up to 32,190 Km from the Earth.
● Exosphere has a very high temperature due to solar radiations.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Atmospheric stability and temperature inversions

● In the mixture of dry air, for every 1000 Ft. (300 m) increase in altitude, the temperature
decreases by about 3.30F (about 1.80C). This vertical temperature gradient is known as
Lapse rate and the value given is the normal lapse rate.
● When reverse or negative lapse rate occurs, a dense, cold stratum of air at ground level
gets covered by lighter, warmer air at higher level. This phenomenon is known as
inversion.
● During inversion, vertical air movement stops and pollution gets concentrated beneath
the inversion layer i.e., in the denser air at ground level.
● As a result, during temperature inversion, the atmosphere is stable and very little
turbulence or mixing takes place. Under such conditions, pollutants in the air do not get
dispersed.
● Inversion occurs frequently in autumn and winter months and the accumulation of smoke
and other contaminants further aggravates pollution by preventing the Sun’s rays from
warming the ground and the adjacent layer of air.
● Fog is commonly associated with inversions because the temperature of air at ground
level falls below the dew point of the water vapour in air.
● Narrow valleys are favourable for inversions since horizontal air movement is restricted.
● At the time of inversions, visibility is greatly reduced.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Types of inversions

(1) Radiation inversion:

● It usually occurs at night when the Earth loses heat by radiation and cools the air which
is in contact with it.
● If the air is moist and its temperature is below the dew point, formation of fog takes place.
● The stratum of cool air is covered by warmer air and vertical movement is stopped until
the sun warms the lower layer of air in the morning.
● This type of inversion is more common in winter than in summer because of longer
nights.
● It is also common in valley areas because of the restriction of horizontal air movement by
surrounding high ground levels.
● In India, due to intense solar heating of the ground, inversions are broken within a few
hours after sunrise. However, simultaneous occurrences of fog or mist prolongs the
duration of inversions by cutting the path of sunlight.

(2) Subsidence inversion:

● It occurs modest altitudes and remains for several days.

● It is caused by sinking or subsiding of air in anti-cyclone areas (high pressure areas
surrounded by low pressure areas).
● As the air sinks, it is compressed and gets heated to form a warm, dense layer.
● This acts as a lid to prevent the upward movement of contaminants.
● Inversion height may vary from the ground surface to 1600 m. When it drops to less than
200 m, extreme pollution occurs.

Sometimes both radiation inversion and subsidence inversion may take place simultaneously.
This phenomenon is known as double inversion.

Adiabatic lapse rate

● The change of temperature with height has a profound influence on the upward lift of the air
pollutants discharged into the atmosphere and hence on their dispersion.
● The lapse rate of a particle of dry air as it moves upward in a hydrostatically stable
environment and expands slowly to lower environmental pressure without exchange of heat,
is known as adiabatic lapse rate.
● The dry adiabatic lapse rate is 0.980C/100 m.
● Under conditions of adiabatic lapse rate, smoke will rise directly into the atmosphere by
virtue of low density because of higher temperature until it reaches the layer of air of similar
density.
● In many situations, however, because of external heating or cooling effects, the lapse rate may
be greater or lesser than the adiabatic rate.
● The two most important conditions from the point of air pollution are the super adiabatic
lapse rate (rate more than adiabatic) and negative lapse rate (inversion).
● On a clear summer day, rapid heating of the Earth by the sun warms the air near the surface,
to the point where the lapse rate is super adiabatic.
● Under this condition, the atmosphere is said to be in unstable equilibrium. This results in
vertical mixing of air.
● This is a condition when pollutants are dispersed rapidly.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM

Global warming

● Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere behaves like a green house.
● The atmosphere also transmits the incoming solar radiation but absorbs the majority of
long wave radiation emitted upwards by the Earth’s surface.
● The gases that absorb long wave radiations are called greenhouse gases.
● The processes that warm the atmosphere are often collectively referred to as the
greenhouse effect.
● The term greenhouse is derived from the analogy to a greenhouse used in cold areas for
preserving heat. It is made of transparent glass which is transparent to incoming short
wave solar radiations and is opaque to outgoing long wave radiation.
● The glass therefore allows in more radiation and prevents the loss of long wave radiation
thereby lowering the temperature inside the green house. Example: When we enter a car
or a bus during summer with windows shut, the heat is felt from outside. Similarly, during
winter, the vehicles with closed windows and doors remain warmer than the
temperature outside.
● Over the last century, CO2 concentration has gone up and global air temperature has
increased by 0.4 to 0.70C.
● The atmosphere acts as an insulator around the Earth and protects it from heat loss by
trapping heat using greenhouse gases like CO2, CH4, CFC’s, ground O3, N2O, SO2, water
vapour etc.
● Doubling the concentration of atmospheric CO2 from its present level is predicted to lead
to a further warming of about 3.50C.

The term greenhouse effect was coined by J. Fourier (1827). It is also known as atmospheric
effect or global warming.

Definition:
The gradual warming or heating up of the Earth’s surface due to blanketing effect of excess
CO2 present in the atmosphere.

OR

Greenhouse effect is the phenomenon due to which the earth remains hot.

OR

Greenhouse effect means the excessive presence of gases like CO2, CH4, CFC’s etc. blocked in
the infrared radiation from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere leading to an increase in
temperature which, in turn, will make survival difficult in the coming years. It is popularly
known as global warming.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Simplified representation of global warming

Harmful effects of global warming

● Climate changes
● Melting of ice
● Rise in sea level
● Submerging of coastal wet lands
● Changes in crop patterns
● Dispersion of harmful chemicals
● Effects on ecosystem and biodiversity
● Changes in hydrological cycle
● Changes in soil characteristics

Greenhouse Gases

The principal gases responsible for the greenhouse effect are-

● Carbon dioxide (CO2)

● Methane (CH4)
● Nitrous oxide (N2O)
● Synthetic Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
● Ozone (O3) at ground
● Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
● Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
● Water vapour

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Name of
Sl.
Greenhouse Use/Release Sources
No.
Gas
(1) CO2 Burning of fossil fuels, factories (through their chimneys), power
stations, automobiles, railways, aircraft, burning of firewood,
deforestation, reduction in the forest cover animal and plant
respiratory end product, petroleum by-products, cement industry
etc. It is the principal greenhouse gas and is responsible for 50% of
global warming.

(2) CH4 Forest fires are the principal sources of CH4 and emit one unit of CH4
for every 100 units of CO2. Other sources are anaerobic
decomposition in biological systems, termites, biomass burning,
landfills and wetlands. The main sources are paddy rice farming and
cattle. Methane is responsible for approximately 18% of global
warming.

(3) Man-made CFC's are released to the atmosphere during the operations and
CFC’s like- maintenance of appliances and equipment using these molecules as
coolants and propellants. CFC's are inert, non-toxic and easily
a) CFCl3 liquefied.
b) CF2Cl2 CFC's are being frequently used in refrigerators, air-conditioners, in
c) CF3Cl3 packaging (Styrofoam cups, egg cartons), insulation, in aerosol
d) CCl4 propellants, and as a solvent for cleaning microchips and electronic
e) CH3Cl3 circuit boards in computers, automobile air-conditioning etc. About
f) CHClF2 90-95% of the CFC's emitted are still accumulating in the
g) CF2ClBr atmosphere; only 1% of CFC's in the atmosphere is being removed in
h) CBrF3 any one year: annual increases are about 10-11%. Recent global use
of CFC 11 and CFC 12 is about 800 million kg. CFC's are considered
be the most potent greenhouse gases. CFC is responsible for
approximately 14% of global warming.

(4) N2O (Nitrous Deforestation, biomass burning, nitrogenous fertilizers, and

oxide) combustion of fossil fuels. N2O contributes approximately 6% to
global warming.

(5) SO2 Combustion of fossil fuels, industries, transportation, etc.

(6) O3 (Ozone) At ground level, O3 is used as a disinfectant for air and water
bleaches, textiles and oils. It is produced as a result of chemical
manufacturing processes, electrical discharges, occurring with
lightning during thunderstorms or with the sparking of electrical
appliances. It contributes approximately 12% to global warming

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Major sources of Greenhouse Gases (GHG’s)

● Natural sources - human and animal respiration, enteric fermentation in animal guts
leading to the release of methane from animal belching, anaerobic decomposition of
organic matter, evaporation from water bodies.
● Industrial chemicals and solvents used in manufacturing processes.
● Power generation and power use for industrial, commercial and domestic purposes uses
fuels like coal, oil and gas.
● Transportation by road, rail, air and seas uses fossil fuels like oil, petroleum and gas.
● Agricultural sources and soils that release nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, etc.

Possible consequences of Greenhouse Effect

(1) Temperature changes:

● If the present rate of CO2 emissions continues unchecked, the temperature of the earth
will increase by 22oC (40oF) in another 50 years.
● Considering the effects of other GHG’s (CH4, O3, N2O, CFC’s), this effect could be more
pronounced.

(2) Melting of Polar Ice Caps:

● An increase in average global surface temperature by 4.5 to 10 oF could lead to increased

melting of the polar ice sheets and glacial ice.
● The melting glaciers may raise the sea level so much that many cities like New York, Los
Angeles, London, Venice and Shanghai will be flooded.
● Kolkata and Mumbai in India may also be similarly affected.

(3) Climatic changes:

● An average rise in the global temperature by only 3oC could mean an increase of more
than 10oC at higher latitudes in some seasons.
● Greenhouse effect will cause winters to be shorter and wetter, while summers will be
longer and drier in Northern latitudes. Sub-tropical regions might become even drier than
they currently are and tropical regions could become wetter as the rainfall pattern will
also be affected.
● With increasing temperature and consequent evaporation, there will be an 11-15%
increase in annual rainfall resulting in adverse effects on the crop pattern.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Remedial measures to counter Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect can be controlled to a certain degree by adopting the following
measures-

● Reducing the consumption of fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum. This can be achieved
by depending more on renewable sources of energy such as wind energy, solar energy,
nuclear energy and biogas.
● Disposing of greenhouse gases as they are formed so that they do not enter the
atmosphere.
● Recovery of greenhouse gases already present in the atmosphere and disposing of them
elsewhere.
● One must learn to accept and adapt to the changing climate.
● International cooperation operating to attempt to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
● Enriching oceans with iron can help in absorbing greenhouse gases like CO2.
● Afforestation reduces the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere thus decreasing the
greenhouse effect. Trees are natural sinks of CO2 as they require it for photosynthesis.
The reforestation of forest cleared lands in countries like India, Brazil, Indonesia, Africa,
Pakistan and Columbia can help in reducing CO2 emissions by 50-60%. There must be a
legal ban on deforestation in developing countries.
● There must be restrictions on the release of dangerous gases like CO2 and CFC’s from
factories and automobiles.
● “No Driving Day” needs to be imposed once a week in all countries, especially developed
ones like USA.

Ozone depletion

Ozone (O3) is a natural constituent of the

atmosphere composed of three oxygen
atoms held together in their configuration by
electrical attraction. Their electrovalent
bond is much weaker than the covalent bond
that holds oxygen (O2), so the molecule is
always susceptible to having one of its
oxygen atoms stripped by an ‘oxygen-
seeking’ molecule.

The word ‘ozone’ (from the Greek ozein

meaning to smell) first introduced by
Schonbein in 1840 to characterize a
chemical species which had a pronounced
odour. This pale blue, stinky and explosive
gas is formed when an oxygen molecule
dissociates thermally. Each oxygen atom (O)
combines with a molecule of oxygen (O2) to
form an ozone molecule (O3).

Ozone is highly unstable when compared to

oxygen. Normally, about 90% of ozone is

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

present in the lower part of the stratosphere from approximately 22-32km above sea level.
This upper layer of the atmosphere enveloped by ozone is commonly known as the ozone
layer or ozone sphere or stratospheric ozone layer or protective layer or ozone umbrella.

Significance of Ozone

The composition of air in the stratosphere remains fairly uniform throughout. O 3

concentration varies from about 10ppm in the stratosphere compared to 0.02ppm in the
troposphere during winters and 0.05ppm in the troposphere during summers.

Ozone is a gas in the atmosphere that protects everything living on the earth from harmful
ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun. Without the layer of ozone in the atmosphere, it would be
very difficult for anything to survive on the surface of the earth.

The ozone layer acts as a shield by absorbing the harmful UV rays emitted by the sun and
thus preventing them from doing damage on the earth. But when ozone forms at the surface
(which occurs when pollution from cars react with UV rays), it acts as a pollutant itself and
can damage crops, forests and can cause irritation in the lungs.

In the absence of the ozone layer, all the UV rays from the sun will reach the earth’s surface
and consequently, the temperature of the lower atmosphere (troposphere) may rise to such
an extent that the ‘biological furnace’ of the biosphere may turn into a ‘blast furnace’.

Formation of Ozone

Natural process of ozone formation is the combination of oxygen atoms in the stratosphere.
In the lower mesosphere, the atmospheric oxygen absorbs UV radiation of wavelength less
than 242nm and photo-dissociates into oxygen atoms. These atoms subsequently combine
with oxygen molecules of the upper stratosphere thus producing ozone.

O2 + hν (242nm) → O + O
O + O2 → O3

O2 + hν (242nm) → 2O
2O + 2O2 → 2O3

At ground level, ozone may be formed from oxygen atoms formed from pollutants such as
NO2, SO2 and aldehydes on absorption of solar UV radiation.

NO2 (Nitrogen dioxide) → NO2 (excited form) → O* (atomic form) + NO

O* (atomic oxygen) + O2 → O3 (ozone)

Ozone at ground surface acts as a harmful pollutant for plants, animals and humans. It is also
responsible for the formation of potentially more hazardous pollutant smog, through a series
of photochemical reactions involving oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons and other pollutants.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Sources of Ozone at ground level

● Disinfectants for air and water bleaches in textiles as well as oil, wax and inorganic
synthetic industries lead to the formation of ozone at ground level.

● Electrical discharge occurring with lightning during thunderstorms or with the

sparking of electrical appliances produces ozone.

● Gamma radiation from food preservatives, commercial UV lamps used for

sterilization, high voltage electrical equipment, dermatological phototherapy
equipment and photocopying machines are also sources of ozone.

Tropospheric ozone is an extremely reactive molecule. When ozone occurs in concentrations

above normal, it creates pollution and can damage human health.

Effects of varying ozone concentrations on human health

Ozone level (ppm) Observed Effects
0.2 No ill-effects
0.3 Nose and throat irritation
0.8 (long exposure) Genetic alterations in the lungs of new-borns
1.0-3.0 Extreme fatigue after two hours
9.0 Severe pulmonary edema

Toxic Effects of tropospheric O3 on Human Beings

The toxic effects of ozone are manifested upon its inhalation and absorption in the lungs.
Ozone toxicity is, in part, produced via free radical mechanisms. The per oxidation of
polyunsaturated fatty acids and oxidation of amines and proteins which produce free
radicals have been implicated in ozone-induced damage in pulmonary and extra pulmonary
sites. Free radicals produced by oxidants damage DNA and thus modify cellular genetic
integrity, which lead to carcinogenic events. But the role of ozone, if any, in lung cancer is
very rare.

Emphysema, a destructive and chronic obstructive lung disease such as chronic bronchitis,
and development of asthma might be the ultimate results of chronic ambient ozone
exposure.

Ozone exposure has also been implicated in dizziness and visual impairment - a sign of
central nervous system damage, enlargement of spleen and thymus, and impairment of
immune system.

Photochemical smog is the major cause of ozone exposure causing urban air pollution
posing a threat to human health

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Toxic Effects of tropospheric O3 on Biotic Community

1. Ozone has been known to be highly toxic to fishes in the concentration ranging from
0.1 to 1.0 ppm.
2. Directly or indirectly, ozone increases the mortality rate of larvae of zooplankton.

Toxic Effects of tropospheric O3 on Plants

1. Exposure to air having O3 results in the lesions to plants usually confined to the upper
surface of leaves. The uniformly distributed white or brown flecks characterize their
lesions and stipples (dots) in irregularly distributed blotches.

2. Ozone flecking is especially observed with the plants of grape, citrus and tobacco.

3. In pine seedlings, ozone causes tip burns.

4. 0.02 ppm of ozone has been observed to damage pea, pine, tomato and other plants.

5. In plants, ozone enters through stomata. It causes visible damage to leaves, thereby
reducing their photosynthetic rate and consequently decrease in the yield of certain
food crops.

6. Ozone is now known to be the most toxic photochemical product causing injury to
plants.

7. Tobacco plants, when exposed for 5.5 hours at 0.10 ppm concentration of O3 showed
50% reduction in pollen germination and pollen tube growth.

8. In California fruits and vegetables, yields have been reduced due to ozone pollution.
Grapes are no longer produced at places chiefly because of ozone pollution.

9. Ozone, along with other environmental pollutants like SO2 and NO2, is affecting crop
losses of over 50% in European countries. In Denmark, ozone affects spinach,
potato, clover, alfalfa etc.

10. In Netherlands, ozone level was high enough to reduce yields of beans, potato and
poplars. In UK alone, ozone concentration exceeded 400 μg/m in 1976 due to
industrial pollution.

11. Bombawale (1986) presented evidence that a serious leaf spot disease of potato,
which appeared in India during each year since 1978, was primarily due to ozone.

From the above discussion it may be concluded that ozone in the stratosphere protects us
but it proves to be lethal when it comes in direct contact with us and plants at earth's surface.

Unit of Ozone Thickness

The thickness of ozone layer is measured in Dobson Unit (DU), where 1 DU = 0.01 mm of
the compressed gas at 0°C and 760 mmHg pressure.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone Layer (Earth's Protective Umbrella)

Whereas an increase in the concentration of ozone at the ground level is undesirable be it

could induce toxicity, a decrease in the stratospheric ozone is also dangerous to human
beings, their lives and ecosystem. This is because the stratospheric ozone acts as a protective
layer or sheath, which absorbs UV radiation from the sun.

Ultraviolet light arriving in the atmosphere may be divided into three categories according
to wavelength. UV-A has the longest wavelength and UV-C the shortest. Ozone absorbs more
than 99% of the UV-C wavelengths, about half of the lower energy UV-B and little of the
relatively harmless UV-A. If the equilibrium of the reactions that absorb UV radiation is
perturbed, a change in the influx of UV radiation to the surface of earth will occur.

In simple words, an umbrella of ozone in the stratosphere (about 25 km above the surface of
the earth) is able to protect us from the harmful solar radiation. In spite of being in a small
proportion, it plays a vital role in the climatology and biology of the earth. If filters out all
solar radiations below 320 nm, which are biologically harmful, and thereby controlling the
thermal budget of the earth. The amount of ozone, therefore, must have been intimately
connected with the sustaining process. Any large-scale depletion of ozone content, therefore,
will exert catastrophic influence on biotic systems including plants.

In the last years of 20th century, there has been much hue and cry about the destruction of
stratospheric ozone and the issue has now assumed global dimensions. The problem of ozone
depletion and its adverse consequences have threatened the existence of life on the planet.
IOTP (International Ozone Trend Panel) concluded that the depletion of ozone layer is a
global affair and not a seasonal phenomenon confined only to the atmosphere lying over
Antarctica.

World Ozone Day observed on September 16

Causes of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Two principal causes may be attributed for ozone depletion (1) The Natural processes, and
(2) The Anthropogenic (man-made) processes

1. The Natural processes

The mechanism of ozone depletion by natural processes is not well-understood. However, it

is believed that ozone is depleted by reactions with atomic oxygen, reactive hydroxyl radicals
and mainly by NO as shown in reaction numbers 1, 2 and 3 respectively-

Reaction 1:

O3 + O → O2 + O2

Reaction 2:

O3 + HO* → O2 + HOO*
HOO* + O → HO* + O2
*indicates the excited atom

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Reaction 3:

O3 + NO → NO2 + O2
NO2 + O → NO + O2

It may be noted that nitric oxide (NO) is produced in the stratosphere below 30 km by the
reaction of N2O (nitrous oxide) with excited oxygen atoms, and above 30 km by ionising
radiation on nitrogen:

N2O + O* → 2NO
N2 + hν → N + N
O2 + N → NO + O
It may further be noted here that NOx is also anthropogenic.

2. The Anthropogenic Processes

Anthropogenic processes have been known to cause 50 - 70% damage to stratospheric ozone.
The important anthropogenic processes include the CFC’s and NOx release.

Role of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in 03 Depletion

Since 1950 it has become evident that the ozone concentration of the stratosphere is
gradually decreasing largely due to increasing use of a group of chemicals called
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons.

O3-Depleting Chemicals (Anthropogenic)

Sl. No. Compounds Chemical Chemical names

Compositions
1. CFC-11 CFCl3 Trichloro fluoro methane
2. CFC-12 CF2Cl2 Dichloro difluoro methane
3. CFC-13 CClF3 Chloro trifluro methane
CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride
CH3Cl3 Methyl chloroform
4. CFC-22 CHClF2 Dichloro fluoro methane
5. Halon-1211 CF2ClBr Di fluoro chloro bromo methane
6. Halon-1301 CBrF3 Tri fluoro bromo methane

CFC’s also include chlorofluoromethane (CFM) or Freon as a result of a deliberate search for
an ammonia substitute for refrigeration uses. These are chemicals that are inert, non-toxic
and easily liquefied. The CFCS and halons are entirely man-made being widely used in air-
conditioners, refrigerators, electric and metal clearing, foam blowing, aerosol propellants
and as a solvent for cleaning microchips and electronic circuit boards in computers.

The major use of CFC-11 is in foam blowing and CFC-12 is in automobile air conditioning,
almost all of CFC-113 is used as a solvent. About 90-95% of the CFC’s emitted are still
accumulating in the atmosphere; only 1% of CFCS in the atmosphere is being removed in any
one year; annual increases are approximately 3-5%. To date, about 15-20 billion kg of CFC’s

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

have been produced and used up; these are seriously depleting the earth's protective shield.
Earlier models predicted 6.5% ozone depletion by the year 2030, but it could well be as much
as 16%.

Unlike other compounds, CFC’s are neither destroyed nor removed in the lower atmosphere
by precipitation; sun rays, however, where their chlorine atoms are released into the
atmosphere under the effects of UV radiation, encounter and destroy ozone. Also CFC’s and
halons have 10000 times more heat absorption power than O2. At current emission rates
the heating potential of CFC’s may rise from 15% to the equivalent of CO2 by the year 2025.
CFC’s and halons remain inactive in the troposphere and it takes about 20-40 years for
these chemicals to travel to reach the stratosphere but after that their intermediate product
(chlorine atom) remains active for 75-110 years Once these CFC’s and halons reach to
stratosphere, the chlorine and bromine atoms present in these chemicals are released as a
result of interaction with UV radiations in the stratosphere The ultraviolet light splits up the
tight chemical bonds of CFCs and halons and chlorine or bromine atom is set free. These
chlorine or bromine atoms act as catalyst in splitting up (breaking down) ozone into oxygen
molecule and chlorine monoxide (ClO). The chlorine monoxide molecule is evenly split up
by interaction with another ozone molecule to give up two oxygen molecules and a free
chlorine atom. The reactions are:

UV radiation
CFC’s → Cl + F + C
Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
ClO + O3 → Cl + 2O2

or

ClO + hν → Cl + 02 (photodissociation)

or

ClO + O → Cl + O2

This chlorine atom again repeats the cycle of destruction of ozone in the stratosphere
Similar pattern of reaction takes place for halons:

UV radiation
Halons → Br

The chlorine or bromine atoms remain active for 75-110 years and are capable of breaking
thousands of ozone molecules before the released chlorine gets converted into dilute HCl
and come down in the form of acid rain. It is important to note that each atom of chlorine
chain reacts with more than 100,000 molecules of ozone converting zone into oxygen.

Wide range of CFC’s are known as shown in the table above, but widely used are CFC-11, CFC-
12 and CFC-13. Almost all the CFC-13 is used as solvent. The developed countries release
more CFC’s into the air than the developing ones. USA, having 5% of global population,
releases 70% of CFC’s whereas India and China (having 17 % and 20% of world population,
respectively) release only 1.8% of CFC’s.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Role of NOx in Ozone Depletion

The rate of destruction of ozone is further enhanced by the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) released
from the exhaust of large fleet of supersonic aircraft and also from fertilizers. The nuclear
explosions directly inject superheated NOx into the stratosphere. The SS aircraft generally fly
at ozonospheric level and their exhaust gases directly provide water vapours and NO x into
the stratosphere.

Curtsey (1971) and his collaborators pointed out that SS aircraft fleet could add significant
quantities of NOx leading to about 40% reduction in the O3 concentration. Following reactions
between O3 and NOx are known to exist:

NO +O3 → NO2 + O2
NO2 + O3 → NO3 + O2

Further, OH species have been known to cause ozone depletion in the stratosphere:

Photodissociation
HOH → OH + H
OH + O3 → HOO + O2
H + O3 → OH + O2

Also, the process of decomposition of ozone may be enhanced in the presence of some
greenhouse gases such as CO2 and CH4.

It is due to continuous breakdown of ozone molecules that ozone layer in stratosphere is

getting depleted and at certain locations holes have been created in the ozone layer.

Ozone Hole

The “hole” actually represents depletion of ozone concentration in the stratosphere, not an
empty space. Besides CFC’s, NOx, OH species etc., methyl bromide and
hydrochloroflurocarbons also deplete ozone layer. Depletion of ozone concentration at
Antarctica (South Pole) is more than Arctic (North Pole).

There has been a gradual decrease in the ozone concentration since 1970 to 1993:

1970 306 DU
1971 245 DU
1993 (October) 240 DU

Ozone hole was first noticed in 1979 in Antarctica. If hole develops in Arctic (North Pole),
then consequences would be more dangerous. However, at Arctic, a layer of ClO cover over
the ozone has been noticed in 1987. Chlorine monoxide (CIO) is highly active and encounters
ozone molecules.

ClO (chlorine monoxide) + O3 → ClO2 (chlorine dioxide) + O2

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

The ClO2 is soon broken down by UV light to leave a free chlorine atom and an oxygen
molecule:

ClO2 + UV light → Cl + O2

It is estimated that a single chlorine atom can break down 100,000 ozone molecules.

WMO (World Meteorological Organization) in 1995 reported record increase in the size of
the ozone hole at South Pole, which was 20 million km2, twice the size of Europe. At present
the ozone hole covers the entire Antarctica. Globally, it appears that about 4-5% of the earth’s
ozone has been degraded since the early 1980s. If the trend of ozone loss continues, it is
predicted that the ozone shield will be depleted by a further 10% by 2050. It is conjectured
that this may lead to an additional 300 million cases of skin cancer in human.

Effects of Ozone Depletion

It is universal fact that ozone layer in the stratosphere protects humans from the deleterious
UV radiations coming from the sun. Though ozone accounts for only 3 parts in ten million of
the earth's atmosphere, it plays various crucial roles in the radiation balance of the planet.
The depletion of ozone-layer by chemical pollution created by man's activities have imparted
serious implications by letting "ozone-eaters". The following would be the consequences of
ozone – depletion:

A. Effect on Human beings

1. Eye damages including tumours of the conjunctiva and cornea, cataracts and retinal
damage may be enhanced.

2. Three kinds of skin cancer- Basal cell carcinoma, Squamous cell carcinoma and
Melanoma are rapidly climbing the list of human diseases caused by UV rays.

3. Suppression of certain immune responses in human occurs due to UV rays.

4. UV radiation cause blood vessels near the skin's surface to carry more blood, making
the skin hot, swollen or red causing sun-burns.

5. Long exposure to UV radiation caused by O3 depletion may cause leukaemia and blood
cancer. Studies reveal that a 10% decrease in stratosphere ozone may lead to 20-30%
increase in cancer. Nearly 7,000 people die of such diseases in USA each year. Such
cases have increased by 10% in Australia and New Zealand.

6. Photochemical changes occurring in such biological molecules as nucleic acids,

proteins, lipids, steroids and melanin may cause damage to the cell nucleus,
cytoplasm, organelles and membranes.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

B. Effects on Biotic Community

1. UV solar radiation causes heavy mortality in phytoplankton.

2. The marked reduction in the productivity of phytoplankton would, in turn, adversely

affect zooplankton.

3. Enhanced UV radiation also impaired fish productivity.

4. Research conducted on microbes reveal that photo irreversible and reversible types
of injury are caused.

C. Effects on Plants

1. Important crops (wheat, corn, rice and soybean) are sensitive to UV-B rays. Exposure
to UV-B radiation may cause reduction in the crop yield.

2. UV-B radiation reaching the earth through the depleted ozone layer in the
stratosphere also reduces the effectiveness of photosynthesis and multiplication of
phytoplankton.

3. Due to ozone reduction, intense UV radiation causes greater evaporation of surface

water through the stomata of the leaves and decreases the soil moisture content.

D. Climate effects of Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion changes spectral composition of solar electromagnetic radiation. The

increased solar UV radiation causes greenhouse effect changing the global energy and
radiation balance. Needless to mention that every molecule of either of two common CFC’s-
CCl3F and CCl2F2 –has the same global warming effect as 10,000 CO2 molecules.

E. Ecological Disturbance due to O3 Depletion

Scientists are of the opinion that the depletion of ozone, if not controlled, would enormously
affect the ecosystem productivity, ecological stability and overall environmental equilibrium.
It would also trigger several changes in the biospheric ecosystem.

The resultant climatic alterations would cause certain physiological changes in man and
animals. Change in energy and radiation balance would affect the survival and stability of
living biota. It appears important to mention here that UV radiation disrupts DNA replication
to the point of reproductive failure or death.

The changes in thermal conditions of biosphere would affect type, density and stability of
vegetation, which in turn, would affect several biogeochemical cycles occurring in nature.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Control of Ozone Depletion

Since CFC’s cause maximum damage to the ozone layer, its application should be completely
banned. No safe substitute of CFC’s has yet been found. In cooling system, natural products
should be used but not the CFCS. Indonesia is using a natural product (Kapok fibre) in foam
mats in cooling system. Much is yet needed to be done to stop further ozone depletion.

Several of the EEC (European Economic Community) nations have banned CFC production
altogether, a protocol for the protection of the ozone layer was adopted in Vienna in March
1985 by 21 countries and the EEC. The convention pledged to protect human health and the
environment from the effects of ozone-depletion.

CASE STUDY – 1: OZONE HOLE OVER ANTARCTICA

The creation of ozone hole over Antarctica may be explained as follows:

In the stratosphere, the CFC’s are broken down by UV radiations and release chlorine
atoms. Using CFC-12, the reaction is

CF2Cl2 + hν → Cl + CF2Cl

The chlorine atom will then react with ozone and produce ClO
Cl + O3 → ClO + O3

The product ClO on reacting with NO2, forms chlorine nitrate

ClO + NO2 → ClONO2

Chlorine nitrate thus formed is an inert compound that can do no damage to the ozone.
Thus at this state, Cl is effectively trapped in ClONO2. Over Antarctica, however, a
phenomenon of atmospheric circulation called the circumpolar or polar vortex forms. The
formation of the circumpolar vortex blocks the warmer mid-latitude air from mixing with
the air above the pole. Thus the polar air is trapped with no connections to the outside
warmer air. This condition cools the air in the stratosphere, which can go down to -900C.
Even though the stratospheric air is very dry, still ice crystals can form at this very low
temperature, providing reaction surfaces for chlorine nitrate to react with water to form
HOCl and HNO3;
ClONO2 + H2O → HOCl + HNO3

As long as this polar vortex exists (during winter), the above reaction continues to operate
i.e., the accumulation of HOCl. This accumulation of HOCl is simply waiting for the Antarctic
spring. As the sun first rises in the Antarctic spring (of August or September), HOCl
photolyzes forming Cl and the hydroxyperoxyl radical, which destroys the ozone. The
reaction sequence is as under:
HOCl + hν → Cl + OH
Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
OH* + O3 → HO2* + O2
ClO + HO2* → HOCl + O2

With this formation of HOCl, the cycle starts all over again. Each atom of chlorine chain
then reacts with thousands of molecules of ozone, thus converting ozone to oxygen.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Smog

Term coined by- Voeux, H. A. Des (1905).

The word smog is derived from an elision of smoke and fog. The oldest smog, a mixture of
coal smoke and fog, has plagued human beings since 14 th century. Urban smog, also known
as smoky fog (occurs normally over industrial areas), happened in Dec. 1930 in Meuse Valley
of Belgium, which killed about 600 people. A classic example of smog (smoke + fog) is London
smog of Dec. 1952, which killed approximately 5,000 people in a single year and thousands
became ill. Another example of smog is Donora Pennsylvania Smog (USA) which killed 20
people and made hundreds ill. This smog persisted for 5 days and was preceded by the
formation of thick fog due to strong inversion temperature on Dec. 26, 1948.

The other type of predominant smog is called Photochemical or Los Angeles or Killer Smog
or Oxidizing Smog. Its first clue appeared in 1944 in Los Angeles and hence the name Los
Angeles Smog. It was mainly a mixture of oxidizing pollutants, hence it is known as oxidizing
smog, while London Smog consisted mainly of a mixture of reducing pollutants and so it has
been called reducing smog. Photochemical smog problems also occur in several other
countries like Tokyo, Mexico, Sydney, Melbourne, etc. This problem is also experienced in
some cities of India, such as Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, Kanpur, Bangalore and
Ahmedabad. In 1987, Mumbai experienced heavy smog for about 10 days.

Components of London Smog or Reducing smog or Classical Smog

(i) SO, (ii) Particulates, such as soot, (NH4)2SO4, etc., (iii) humidity or water from fog. It
involves no photochemistry and is commonly known as sulphurous smog.

Components of Photochemical Smog or Los Angeles Smog or Oxidizing Smog

1. Inorganic gases such as O3, nitrogen oxides (NOx). H2O2 and CO.
2 Organic peroxide, peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN), peroxy benzoyl nitrate (PBN), Peroxy
propionyl nitrate (PPN), peracetic acid (CH3COOH), acetyl peroxide [CH3(CO)OO(CO)CH3],
ethyl hydro-peroxide etc.

Biogeochemical cycles

The flow of energy through the food chain is a unidirectional process. Energy is incorporated
through photosynthesis and it is lost either through respiration, in which case it is degraded
into unusable heat or through permanent storage in sediments. But the substances from
which living organisms are made are composed of chemical elements such as carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur which are both constant in form and finite.
Therefore the flow of these elements through the ecosystem must be cyclic with matter
constantly being reused. Because these patterns of flow involve not only living organisms,
but also a series of chemical reactions in abiotic environments, these cycles are termed
biogeochemical cycle.

There are two classes of abiotic phases in biogeochemical cycles, a sedimentary phase which
is part of all cycles and an atmospheric phase which is possessed by some. In some cycles,
such as nitrogen, the atmospheric phase is more important than the sedimentary. While in
others such as phosphorous, the atmospheric phases is not important. Biogeochemical cycle

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

that have dominant atmospheric phases are often called atmosphere-reservoir cycles and
those whose sedimentary phase is dominant are termed as sediment-reservoir cycles.

Water Cycle

Circulation of water between earth's surface and atmosphere is known as hydrological cycle
or water cycle. There is a continuous exchange of water between the oceans, atmosphere and
the biosphere through evaporation, condensation and precipitation. This cycle involves a
number of such cycles like

(i) Shortest cycle (ii) Short cycle (iii) Long cycle (iv) Longest cycle

The hydrological cycle is driven by the evaporative power of solar radiation and requires
8.2 x 1020 RJa-1 which is approximately 15% of the total radiation reaching the outer
atmosphere (P.D. Sharma). The water from lakes, rivers ice-fields and glaciers gets
evaporated to atmosphere. Another source of water vapour is transpiration from plant
surface, evaporation from moist ground and animals. These water vapours in the atmosphere
condenses to form clouds and then precipitates over land and oceans. This forms the short
cycle. A part of land precipitation may be soaked to ground and some absorbed by vegetation.
Some part of the precipitate water infiltrates into ground,
moves under the surface and finally goes to spring, lakes or streams. Additional water of
precipitation flows over the surface of streams and then goes to oceans and finally to
atmosphere. This continuous exchange of water between the oceans, atmosphere and
biosphere through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration and surface runoff is
known as the water cycle.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Oxygen Cycle

In atmosphere oxygen is found in the

free state and in dissolved state in
water. All organisms utilize it as a gas
in respiration. During this process CO2
and water are formed.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O +energy.

The oxygen entered through

respiration leaves the organism
through photosynthesis and thus its
amount in the atmosphere remains
constant. Dissolved Oxygen in water is
the source of oxygen for aquatic life.

Carbon Cycle

Carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that shows the greatest resemblance to the flow of
energy through the ecosystem. All the carbon enters the food chain in the form of Carbon
dioxide which passes through the leaves or other photosynthetic parts of autotrophic plants
where it is converted to organic materials by photosynthesis. It is passed through the food
chain and at every stage of respiration is released as Carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
where it can be reused by plants. Carbon is also found in greater proportion in coal and
petroleum which have their origin in plants that existed millions of year ago on earth.

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Radiation and Greenhouse Gases

The sun is the ultimate source of energy for earth-atmosphere-ocean system. Since earth is
situated far away from the sun at a distance of about 1.5 x 10 8 km. Radiation is the only
method of the energy transfer from the sun to earth. Just as sun emits radiation, the earth’s
surface also emits radiation called “Terrestrial Radiation”. There is delicate balance between
solar and terrestrial radiation, which helps in maintaining the temperature of the earth’s
surface at an average value of about 288 K. This is possible due to Greenhouse effect, which
is based on the principle of the greenhouse. It is calculated that if there were no greenhouse
gases (GHG) in the atmosphere the temperature of the earth surface would have been much
cooler than the present temperature at about 250 K. This would have made earth inhabitable.
Thus, the greenhouse effect has helped on survival in earth. It is important to realize that the
increase in the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere can further increase the global
temperature.

The Solar Radiation

The sun emits radiation through the entire electromagnetic spectrum, starting from the
wavelength 10-12m to 108 m which includes cosmic particles, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation,
visible light, infrared radiation, micro waves, radio waves and acoustic waves, increasing
order of their wavelength. Ultraviolet radiation and radiations with wavelength of more than
0.7μm are called infrared radiation.
Sun is an example of a blackbody. The blackbody temperature of the sun is equal to 5800 K.
The amount of energy that radiates from sun is equal to 2-9 x 1033 cal/year.
Solar constant is the solar radiation received outside the atmosphere, at normal solar
incidence, at the earth’s mean distance from sun (solar distance). Its value can be calculated
to be 1.98 cal/cm2/minute or 1.98langley/min.
The total energy received by the earth per year = 260.18 kLy/year. (kLy = kilolangleys.)

The Radiation Balance

A clear idea of the disposition of total solar radiation in the earth-atmosphere system is
provided in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 –
Average annual
radiation budget
of the earth. All the
units are in Kilo-
Langleys /year.
Based on the data
from Sellers
(1965)

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

The numbers given in Figure 2.6 are obtained from Sellers (1965). On an average, the amount
of solar radiation intercepted every year at the top of the atmosphere is equal to 263kLy/yr.
As shown in the left panel of Figure 2.6, 124 units of this radiation are absorbed by the earth's
surface and only 16kLy is directly reflected back to space by the earth's surface. Thus, the
atmosphere gets 123kLy of solar radiation, out of which 78kLy is directly reflected back to
space, and 45kLy is absorbed by the atmospheric constituents. Clouds reflect 63kLy, which is
the most, and other molecules dust, and water vapour reflect only 15kly. Out of 45kLy of
absorbed solar radiation, atmospheric molecules, dust, and water vapour absorb 38kLy and
clouds absorb 7kLy. The total solar radiation absorbed by the earth atmosphere system is
169kLy every year. The middle panel in Figure 2.6 shows the distribution of terrestrial
radiation. The earth's surface radiates almost 258kLy annually. Out of this, the atmospheric
constituents and clouds absorb 238 kLy and only 20 kLy is radiated back to space directly.
The right most panels in Figure 2.6 show the disposition of infrared radiation emitted by the
atmosphere alone.

On an average, atmospheric constituents radiate 355kLy per year. Out of this total amount,
206kLy is absorbed by the earth's surface and 149kLy is radiated back to space. From the
middle and the rightmost panels of Figure 2.6, it may be calculated that the effective outgoing
radiation from the earth's surface is 52kLy, and that from the atmosphere is 117kLy. Thus,
the total outgoing radiation from the earth atmosphere system is 169kLy, which is just equal
to that absorbed by the system. The most important point is that out of the 169kLy/yr of solar
radiation absorbed by the earth-atmosphere system, almost 75 per cent that is 124kLy/yr, is
absorbed at the surface. Therefore, the surface acts as the main source of energy for most of
the physiological and thermal processes taking place in the system. The three boxes from top
to bottom show the calculation of radiation budget at the top of the atmosphere, inside the
atmosphere, and at the surface of the earth, respectively. It is seen that at the top of the
atmosphere, there is no annual surplus or deficit of radiation. However, every year, about
72kLy of radiative energy is gained by the surface of the earth, which is equal to the amount
lost by the atmosphere. Thus there is a perfect balance of energy in the earth-atmosphere
system. Averaged over the globe, the earth's surface absorbs about 124kLy of solar radiation
per year and, in turn, effectively radiates 52kLy of longwave energy to the atmosphere. The
difference between these two figures is usually called the radiation balance or the net
radiation of the earth's surface, which is equal to 72kLy. The radiation balance of the
atmosphere may be defined in a similar way. Since the atmosphere absorbs only 45kLy of
solar energy per year and radiates 117kLy of longwave energy, it has a negative radiation
balance of -72kLy/yr. The atmosphere loses the same amount of radiation energy in a year
as the earth's surface gains, making the radiation balance of the whole system zero.
Otherwise, the earth would have become warmer or cooler than the constant equilibrium
temperature.

As discussed above the global radiation balance is zero, averaged over the year. However, it
is generally not equal to zero, either seasonally or annually, in a given latitude zone. The
atmosphere acts uniformly as a heat sink at all latitudes, while the earth’s surface, except near
the poles is like a heat source. Hence, the uppermost layer of the earth’s surface becomes
warmer at the rate of 250C/day, while the atmosphere cools at the rate of about 1 0C/day.
However, we know that such continuous warming of the earth’s surface and cooling of the
atmosphere do not occur. This happens because of the net transfer of energy from the surface
of the earth to the atmosphere. This vertical heat exchange occurs mainly by evaporation of
water from the surface (heat loss) and condensation in the atmosphere (heat gain). Also,
there is a transfer of sensible heat from the earth’s surface and convective processes in the
atmosphere.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

OBSERVED CLIMATIC CHANGES AND ITS CAUSES

Carbon Credits:
A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right
to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the equivalent amount of a different greenhouse gas.
Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts
to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). One carbon credit is
equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide, or in some markets, carbon dioxide equivalent gases.
Carbon dioxide, the most important greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fuels, has
become a cause of global panic as its concentration in the Earth's atmosphere has been rising
alarmingly. This devil, however, is now turning into a product that helps people, countries,
consultants, traders, corporations and even farmers earn billions. This was an unimaginable
trading opportunity not more than a decade ago. Carbon credits are a part of international
emission trading norms. They incentivize companies or countries that emit less carbon. The
total annual emissions are capped and the market allocates a monetary value to any shortfall
through trading. Businesses can exchange, buy or sell carbon credits in international markets
at the prevailing market price.

India and China are likely to emerge as the biggest sellers and Europe is going to be the
biggest buyers of carbon credits. India is one of the countries that have 'credits' for emitting
less carbon. India and China have surplus credit to offer to countries that have a deficit. India
has generated millions of carbon credits into the world market. Waste disposal units,
plantation companies, chemical plants and municipal corporations can sell the carbon credits
and make money. Carbon, like any other commodity, has begun to be traded on India's Multi
Commodity Exchange.

As nations have progressed we have been emitting carbon, or gases which result in warming
of the globe. Some decades ago a debate started on how to reduce the emission of harmful
gases that contributes to the greenhouse effect that causes global warming. So, countries
came together and signed an agreement named the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol has
created a mechanism under which countries that have been emitting more carbon and other
gases (greenhouse gases include ozone, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and even
water vapour) have voluntarily decided that they will bring down the level of carbon they are
emitting to the levels of early 1990s. Developed countries, mostly European, had said that
they will bring down the level in the period from 2008 to 2012. In 2008, these developed
countries have decided on different norms to bring down the level of emission fixed for their
companies and factories.

A company has two ways to reduce emissions. One, it can reduce the GHG (greenhouse gases)
by adopting new technology or improving upon the existing technology to attain the new
norms for emission of gases. Or it can tie up with developing nations and help them set up
new technology that is eco-friendly, thereby helping developing country or its companies
'earn' credits. India, China and some other Asian countries have the advantage because they
are developing countries. Any company, factories or farm owner in India can get linked to
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and know the 'standard' level of
carbon emission allowed for its outfit or activity. The extent to which a company/person X
emits less carbon (as per standard fixed by UNFCCC) influences how much X gets credited in

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

a developing country. This is called carbon credit. These credits are bought over by the
companies of developed countries, mostly European, because the United States has not
signed the Kyoto Protocol.

A Brief History of the Climate Change Process:

● In 1979 the first World Climate Change Conference recognized climate change as a
serious problem & called on all governments to address it.
● Between 1980 and1990 a number of intergovernmental conferences focusing on
climate change were held.
● In 1990 the IPCC (Intergovernmental panel on climate change), established in 1988
by the UNEP & WMO, issued its First Assessment Report in which it confirmed the
existing scientific evidence for global climate change.
● In December 1990, the UN General Assembly approved the start of treaty negotiations
on the UNFCCC & a deadline was set for the June 1992 Rio “Earth Summit”.
● The UNFCCC was signed by 154 states at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit.
● More importantly, the convention entered into force on March 21 st 1994
● In February 1995, the Conference of the Parties (COP) became the Convention’s
ultimate authority/governing body.

What is the UNFCCC?

In general terms, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change provides an
overall framework for intergovernmental efforts to address climate change. More
specifically, it establishes objectives & principles, commitments for different groups of
countries and a set of institutions, all of which work to enable continued talks as well as future
action to address global climate change.

The Basic Science Accepted by the UNFCCC:

● First & foremost, the Convention recognizes that ever increasing amounts of
anthropogenic (human produced) greenhouse gas emissions are increasing the
atmosphere’s ability to absorb infrared radiation. As a result, a lot of energy that
would normally be reflected back into space is being trapped within Earth’s
atmosphere, which in turn increases the Earth’s surface temperature, keeping it
warmer than it would otherwise be.
● More specifically, the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) which is
an intergovernmental body of the United Nations dedicated to providing the world
with an objective, scientific view of climate change, its natural, political and
economic impacts and risks, and possible response options; projects that global mean
surface temperatures will increase by 1.4-5.80C by 2100, which is the fastest rate of
change since the end of the last ice age (10,000 years ago).
● In addition, the IPCC expects global mean sea levels to rise by 88 to 110cm by 2100.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Major Problems Associated with Global Climate Change

● Predicted changes in rainfall patterns will increase the threat of drought & floods in
many regions.
● Melting glaciers & thermal expansion of sea water may raise sea levels, threatening
low-lying coastal areas & worst of all, small islands.
● Climate & agricultural zones may shift towards the poles, which would result in
reduced crop yields for mid-latitude countries such as the U.S.
● Ultimately, the Convention recognizes that climate change has the potential to
produce “dramatic negative impacts on human health, food security, economic
activity, water resources & physical infrastructure”.

UNFCCC’s Ultimate Objective

● According to Article 2, the ultimate objective of the Convention is “to achieve

stabilization of atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at levels that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”.
● The Convention further stipulates that “such a level should be achieved within a time-
frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure
that food production is not threatened, & to enable economic development to proceed
in a sustainable manner.”

UNFCCC Principles

● First, the UNFCCC Principle of ‘Common but Differentiated Responsibilities’ responds

to the fundamental issue of fairness, or lack thereof, in terms of addressing the climate
change problem.
● Historically, industrialized countries have contributed the most to the climate change
problem (mainly by way of GHG emissions). Moreover, industrialized countries have
more resources to address the deleterious effects of climate change.

1. Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities

Conversely, developing countries are both, more vulnerable to the predicted adverse effects
of climate change and significantly less able to respond to them (relative to countries like the
U.S., Japan, Western Europe, etc.). Given this, the Convention responds in three ways:

i. The convention puts the majority of the responsibility for battling climate change, as
well as the majority of the bill, on the wealthy, industrialized countries.
ii. The Convention recognizes that poorer nations have a right to economic
development.
iii. The convention also allows for the “full consideration” of the specific needs &
circumstances of developing countries in any actions taken by the COP.

2. Precautionary Principle

The Convention’s precautionary principle implies that “activities that threaten serious or
irreversible damage can be restricted or even prohibited before there is absolute certainty
about their effects”. Under Article 3, the Convention calls for “precautionary measures” to
combat climate change even if there is a lack of “full scientific certainty” regarding a cause &
effect relationship.

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3. Principle of Cost-Effectiveness

In response to the concern among industrialized countries that the economic costs of
mitigating climate change should be minimized, the Convention calls for all policies &
measures that deal with climate change to be cost-effective.

4. Principle of Sustainable Development

In response to the justified concerns of poorer developed countries regarding the significant
expense of implementing UNFCCC objectives; the Convention, under Article 4, recognizes that
“The parties have a right to, and should, promote sustainable development”

Groups of Countries & Their Differentiated Commitments

The Framework Convention divides countries into three main groups each assigned its own
set of commitments.

1. Annex I countries
2. Annex II countries
3. Non-Annex I countries

1. Annex I countries

Annex I is composed of 41 industrialized countries, which includes all the 1992 members of
OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development). In addition, 12 countries
with EIT have been added to the list.

Commitments - Annex I parties are subject to a specific commitment to adopt climate change
policies & measures with the non-legally binding aim to return their GHG emissions to 1990
levels by the year 2000.

2. Annex II countries

Only the OECD members of Annex I – not the EITs – are listed in Annex II of the Convention.

Commitments - Annex II Parties are required to provide financial resources to enable

developing countries to meet their obligations under the Convention. In addition, Annex II
countries must “take all practicable steps” to promote the development & transfer of
environmentally friendly technologies to both EITs (Economy In Transition) & developing
countries.

3. Non-Annex I countries

All other countries not listed in Annex I – mostly developing countries – are known as non-
Annex I countries. Within this group of developing countries there is a subgroup of 48
countries known as Least Developed Countries (LDCs).

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The commitments of all parties to the convention:

All parties – meaning those signatories that have ratified the treaty – are subject to a set of
general commitments. Under these commitments, all Parties must:

1. Prepare & regularly update national climate change mitigation & adaptation
programs.
2. All Parties must participate in climate research, systematic observation & information
exchange, as well as promote education, training & public awareness relating to
climate change.
3. Lastly, all parties must compile an inventory of their greenhouse gas emissions, and
submit reports – known as “national communications” – on the actions they are taking
to implement the Convention.

Framework Convention Institutions/Mechanisms

1. Conference of the Parties (COP)

2. Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA)
3. Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI)
4. Convention Secretariat
5. Global Environment Facility (GEF)
6. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

1. Conference of the Parties (COP)

● Serves as the supreme decision-making body of the Convention.

● Is composed of all Parties to the Convention who have ratified the treaty as well as
non-voting observers as are deemed appropriate.
● Meets yearly to review Convention implementation & to adopt amendments,
protocols etc.

2. Subsidiary Body of Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA)

● Is responsible for providing advice to the COP on scientific, technological &

methodological issues.
● Helps individual countries prepare their national communications accurately & on
time.

3. Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI)

● Helps with the assessment and review of the Convention’s implementation.

● Analyses the national communications submitted by the Parties.

4. Convention Secretariat

● Prepares background documents.

● Organizes negotiating sessions.
● Compiles emissions data.

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5. Global Environment Facility (GEF)

● GEF is the Convention’s financial mechanism, which channels funds from Annex II
countries, as well as other (private) sources, to developing countries on a grant basis.

6. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

● Submits regular comprehensive assessments on the state of climate change science

every 5 years.
● Prepare shorter Special Reports & Technical Papers in response to COP requests.
● Plays an important role in the development of common guidelines for Parties to
compile their inventories of GHG.

1909 International Joint Commission established

1919 Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds
Canada becomes the second country to create a federal Department of the
1971
Environment
1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, Sweden
1972 Establishment of United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
1972 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (renegotiated 1978, 1987)
1979 Geneva Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution
1980 Brandt Report
United Nations General Assembly set up world commission on Environment and
1983
Development (The Brundtland Commission)
1984 Senate Standing Committee Report: "Soil at Risk”
The Macdonald Commission: "Report of the Royal Commission on the Economic
1985
Union and Development Prospect for Canada"
1985 The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
1985 The Helsinki Agreement
1985 Inquiry on Federal Water Policy: "Currents of Change"
1987 National Task Force on Environment and Economy Report
1987 The Brundtland Report: "Our Common Future"
1988 The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
1988 Toronto Conference on the Changing Atmosphere
1988 The Canadian Environmental Protection Act
Toronto Economic Summit, Hague Declaration, Noordwijk Declaration, Paris
1989
Summit, Langkawi Declaration
Basel Convention on the control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous
1989
Waste
1989 Forestry Act established by Forestry Canada
1990 Houston Summit, Dakar Resolution on the Environment
Establishment of the International Institute for Sustainable Development in
1990
Winnipeg, Manitoba
House of Commons Standing Committee (HCSC) on the Environment Report:
1990
"Our Changing Atmosphere"
G-7 Summit Houston, Texas. Mr. Mulroney calls for an instrument to promote
1990
sustainable development and conservation of forests

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

1990 Canada's Green Plan (11 December 1990)

CCME (Canadian Council Of Ministers for the Environment): National Packaging
1990 Protocol and Phase 1 of the Management Plan for Nitrogen Oxide and Volatile
Organic Compounds
1991 London Summit
1991 A Summary of Sustainable Fisheries Activities in Canada
1991 HCSC on the Environment Report: "Our Changing Atmosphere
1991 Canada-United States Air Quality Accord
1992 Senate Approval of Bill C-78 (C-13) Canadian Environmental Assessment Act
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED):
1992 Convention on Climate Change, Convention on Biological Diversity, Agenda 21,
Rio Declaration, Forestry Agreement, Ocean Conference.

 “We do not inherit the earth from our fathers; we borrow it from our children.”
(Inuit saying)

 “We cannot betray future generations. They will judge us harshly if we fail at this
critical moment.” (Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway, UNCED,
1992)

 “...We can waste the planets resources for a few decades more...We must realize that
one day the storm will break on the heads of future generations. For them it will be
too late.” (UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, UNCED, 1992)

 “Every bit of evidence I've seen persuades me we are on a course leading to tragedy.
I don't agree with those who say the status quo is the answer.” (UNCED Secretary
General Maurice F. Strong, UNCED, 1992)

*The table and box provided above are additional information which aren’t important for the examination.

The Rio Earth Summit

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known
as the "Earth Summit," was held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992. This global
conference, held on the 20th anniversary of the first international Conference on the Human
Environment, (Stockholm, 1972), brought together policy makers, diplomats, scientists,
media personnel and non-government organization (NGO) representatives from 179
countries in a massive effort to reconcile the impact of human socio-economic activities on
the environment and vice versa.

A major achievement of UNCED was Agenda 21, a thorough and broad-ranging programme
of actions demanding new ways of investing in our future to reach global sustainable
development in the 21st century. Its recommendations ranged from new ways to educate, to
new ways to care for natural resources, and new ways to participate in designing a
sustainable economy. The overall ambition of Agenda 21 was breath-taking, for its goal was
nothing less than to make a safe and just world in which all life has dignity and is celebrated.

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The growing concern about climate change led governments around the world to agree upon
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (UNFCCC) during the 1992
Rio Summit (Brazil).

Since 1990, the international community has convened 12 major conferences which have
committed governments to address some of the most pressing problems faced by the World
today. Taken together, these high profile meetings have achieved a global census on the
priorities for a new development agenda for the 1990’s and beyond.

History of the Summit:

In 1972, Stockholm, Sweden, hosted the first United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment, which was attended by 113 delegates and two heads of state (Olaf Palme of
Sweden and Indira Gandhi of India). This conference raised a generation's awareness of an
issue hitherto little talked about, the global environment. The Stockholm conference secured
a permanent place for the environment on the world's agenda and led to the establishment
of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). The conference and its aftermath made
known the international nature of the environment and introduced the idea of the
relationship between development and the environment. It has been said that the only way
to unite the countries of the world is for them to face a common enemy; perhaps
environmental degradation will be that enemy.

Since the 1972 conference, there have been many international environmental agreements,
a number of which have been ratified by Canada. These include the 1978 Great Lakes Water
Quality Agreement; the 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution; the 1985 Helsinki Agreement (a 21-nation commitment to reduce sulphur dioxide
emissions); the 1988 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer; and the
1989 Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes.

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global warming
is occurring and (part two) it is extremely likely that human-made CO2 emissions have
predominantly caused it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December
1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 parties (Canada
withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) to the Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global
warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The
Kyoto Protocol applies to the six greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs),
and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it

acknowledges that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate
change, owing to economic development, and therefore puts the obligation to reduce current

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emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the
current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to
protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are
responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force
on 26 August 1989, following a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has
undergone nine revisions. As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in
Antarctica is slowly recovering. Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return
to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.

The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete
stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal
Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm
the ozone layer). Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the
Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O)

As of 23 June 2015, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue as
well as the European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol, with South Sudan
being the last country to ratify the agreement, bringing the total to 197.

Evidences of Climate Change

CASE STUDY: Air Pollution in Delhi

New Delhi is one of India’s most important cities considering the fact that it is India’s
capital. Unfortunately for its inhabitants, New Delhi’s air is fatal. The statistics are alarming.
Specific to New Delhi, the numbers of vehicles on the road have increased by sixty-five
percent since 2003. The more vehicles on the road mean that there are more harmful
pollutants being put into the atmosphere. Another main cause of Delhi’s air pollution is
simply all the dirt that is being left in the atmosphere creating a haze throughout the whole
city. Geography also plays a role in New Delhi’s traumatic air pollution because it is a
landlocked city unlike Mumbai or Chennai. There is no coastal breeze eradicating the
pollutants.

The air quality in Delhi, the capital territory of India, according to a WHO survey of 1650
world cities, is the worst of any major city in the world. It also affects the districts around
Delhi. Air pollution in India is estimated to kill about 2.5 million people every year; it is the
fifth largest killer in India. India has the world's highest death rate from chronic respiratory
diseases and asthma, according to the WHO. In Delhi, poor quality air irreversibly damages
the lungs of 2.2 million or 50 percent of all children.

India's Ministry of Earth Sciences published a research paper in October 2018 attributing
almost 41% to vehicular emissions, 21.5% to dust and 18% to industries.

Air quality index of Delhi is generally Moderate (101–200) level between January to
September, and then it drastically deteriorates to Very Poor (301–400), Severe (401–500)
or Hazardous (500+) levels during October to December due to various factors including

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stubble burning, road dust, vehicle pollution and cold weather. In November 2017, in an
event known as the Great smog of Delhi, the air pollution spiked far beyond acceptable
levels. Levels of PM2.5 and PM 10 particulate matter hit 999 micrograms per cubic meter,
while the safe limits for those pollutants are 60 and 100 respectively.

Delhi's pollution problem is also caused by the factor of animal agriculture, as smog and
other harmful particles are produced by farmers burning their land in other states. About
80 percent of agriculturally used land is used for animal agriculture, so animal agriculture
can also be attributed as a factor in Delhi's air pollution problem.

Causes of poor air quality

 Lack of active monitoring and reaction by authorities.
 Overpopulation.
 Lack of political priority.
 Motor vehicle emissions are one of the causes of poor air quality. Other causes
include wood-burning fires, fires on agricultural land, exhaust from diesel
generators, dust from construction sites, burning garbage and illegal industrial
activities in Delhi. Although pollution is at its worst from November to February,
Delhi's air misses clean-air standards by a wide margin for much of the year. It is a
noxious mix of emissions from its 9 million vehicles, construction dust and burning
of waste. On the worst days, the air quality index, a benchmark ranging from zero
(good) to 500 (hazardous), exceeds 400.
 The Badarpur Thermal Power Station, a coal-fired power plant built in 1973, is
another major source of air pollution in Delhi. Despite producing less than 8% of
the city's electric power, it produces 80 to 90% of the particulate matter pollution
from the electric power sector in Delhi. During the Great smog of Delhi in November
2017, the Badarpur Power Plant was temporarily shut down to alleviate the acute
air pollution, but was allowed to restart on 1 February 2018. In view of the
detrimental effect to the environment, the power plant has been permanently shut
down since 15 October 2018.
 The drift/mist emissions from the wet cooling towers is also a source of particulate
matter as they are widely used in industry and other sectors for dissipating heat in
cooling systems.
 Although Delhi is kerosene free and 90% of the households use LPG for cooking, the
remaining 10% uses wood, crop residue, cow dung, and coal for cooking. (Census-
India, 2011)
 Fire in Bhalswa landfill is a major reason for airborne particles in Delhi.
 Heavy metal rich fire-crackers.
 Agricultural stubble burning also affects Delhi's air quality when crops are being
harvested.

Effects on children
2.2 million children in Delhi have irreversible lung damage due to the poor quality of the
air. In addition, research shows that pollution can lower children's immune system and
increase the risks of cancer, epilepsy, diabetes and even adult-onset diseases like multiple
sclerosis.

Effects on adults
Poor air quality is a cause of reduced lung capacity, headaches, sore throats, coughs,
fatigue, lung cancer, and early death.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Health effects
The government of Delhi has declared a health advisory.

 Breathlessness
 Chest constriction
 Irritation in eyes
 Asthma
 Allergy

Control measures

On 25 November 2017, the Supreme Court of India banned the sale of firecrackers in Delhi
to alleviate pollution.

In another measure, the extremely polluting Badarpur power plant was permanently shut
down on 15 October 2018.

There have been various other measures adopted in recent years by the municipal
authorities in Delhi to tackle pollution: converting vehicles to cleaner fuel, restricting
vehicle use at specific times, banning the use of polluting industrial fuel, prohibiting the
entry of the dirtiest vehicles into the city and closing some power stations.

An environmentalist suggests few solutions, which, if adopted by both the administration

and the people, can better the capital’s air quality-

 Carpooling: Reduce traffic-based air pollution and congestion by starting car pool
lanes for those cars and four wheelers that have three or more passengers to
encourage people to go for carpooling.
 Use bicycles: Mark out bicycle lanes in residential colonies as well as on all roads in
Delhi to encourage safe travel by bicycles. Meanwhile, citizens should also be
encouraged to use bicycles.
 Public transport: Encourage greater use of public transport by supporting the
Metro, overhead rail and bus services to make it convenient for people to travel by
public transport affordably and safely instead of using their own vehicles. Citizens
too must shed hang-ups over social status and try to travel by public transport
proactively.
 More CNG vehicles: Encourage use of CNG in motor vehicles as it is a much cleaner
fuel than petrol or diesel by considerably reducing the road tax and sales tax on
CNG filled cars as compared to petrol and diesel four wheelers.
 Fuel-efficient cars: Encourage more fuel efficient four wheelers with better mileage
per litre through road tax and sales tax incentives in addition to CNG requirement.
 Bigger trucks: Encourage six-axle trucks rather than the typical four-axle ones to
increase the pay load per truck to reduce the number of trucks on roads. Trucks
going to other destinations must not be allowed to pass through Delhi and only use
the bypass.
 Road signs: Improve the poor road signs so that people do not travel extra to locate
their destinations. All the signs must be signposted at two or three places well
before the turning rather than at the last minute.
 Maintenance of roads: Better maintain roads to complexes such as Nehru Place to
reduce the time a four wheeler spends on plying on such poor roads.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

 Burning waste: Burning of leaves, old tyres or any items in the open should be made
a punishable offence in NCR with a fine of Rs 10,000 per incident as this is a major
cause of air pollution. Citizens should be asked to report such incidents to helpline
numbers and emails.
 Solar power: Installation of solar panels should be encouraged at homes, multi-
storey buildings and commercial establishments so that decentralised power is
generated with suitable subsidies to make it financially viable for all households.
RO-RO on roads: The present RO-RO (Roll-on-Roll-off) scheme launched by Indian
Railways to carry loaded trucks on goods train to decongest Delhi roads and to reduce air
pollution needs to be given a fill up and made compulsory for trucks which otherwise pass
through Delhi.

CASE STUDY: Amazon Forest Fires (Lungs of the World)

The Amazon, found in Brazil and other parts of South America, is the largest rainforest in
the world and a vital carbon store that slows down the pace of global warming. It covers
about 5.7 million square kilometres. It is home to 40,000 plant species, 427 mammals, 1300
birds, 378 reptiles, 400 amphibians, around 3000 freshwater fishes and 100,000
invertebrate species.

Between January and July 2019, data from the National Institute of Space Research, Brazil,
showed almost 16,000 active fire hotspots that had been detected. Just one month later,
that figure almost tripled to more than 46,000 fires.

Causes:
 Poor farming practices.
 Deforestation was allowed. In fact, thousands of fires which were detected in the
Amazon in August were caused by farmers.
 They followed the ‘Slash and Burn’ technique, wherein they burn through the newly
felled forests that were cleared to make way for pastures.

Effects:
 Unusual weather systems carried the smoke thousands of kilometres to the south
and east towards Brazil’s Atlantic coastline.
 Research suggests that if deforestation continues in the Amazon, as much as 40%
of it could be gone by 2050.
 A cloud of pollution covered the skies of cities such as São Paolo and high levels of
PM2.5 (fine particulate matter) were observed which was very concerning.
 The flow of water into the Amazon basin will decline affecting fishing and
agriculture.
 Huge rises in the levels of CO2 are to be expected as the Amazon is a huge carbon
sink.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

CASE STUDY: Landslides and Floods in Kodagu

In the mountainous Coorg or Kodagu district in the state of Karnataka, thousands of people
were marooned because of torrential rains. Exacerbated by landslides in hilly terrain,
flooding has led to the destruction of homes, bridges, road networks, and industries.

In 2011, the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel, submitted a report to the Indian ministry
of environment and forests. The report warned that an ill-thought focus on development
was impacting the sustainability of the Western Ghats hill chain, one of the world’s most
biodiverse areas that runs along the west coast of India. The expert report urged a number
of states, including Karnataka and Kerala, to adopt an approach of thoughtful conservation,
limiting activities such as quarrying, dams, and construction near protected forests in hilly
areas. The report was rejected by the Ministry as well as by both states.

Causes:

Kodagu may see massive deforestation because of the timber mafia. It may also see
expansion of agricultural practices as those who grow coffee, rubber, pepper, etc., expand
their estates at the cost of the environment. The district has several homestays and resorts
too. Apart from these, many unwanted and unwarranted government projects are also
burdening the district. In 2015-16, around 55,000 trees were felled in Kodagu to install
power lines between Mysore and Kozhikode. Another was the road widening project of NH
275 and state highways, which caused the felling of 88 lakh trees. Uncontrolled sand
mining has constrained river flows, while the rapid spread of high-rise buildings on
unstable hill slopes has weakened the soil. This unplanned development has left the area
susceptible to flash floods and landslides, caused by a combination of tree-felling on steep
hillslopes and heavy rainfall.

All these so called developmental activities have destroyed Kodagu. These activities have
managed to vanish hill tops and fracture rocks. Deforestation has loosened the soil and the
heavy rainfall has acted as catalyst for erosion. That’s how the rain water entered rock
fractures through flattened top of mountains and began accumulating in the hillocks of
Kodagu.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

CLIMATE CHANGE AND MITIGATION MEASURES

Clean Development Mechanism

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the Flexible Mechanisms defined in the
Kyoto Protocol (IPCC, 2007) that provides for emissions reduction projects which generate
Certified Emission Reduction units (CERs) which may be traded in emissions trading
schemes.

The CDM, defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, was intended to meet two objectives:

(1) to assist parties not included in Annex I in achieving sustainable development and in
contributing to the ultimate objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is to prevent dangerous climate change; and
(2) to assist parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance with their quantified
emission limitation and reduction commitments (greenhouse gas (GHG) emission caps)

The CDM addresses the second objective by allowing the Annex I countries to meet part of
their emission reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol by buying Certified
Emission Reduction units from CDM emission reduction projects in developing countries.

The CDM allows industrialized countries to buy CERs and to invest in emission reductions
where it is cheapest globally.

The purpose of the CDM is to promote clean development in developing countries, i.e., the
"non-Annex I" countries (countries that aren't listed in Annex I of the Framework
Convention). The CDM is one of the Protocol's "project-based" mechanisms, in that the CDM
is designed to promote projects that reduce emissions. The economic basis for including
developing countries in efforts to reduce emissions is that emission cuts are thought to be
less expensive in developing countries than developed countries.

Examples of Future Clean Technology

Methane Digester

● The methane digester technology is used worldwide to use chemical waste and rotten
garbage for the production of methane.
● In this technology, cow manure is heated to release methane in sufficient quantity.
This fuels a gas turbine to generate electricity. The solid waste remains are used for
fertilizers. The waste water is used to grow plants and grass which is consumed by
cows.
● Methane digesters are used on a gigantic scale in the Harper dry lake energy park, on
1900 acres, to produce nearly 50 megavolts of electricity. Here, 380000 dairy cows
(one of world’s densest concentration of cows), produce 1.5 million tons of waste in a
year.

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

Biodiesel

● In 1998, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA, released a study on

biodiesel.
● It is essentially vegetable oil with methane and lye added for free flow in cold weather
and to remove glycerine.
● Biodiesel results in fewer harmful emissions than petroleum based diesel. Carbon
monoxide emissions are reduced by 43%, Hydrocarbons by 56%, particulates by 58%
and sulphur by 100%.
● In addition, biodiesel shows no noticeable change in power or mileage. Now, people
have started incorporating many such systems in a variety of diesel vehicles.
● Cost wise, biodiesel and regular diesel are at the same level.
● The owner of a fast food restaurant has come up with a way of getting biodiesel from
the vegetable oils used in fryers that are normally used as animal feed or thrown in
landfills. These technologies reduce waste disposal as well.

Natural compost

● Nature is self-sustainable in a real sense. Remains of one animal is food for the other.
For example, earthworms survive on cow dung or animal waste. In the process,
compost is produced. This manure is rich in nitrogen and can recondition soil, thus
increasing agricultural produce by 20%-30%. This compost is also an extremely good
replacement for chemical fertilizers.
● Use of natural compost in farming yields organic fodder, and hence chemical-free
wheat, cereals, vegetables, milk and meat.
● Vermicomposting is popular and successful in many parts of our country where
organic animal waste is in plenty. Production of compost can be considered as an
alternate source of income for farmers (especially when cows cannot produce milk).

Eco-friendly plastic

● The use of cheap plastic bags almost everywhere on all occasions has created enough
nuisance as far as the environment is concerned. Most of these plastics are non-
biodegradable.
● Due to advanced technology, in countries like USA, environmental friendly plastics
and fibres are being produced for use in products ranging from mattresses and beds
to soda cups and chocolate wrappers.
● Corn plastics are being developed by Cargil Dow LLC at its plant outside Blair. Refined
corn sugar is converted into a substance called polylactide (PLA). The sugar is
fermented and distilled to extract carbon. Carbon is the main ingredient of
commercial plastic. Finally, PLA is being used in packaging of foods, plastic wraps,
foams and dinnerware.
● It is spun into fabrics at plants in North California, Hong Kong and marketed under
the Ingeo brand of clothing and blankets.
● It takes about a month for corn plastic bags to decompose and on the other hand, an
oil based plastic bag could take centuries to decompose.
● It is reported that Coca-Cola used 500,000 cups made from corn plastic at the Winter
Olympics in Salt Lake City. Instead of creating a huge mess with respect to trash, the
used cups were compressed and quickly turned into dirt.

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● There is an increasing demand for corn plastics in the packaging industry.

● It is true that today, biodegradable plastics are more expensive than traditional
plastics. However, when it becomes very useful and practical, this eco-friendly plastic
will also become cheaper.

Eco-friendly paper making

● 90% of the world’s paper is made from wood which is an assemblage of dead plant
cells.
● Wood consists of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin and the latter two components
are removed from pulp for paper making.
● Mechanical pulping yields a higher quality of paper but has low brightness and
becomes yellow.
● Chemical pulping eliminates lignin and gives desired brightness through bleaching.
● Toxic chemicals, mainly chlorine and hypochlorite are used for bleaching. This
procedure is hazardous and contributes to environmental pollution.
● Biological pulping basically makes use of the natural process of degrading of
hemicellulose and lignin. This process yields paper with enhanced brightness and
ensures environmental safety.

Alternate Energy

At present, the primary sources of energy are fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Based on the data of the International Energy Agency in the year 2001, coal, petroleum and
natural gas account for 38.74%, 23.05% and 23.75% of the total world energy consumption
respectively. Whereas other sources of energy such as hydroelectric and nuclear electric
power account for 6.64% and 6.54% respectively.

It is recognized that fossil fuel resources are limited and hence the stress on these primary
resources of energy should be reduced by exploring the possibilities of alternate sources of
energy. The primary energy sources lead to large scale environmental pollution. This in turn
adversely affects atmospheric processes that regulate global energy and heat balance and
hence, the climate.

The above reasons emphasize the need for non-polluting and renewable energy resources,
like wind and solar energy, which are constantly replenished and non-polluting.

Technology for exploiting renewable energy sources is comparatively costly and inefficient.
Hence, the alternate sources of energy are not becoming popular. Statistics show that in 2001,
the contribution of non-conventional energy resources like solar, wind, and geothermal
energy was collectively only 0.76% of the world’s total consumption of energy.
However, attempts are made continuously to stick on to new technologies to utilize these
forms of energy in larger amounts. This will be more economical and efficient.

Some promising alternative sources of energy are hydrogen, bio-fuels, solar energy, wind
energy and gobar gas.

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Hydrogen Energy:

 Hydrogen is an alternate source of energy, a non-polluting gas which is available in a

large amount in water along with oxygen. It is also available in hydrocarbons along
with carbon.
 Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the whole universe and unlike fossil fuels,
hydrogen will not run out in the near future.
 It is important to note that hydrogen as a conventional fuel has the highest calorific
value of 150kJ, almost 3 times that of petrol.
 The use of hydrogen as a conventional fuel, for example as fuel in automobiles has
been met with a little success.
 The combustion-based energy generation first converts the fuel to heat energy and
then to mechanical energy which drives the turbine to produce electrical energy.

Fuels → Heat → Mechanical Energy → Provides Motion (Results in Driving the Turbine) →
Electrical Energy.

However such roundabout methods result in wastage of energy as heat, friction, conversion
losses and hence, lower the overall efficiency.

Another advancement in hydrogen energy is the usage of hydrogen in fuel cells which are
used for generating power. This technology was developed in Japan and it is one of the most
promising upcoming advancements.

Fuel cell technology

 This technology is based on the reverse reaction of water electrolysis, wherein the
electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen produces electricity and
water as by-products.
 As in the case of the battery, a fuel cell has two electrodes namely, the fuel electrode
and air electrode.
 It has four components- fuel reforming system, fuel cell stack, inverter and water
recovery system.
 The fuel reforming system produces hydrogen from biogas and the electrochemical
reaction generates direct current (DC).
 The inverter converts DC electricity to AC electricity. Thus, the chemical energy of fuel
is directly converted to electrical energy without any losses. The exhaust emissions
are also extremely low. Heat which is produced as a by-product is used to heat water
and is supplied back to the cell.
 The fuel cell technology is best suited for large companies, housing colonies and other
such independent institutions.
 The cost of installation is higher than that of thermal units of same capacity.

Advantages:

 No recurring and maintenance cost.

 No pollution.
 It provides hot water as a by-product that can be used for various functions.
 The sewage treatment plants generate biogas, which can be used for hydrogen
production.

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Advancement of hydrogen energy programs in India:

 India’s hydrogen energy program is a part of the new technology initiative of the
Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES).
 Strategies have been developed to help the laboratories acquire expertise in the
production, storage and utilization of hydrogen as an alternate fuel.
 Institutions like Banaras Hindu University (BHU) and the Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi (IIT-D) have been involved in hydrogen energy research. BHU has
been successful in running a hydrogen fuelled motorcycle.

Methods of producing Hydrogen

 Electrolysis of water using electricity or by using renewable sources of energy like

wind energy, hydropower, solar photovoltaic cells.
 Direct splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen using light with the help of special
catalysts or extreme heat.
 Chemical or thermal reformation of biomass feedstock, wood chips or during
methanol manufacture from biomass.
 Biological reformation of biomass using micro-organisms.

We need to note that in the first two methods, no carbon dioxide is produced. In the next two
methods the produced carbon dioxide is recycled by the growth of more biomass.

Biofuels

 Biofuels are efficient, environment friendly and are 100% natural.

 They are produced from agricultural sources and have low emission characteristics.
 Ethanol and bio diesel are projected as potential fuels for surface transportation.
 Ethanol is a chemical obtained through the process of fermentation and distillation of
molasses which is a by-product of the sugar industry.
 Ethanol is blended with 5% to 6% petrol and is used for vehicular transport.
 Ethanol used along with gasoline enhances the combustion of gasoline due to an
increased number of oxygen molecules which results in a more efficient burns and
reduced emission.
 Thus it can be concluded that for conventional, re-modified petrol vehicles, ethanol
and petrol blend is very promising.
 Other raw materials used for the production of biofuels are corn, rice and potatoes.

Advantages of biofuels:

 High oil bearing capacity

 Renewable sources of energy
 Low cost and simple technology
 Easy to develop, implement and use
 Environment friendly and compatible
 Biodegradable, non-toxic and free of sulphur

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Bio-diesel:

 Bio-diesel is an oxygenated fuel with carbon dioxide content of only 10%. Therefore
it gives better emission characteristics in terms of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons
and particulate matter.
 Currently 100% pure methyl esters of rapeseed, soya bean, sunflower, tallow (animal
fat) and other fats/oils are used as diesel fuel without any substantial modification to
the existing design of the engine.
 In most of the developed countries, biodiesel is produced from cooking oils like
sunflower, peanut etc.
 Biofuels have been produced in many countries mainly in the European Union, east
Europe, USA, and Malaysia with an overall capacity of around 1300000 tonnes.

Climate Change Mitigation Measures In India

India is the world’s fourth largest economy and fifth largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emitter,
accounting for about 5% of global emissions. India’s emissions increased 65% between 1990
and 2005 and are projected to grow another 70% by 2020. By other measures, India’s
emissions are low compared to those of other major economies. India accounts for only 2%
of cumulative energy-related emissions since 1850. On a per capita basis, India’s emissions
are 70% below the world average and 93% below those of the United States.

India is a party to both the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto
Protocol. As a non-Annex I (developing) country, India has no binding emission limits under
the Protocol. However, India is an active participant in the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) established by the Protocol. (The CDM grants marketable emission credits for verified
reductions in developing countries. Developed countries buying these credits can apply them
toward their Kyoto targets.) India has more than 345 registered CDM projects, more than any
other country, and about a third of all projects globally. (In terms of the overall volume of
CDM reductions, China ranks first with 51% followed by India at 14 %.) The largest project
categories are biomass and wind power. Most projects in India are undertaken on a unilateral
basis— developed independently by local stakeholders without the direct involvement of
Annex I countries.

Policies contributing to climate mitigation

As in many other countries, India has a number of policies that, while not driven by climate
concerns, contribute to climate mitigation by reducing or avoiding GHG emissions. Many of
these policies are contained in the Five Year Plans developed by the Planning Commission to
guide economic policy in India. Other policies are found in the Integrated Energy Policy
approved by the Planning Commission in 2006 with the broad objective of meeting energy
demand “at the least cost in a technically efficient, economically viable and environmentally
sustainable manner.” In June 2008, Prime Minister Singh released India’s first National Action
Plan on Climate Change outlining existing and future policies and programs addressing
climate mitigation and adaptation.

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Energy

 Renewable Energy - Currently, modern renewable energy constitutes 4% of the total

installed capacity of the power generating sector. Between 2002 and 2007, 6800
megawatts (MW) of renewable power capacity was added, about 3000 MW more than
the 10th Five Year Plan target. The 11th Five Year Plan sets a target of increasing the
installed capacity to 23,500 MW by 2012, or more than 10% of total installed capacity,
with wind comprising 72% and biomass and hydro power about 14% each. The
Electricity Act (2003) encourages the development of renewable energy by
mandating that State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) allow connectivity
and sale of electricity to any interested person and permit off-grid systems for rural
areas

 Wind Power - Wind power comprises over 65% of renewable capacity, ranking India
fourth in terms of wind power generation worldwide. The Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy estimates the overall potential for wind power at 45,000 MW, with
only about 6270 MW currently developed.

 Solar Power - Solar thermal projects receive financial assistance in the form of capital
subsidies, sales incentives, and reimbursement of fees. To encourage foreign
investment in solar photovoltaic technology, the government allows an automatic
approval procedure for up to 74% of foreign direct investment in joint venture
projects. Various subsidies and loans are also available for manufacturers and users
of solar power. Raw materials and photovoltaic components are exempt from excise
duties and benefit from concessional import duties. In New Delhi, the use of solar
water heating systems in certain categories of buildings has been made mandatory.
In 2006, a rebate scheme was introduced in the domestic sector to encourage the use
of these systems.

 Other Renewables - Biomass projects for power generation receive fiscal incentives
including subsidies, income tax holidays, excise duty and sales tax exemptions, and
accelerated depreciation. Currently, the CDM also attracts developers to build
biomass projects. Small hydropower projects (up to 25 MW) are eligible for incentives
such as concessional customs duties and income tax exemptions for 10 years.

 Coal - Currently, coal accounts for 55% of electricity generation. According to the new
national climate action plan, about 7% of the installed coal capacity is in inefficient
plants that will be retired by 2012, and an additional 10,000 MW will be retired or
reconditioned by 2017.

 Nuclear Power - Nuclear power presently accounts for 3% of total power generation.
The Integrated Energy Policy sets a goal of increasing installed nuclear capacity from
about 3900 MW to 20 gigawatts (GW), a five-fold increase, by 2020.

Biofuels

The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas is implementing a mandatory program for the
introduction of ethanol-blended gasoline (5% gasohol) nationwide by April 2008. However,
due to fluctuations in the supply of ethanol, the program is currently running behind
schedule. The Biodiesel Price Policy (2005) fixed the initial purchase price of biodiesel at

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Rs.25/litre. The government is formulating a national policy on biofuels to introduce financial

incentives, develop R&D for production and commercialization of ethanol and jatropha, and
establish a national biofuel development board.

Transport

Vehicles - The National Auto Fuel Policy (2003) mandated that all new four-wheeled vehicles
in eleven cities meet Bharat Stage III emission norms for conventional air pollutants, (similar
to Euro III emission norms), and comply with Euro IV standards by 2010. The largest urban
fleet of compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles was introduced in New Delhi and Mumbai to
reduce pollution and increase energy security. In New Delhi alone, 106,000 vehicles,
including all buses, taxis and three-wheelers, were converted from gasoline or diesel to CNG.
This combined effort resulted in the conversion of 375,000 vehicles by March 2007, with
three-wheelers forming the largest share (64%).

Mass Transit - The Delhi Metro subway system began construction in 1998 and will cover the
entire metropolitan region by 2021. Currently, only Phase I has been completed, with daily
ridership projected to reach 2.6 million by 2011. The Bangalore Metro Phase I is expected to
be operational by 2011 and projected to provide transportation for one million passengers
per day. The National Urban Transport Policy (2006) and the National Urban Renewal
Mission provide funding for development of mass transit strategies for cities. Currently bus
rapid transit systems are functional in the city of Indore and are being tested in Delhi.

Forestry

In 2005, the forest and tree cover in India was 24%. The 11th Five Year Plan proposes an
increase in the forest and tree cover of 1% a year through 2012. In 2007, the Prime Minister
announced the Green India program to reforest 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands.

High-tech measures for reducing carbon emission

High-tech measures are generally considered last because they are usually expensive and
technologically advanced, often needing some R&D work at the local level before
implementation can be considered.

Use of Carbon Capture and Storage (Sequestration)

 India has large coal deposits and therefore most of its power is produced from this
source. It is estimated that even by 2030, one-third of India’s power will be produced
from coal which in turn produces a lot of CO2. Hence, carbon capture and its storage
(CCS) in deep geological formations is a possible way of reducing emissions.

 CCS is a high-tech method and depends on the local geology of the area and several
high-tech factors. The idea seems to have been taken from the successful
underground storage provided for storing natural gas during non-peak hours in some
US and European cities.

 Nature does it effectively when photosynthesis converts atmospheric CO2 into food
for trees and forests which eventually fall and get buried in the deep earth and turn

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into coal or oil after centuries of being subjected to high pressure and heat. This is
nature’s way of achieving carbon capture and sequestration.

 Man tries to do it artificially by capturing the CO2 gas directly at source, liquefying and
pushing it underground into deep geological formations for storage for hundreds of
years so that for all practical purposes it is out of circulation in the atmosphere. This
is no easy matter and serious problems can arise in implementations and long term
storage.

Elements of a Carbon Capture and Sequestration Scheme (CCS)

CO2 capture CO2

POWER HOUSE compression Pipeline to well
and separation

Well to suitable Geo-site (May be

more than 1km deep)

A Carbon Capture and Storage arrangement to reduce carbon emissions

from a power-generating system

A stepwise approach to the planning of CCS scheme in any country would include the
following elements:

● Capturing the CO2 gas at a source.

● Compressing it to required temperature, density and low volume.
● Transporting it by pipe to the holding site.
● Injecting it underground to the required depth and stratum.
● Monitoring its performance with regard to regulatory requirements (leakage risk,
etc.)
● Capturing has been done so far at the post-combustion stage through in some cases
separation of CO2 at pre-combustion stage may be desirable. Anyway, the latter has
not yet been demonstrated for power projects,

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● Storage basins in the form of deep, sedimentary basins have been found suitable for
CO2 storage. California is reputed to have natural ones with alternating layers of
sandstone and shale.

Options in geological storage generally include the following:

● Use of space released by depleted oil and gas resources underground.

● Use of CO2 to increase oil and gas outputs from deposits.
● Use of deep saline formations (offshore and onshore) for storage.
● Use of CO2 to improve coal-bed methane recovery
● CO2 is generally injected at over 0.8 to 1 km depth at which the volume of gas and its
density are both suitable for injection.
● Sequestration mechanisms could be either rocks with pore spaces or the CO2 could be
sealed on by low-permissibility rocks. Alternatively, the CO2 may be sealed in by
secondary trapping mechanisms such as capillary forces, conversion into solid
minerals, adsorption on coal, etc.
● Storage is reputed to be safe with over 99% recovery likely even after 1000 years.
Actual experience with CO2 storage extends over 25+ years and with natural gas over
100+ years.

Issues involved in planning CCS projects:

● Limited fundamental knowledge of storage and leakage mechanism.

● Limited experience in site characterization and selection.
● Storage engineering.
● Safe operation of project.
● Monitoring
● Remediation
● Regulatory oversight
● Financial responsibility

Unfortunately, there are many aspects in which a CCS project could go wrong. The project
could damage quality of the groundwater or other natural resources, the safety of workers
and the general public might be endangered, release to the atmosphere might be another
problem, and so on. A few issues have yet to be sorted out, such as long term liability, general
public acceptance, etc. especially in developing countries who may not be ready as yet for
such a high-tech method.

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Waste

Wastes are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after
primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no use.

Waste hierarchy is a tool used in the evaluation of processes that protect the environment
alongside resource and energy consumption from most favourable to least favourable
actions. The hierarchy establishes preferred program priorities based on sustainability.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)—more commonly known as trash or garbage—consists of

everyday items we use and then throw away, such as product packaging, grass clippings,
furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries. This
comes from our homes, schools, hospitals, and businesses.

EPA encourages practices that reduce the amount of waste needing to be disposed of, such
as waste prevention, recycling, and composting.

 Source reduction, or waste prevention, is designing products to reduce the amount

of waste that will later need to be thrown away and also to make the resulting waste
less toxic.

 Recycling is the recovery of useful materials, such as paper, glass, plastic, and metals,
from the trash to use to make new products, reducing the amount of virgin raw
materials needed.

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 Composting involves collecting organic waste, such as food scraps and yard
trimmings, and storing it under conditions designed to help it break down naturally.
This resulting compost can then be used as a natural fertilizer.

Bio-waste

Biowaste or biodegradable wastes can be defined as any waste material that is organic or
that is capable of being decomposed under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.

Agricultural wastes, municipal solid wastes, sludge, waste water and food wastes, are
currently seen as low-valued materials. However, they are beginning to be recognized as
resources for the production of a variety products. Agricultural wastes, for instance, contain
high levels of cellulose, hemicelluloses, starch, proteins, as well as lipids. As such, they
constitute inexpensive candidates for the biotechnological production of liquid biofuels
without competing directly with the ever-growing need for world food supply. As bio-
wastes are generated in large scales, in the range of billions of kilograms per year, thus
largely available and rather inexpensive, these materials are seriously considered to be
potential sources for the production of bio-fuels.

Biomedical Waste

Biomedical waste/hospital waste is any kind of waste containing infectious (or potentially
infectious) materials. It may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical
waste that visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused
bandages, infusion kits, etc.), as well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or
organisms that are mainly restricted from environmental release. As detailed below,
discarded sharps are considered biomedical waste whether they are contaminated or not,
due to the possibility of being contaminated with blood and their propensity to cause injury
when not properly contained and disposed of.

Industrial Waste

Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that
is rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that of factories, industries, mills,
and mining operations. Types of industrial waste include dirt and gravel, masonry and
concrete, scrap metal, oil, solvents, chemicals, scrap lumber, even vegetable matter from
restaurants. Industrial waste may be solid, liquid or gaseous. It may be hazardous or non-
hazardous waste. Hazardous waste may be toxic, ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or radioactive.
Industrial waste may pollute the air, the soil, or nearby water sources, eventually ending up
in the sea. Industrial waste is often mixed into municipal waste, making accurate assessments
difficult.

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IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Impacts of Climate Change on various sectors

1. Agriculture, Forestry & Ecosystem

For any particular crop, the effect of increased temperature will depend on the crop's optimal
temperature for growth and reproduction. In some areas, warming may benefit the types of
crops that are typically planted there, or allow farmers to shift to crops that are currently
grown in warmer areas. Conversely, if the higher temperature exceeds a crop's optimum
temperature, yields will decline.

 Higher CO2 levels can affect crop yields. Some laboratory experiments suggest that elevated
CO2 levels can increase plant growth. However, other factors, such as changing
temperatures, ozone, and water and nutrient constraints, may counteract these potential
increases in yield. For example, if temperature exceeds a crop's optimal level, if sufficient
water and nutrients are not available, yield increases may be reduced or reversed. Elevated
CO2 has been associated with reduced protein and nitrogen content in alfalfa and soybean
plants, resulting in a loss of quality. Reduced grain and forage quality can reduce the ability
of pasture and rangeland to support grazing livestock.
 More extreme temperature and precipitation can prevent crops from growing. Extreme
events, especially floods and droughts, can harm crops and reduce yields. For example, in
2010 and 2012, high night time temperatures affected corn yields across the U.S. Corn Belt,
and premature budding due to a warm winter caused $220 million in losses of Michigan
cherries in 2012.
 Dealing with drought could become a challenge in areas where rising summer temperatures
cause soils to become drier. Although increased irrigation might be possible in some places,
in other places water supplies may also be reduced, leaving less water available for irrigation
when more is needed.
 Many weeds, pests, and fungi thrive under warmer temperatures, wetter climates, and
increased CO2 levels. The ranges and distribution of weeds and pests are likely to increase
with climate change. This could cause new problems for farmers' crops previously unexposed
to these species.
 Though rising CO2 can stimulate plant growth, it also reduces the nutritional value of most
food crops. Rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide reduce the concentrations of protein
and essential minerals in most plant species, including wheat, soybeans, and rice. This direct
effect of rising CO2 on the nutritional value of crops represents a potential threat to human
health. Human health is also threatened by increased pesticide use due to increased pest
pressures and reductions in the efficacy of pesticides.
 Heat waves, which are projected to increase under climate change, could directly threaten
livestock. In 2011, exposure to high temperature events caused over $1 billion in heat-related
losses to agricultural producers. Heat stress affects animals both directly and indirectly. Over
time, heat stress can increase vulnerability to disease, reduce fertility, and reduce milk
production.
 Drought may threaten pasture and feed supplies. Drought reduces the amount of quality
forage available to grazing livestock. Some areas could experience longer, more intense
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droughts, resulting from higher summer temperatures and reduced precipitation. For
animals that rely on grain, changes in crop production due to drought could also become a
problem.
 Climate change may increase the prevalence of parasites and diseases that affect livestock.
The earlier onset of spring and warmer winters could allow some parasites and pathogens to
survive more easily. In areas with increased rainfall, moisture-reliant pathogens could thrive.
 Changes in temperature and seasons can affect the timing of reproduction and migration.
Many steps within an aquatic animal's lifecycle are controlled by temperature and the
changing of the seasons. For example, in the Northwest warmer water temperatures may
affect the lifecycle of salmon and increase the likelihood of disease.

Effects on forest ecosystems:

 Climate change influences the structure and function of forest ecosystems and plays
an essential role in forest health.
 A changing climate may worsen many of the threats to forests such as pest outbreaks,
fires, human development and droughts.
 Climate change directly or indirectly affects plant growth and productivity of the
forests through changes in temperature, rainfall, weather, CO2 concentrations, etc.
 Warming temperatures generally increase the length of the growing season. It also
shifts the geographic ranges of some tree species. For example, species that currently
exist only on mountain tops may die out as the climate warms since they cannot shift
to higher altitudes.
 Climate change is likely to increase the risk of drought in some areas and the risk of
extreme precipitation and flooding in others.
 CO2 is required for photosynthesis. Given sufficient water and nutrients, increase in
atmospheric CO2 may enable trees to be more productive which can change the
distribution of tree species.

Impacts of disturbances:

Climate change could alter the frequency and intensity of forest disturbances such as insect
outbreaks, growth of invasive species, wildfires and storms.

Insect outbreaks often defoliate, weaken and kill trees. For example: By 2007, pine beetles
had damaged more than 650,000 acres of forest in Colorado and spruce beetles had damaged
more than 3.7 million acres in southern Alaska and western Canada. Climate change could
contribute to an increase in the severity of future insect outbreaks. Rising temperatures may
enable some insect species to develop faster, alter their seasonal life cycles and expand their
ranges.

Climate change could benefit invasive plants that are more tolerant to harsher environmental
conditions more than the native ones.

These disturbances can also reduce forest productivity and change the distribution of tree
species. In some cases, forests can recover from a disturbance. In other cases, existing forests
may shift their range or die out completely. In these cases, the new species of vegetation that
colonize the area create a new type of forest.

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2. Water resources

The relationship between water, energy, agriculture and climate is as important as it is

complex. The top 20 warmest years on record have come since 1995. As the Earth’s average
temperatures continue to rise, we can expect a significant impact on water resources.

Countries that are home to one fourth of Earth's population face an increasingly urgent risk:
The prospect of running out of water. From India to Iran to Botswana, 17 countries around
the world are currently under extremely high water stress, meaning they are using almost all
the water they have. Many are arid countries to begin with; some are squandering what water
they have. Several we relying too heavily on groundwater, which instead they should be
replenishing and saving for times of drought.

In those countries are several thirsty cities that have faced acute shortage recently, including
São Paolo, Brazil; Chennai, India; and Cape Town, which in 2018 beat what it called Day Zero-
the day when all its dams would be dry. Climate change heightens the risk. As rainfall
becomes more erratic, the water supply becomes less reliable. At the same time, as the days
grow hotter, more water evaporates from reservoirs just as demand for water increases.

Water-stressed places are sometimes cursed by two extremes. São Paulo was ravaged by
floods a year after its taps nearly ran dry. Chennai suffered fatal floods four years ago, and
now its reservoirs are almost empty.

Mexico's capital, Mexico City, is drawing groundwater so fast that the city is literally sinking.
Dhaka, Bangladesh, relies so heavily on its groundwater for both its residents and its water-
guzzling garment factories that it now draws water from aquifers hundreds of feet deep.
Chennai's thirsty residents, accustomed to relying on groundwater for years, are now finding
there's none left. Across India and Pakistan, farmers are draining aquifers to grow water
intensive crops like cotton and rice.

Today, among cities with more than 3 million people, World Resources Institute researchers
concluded that 33 of them, with a combined population of over 255 million, face extremely
high water stress, with repercussions for public health and social unrest. By 2030, the
number of cities in the extremely high stress category is expected to rise to 45 and include
nearly 470 million people.

3. Human Health

The effects of global warming and climate change includes its effects on human health. The
observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts
exacerbates the effects on human health too.

Impact of excess heat on the human body

The human body requires evaporative cooling to prevent overheating. With excessive
ambient heat and humidity, adequate evaporative cooling does not take place. Thus Human
thermoregulatory capacity is exceeded. Human response to heat stress can be hyperthermia,
heat stroke and other harmful effects. Heat illness can affect many of the organs and systems
including: brain, heart, kidneys, liver, etc.

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Vascular disease

A good example of the impact of global warming on health can be seen in the disease
Erythromelalgia. This is a vascular disease that is commonly triggered by the involvement of
change in temperature, which leads to syndromes including burning pain, increased
temperature, erythema and swelling, of mainly the hands and feet that are affected. As
climate change proceeds, more Erythromelalgia outbreaks may occur because of the extreme
weather events that are projected to increase in coming decades.

Infectious diseases

 Warming oceans and a changing climate are resulting in extreme weather patterns
which have brought about an increase of infectious diseases—both new and re-
emerging.
 These extreme weather patterns are creating extended rainy seasons in some areas
and extended periods of drought in others, as well as introducing new climates to
different regions.
 These extended seasons are creating climates that are able to sustain vectors for
longer periods of time, allowing them to multiply rapidly, and also creating climates
that are allowing the introduction and survival of new vectors.

Impact of warmer and wetter climates

Mosquito-borne diseases are probably the greatest threat to humans as they include malaria,
elephantiasis, Rift Valley fever, yellow fever, and dengue fever.

1. Flooding creates more standing water for mosquitoes to breed; as well, shown that these
vectors are able to feed more and grow faster in warmer climates.
2. As the climate warms over the oceans and coastal regions, warmer temperatures are also
creeping up to higher elevations allowing mosquitoes to survive in areas they had never been
able to before.
3. As the climate continues to warm there is a risk that malaria will make a return to the
developed world.
4. Ticks are also thriving in the warmer temperatures allowing them to feed and grow at a
faster rate.

Psychological Impacts

Psychological impacts are the effects that heat, drought, migrations, and climate-related
conflicts have on social life and community life. This includes post-disaster adjustment.
Migration leads to the early separation of kids from their parents can cause symptoms of
grieving, depression, and detachment in both the young and old. Disruption of community
(forced relocation) leads to the deterioration of geographic and social connections of an
individual or a community. This leads to grief, anxiety, and an overall sense of loss.

Other Impacts

Another impact of warming global temperature is dehydration and heat stroke, these heat
waves have also resulted in epidemics of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Other diseases on the
rise due to extreme weather include Hantavirus, schistosomiasis, river blindness and
tuberculosis. It also causes a rise in hay fever, as when the weather gets warmer there is a

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rise in pollen levels in the air. The warming oceans are also becoming a breeding ground for
toxic algae blooms and cholera. Heat indirectly causes mental health issues through physical
health issues. The World Health Organization presents the fact that high extreme heat is
directly related to certain ailments like cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, and
asthma.

4. Industry, Settlement & Society

Impacts on Industry

Climate change will likely affect farming communities, tourism and recreation, and the
insurance industry.

 Communities that developed around the production of different agricultural crops, such as
corn, wheat, or cotton, depend on the climate to support their way of life. Climate change will
likely cause the ideal climate for these crops to shift northward. Certain agricultural products,
such as maple syrup and cranberries in the Northeast and grapes for wine in California, may
decline dramatically in the U.S. These crops would then have to be imported.
 Climate change will also likely affect tourism and recreational activities. A warming climate
and changes in precipitation patterns will likely decrease the number of days when
recreational snow activities such as skiing and snowmobiling can take place. An increasing
number of wildfires could affect hiking and recreation in parks. Beaches could suffer erosion
due to sea level rise and storm surge. Changes in the migration patterns of fish and animals
would affect fishing and hunting. Communities that support themselves through these
recreational activities would feel economic impacts as tourism patterns begin to change.
 Climate change may make it harder and more expensive for many people to insure their
homes, businesses, or other valuable assets in risk-prone areas, or preclude them from
insurance altogether. Insurance is one of the primary mechanisms used to protect people
and communities against weather-related disasters. We rely on insurance to protect
investments in real estate, agriculture, transportation, and utility infrastructure by
distributing costs across society and build resilience. Climate change is projected to increase
the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, and
floods. These changes are likely to increase losses to property and crops, and cause costly
disruptions to society. Escalating losses have already affected the availability and
affordability of insurance in vulnerable areas.

Impacts on Settlement & Society

Geographic Location

Where people live influences their vulnerability to climate change.

 Over the past four decades, population has grown rapidly in coastal areas. These areas are
most sensitive to coastal storms, drought, air pollution, and heat waves.
 Populations will likely face water shortages and increased wildfires in the future.
 Arctic residents will likely experience problems caused by thawing permafrost and reduced
sea ice.

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Ability to Cope

Different groups have different abilities to cope with climate change impacts.

 People who live in poverty may have a difficult time coping with changes. These people have
limited financial resources to cope with heat, relocate or evacuate, or respond to increases in
the cost of food.
 Older adults may be among the least able to cope with impacts of climate change.
 Young children are another sensitive age group, since their immune system and other bodily
systems are still developing and they rely on others to care for them in disaster situations.

Indigenous Peoples

While each community and tribe is unique, many share characteristics that can affect their
ability to prepare for, respond to, and cope with the impacts of climate change. These include:

 living in rural areas or places most affected by climate change (like communities along the
coast)
 relying on surrounding environment and natural resources for food, cultural practices, and
income
 coping with higher levels of existing health risks when compared to other groups
 having high rates of uninsured individuals, who have difficulty accessing quality health care
 living in isolated or low income communities

Climate change can impact the health and well-being of indigenous tribes in many ways.
Climate change will make it harder for tribes to access safe and nutritious food, including
traditional foods important to many tribes’ cultural practices. Many tribes already lack access
to safe drinking water and wastewater treatment in their communities. Climate change is
expected to increase health risks associated with water quality problems like contamination
and may reduce availability of water, particularly during droughts.

Urban Populations

City residents and urban infrastructure have distinct sensitivities to climate change impacts.
For example, heat waves may be amplified in cities because cities absorb more heat during
the day than suburban and rural areas.

Cities are more densely populated than suburban or rural areas. As a result, increases in heat
waves, drought, or violent storms in cities would affect a larger number of people than in
suburban or rural areas. Higher temperatures and more extreme events will likely affect the
cost of energy air and water quality, and human comfort and health in cities.

City dwellers may also be particularly susceptible to vulnerabilities in aging infrastructure.

This includes drainage and sewer systems, flood and storm protection assets, transportation
systems, and power supply during periods of peak demand, which typically occur during
summer heat waves.

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Projected Impacts of Climate Change

Change Will Continue Through This Century and Beyond

Global climate is projected to continue to change over this century and beyond. The
magnitude of climate change beyond the next few decades depends primarily on the amount
of heat-trapping gases emitted globally, and how sensitive the Earth’s climate is to those
emissions.

Temperatures Will Continue to Rise

Because human-induced warming is superimposed on a naturally varying climate, the

temperature rise has not been, and will not be, uniform or smooth across the country or over
time.

Arctic Likely to Become Ice-Free

The Arctic Ocean is expected to become essentially ice free in summer before mid-century.

Sea Level Will Rise 1-4 feet by 2100

Global sea level has risen by about 8 inches since reliable record keeping began in 1880. It is
projected to rise another 1 to 4 feet by 2100. This is the result of added water from melting
land ice and the expansion of seawater as it warms.

In the next several decades, storm surges and high tides could combine with sea level rise
and land subsidence to further increase flooding in many regions. Sea level rise will continue
past 2100 because the oceans take a very long time to respond to warmer conditions at the
Earth’s surface. Ocean waters will therefore continue to warm and sea level will continue to
rise for many centuries at rates equal to or higher than those of the current century.

Higher maximum temperatures, more hot days and heat waves over nearly all land areas

 Increased deaths and serious illness in older age groups and urban poor
 Increased heat stress in livestock and wildlife
 Shift in tourist destinations
 Increased risk of damage to a number of crops
 Increased electric cooling demand and reduced energy supply reliability

Higher minimum temperatures, fewer cold days, frost days and cold waves over nearly all land
areas

 Decreased cold-related human morbidity and mortality

 Decreased risk of damage to a number of crops, and increased risk to others
 Extended range and activity of some pest and disease vectors
 Reduced heating energy demand

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Global Warming & Climate Change Prof. A. S. Murthy

More intense precipitation events

 Increased flood, landslide, avalanche, and mudslide damage

 Increased soil erosion
 Increased flood runoff increasing recharge of some floodplain aquifers
 Increased pressure on government and private flood insurance systems and disaster
relief

Increased summer drying over most mid-latitude continental interiors and associated risk of
drought

 Decreased crop yields

 Increased damage to building foundations caused by ground shrinkage
 Decreased water resource quantity and quality
 Increased risk of forest fire

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