TOPICS & SYLLABUS:

Topic 1: Site investigation

Topic 2: Slope Stability
Topic 3: Shallow Foundations
Topic 4: Mat (Raft) Foundations
Topic 5: Pile Foundations
Topic 6: Earth Retaining Structures

1
 Topic 5: Pile Foundations
Key points of foundation design: (Pile: bottom, side; Shallow: bottom)
(a) shall be safe against overall shear failure (Ultimate Limit State);
(b) cannot undergo excessive displacement (Serviceability Limit State).
I. Single pile II. Pile group
❖ General information ❖ Configuration & Group Efficiency
❖ Pile loading capacity ❖ Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles
❖ Point load capacity ❖ Settlement of Group Piles
❖ Frictional resistance
III. Bored pile
❖ Negative Skin Friction
❖ Pile driving ❖ Construction Procedures
❖ Pile load test ❖ Load-Bearing Capacity
❖ Settlement of piles ❖ Elastic settlement

7
Civil Engineering 2022/2023
Subject: Geotechnical Design (CSE40403)

Topic 5 Pile Foundations

I. Single Pile

By Dr. Ning Zhang

Office: ZS928, Tel: 3400-8473
Email: [email protected]
Consultation hours: 15:00~17:00 Monday
8
Main content:

❖ General information
❖ Pile loading capacity
❖ Point load capacity
❖ Frictional resistance
❖ Negative Skin Friction
❖ Pile driving
❖ Pile load test
❖ Settlement of piles

9
I.1 General information (a) When one or more upper soil layers are
highly compressible and too weak to
support the load transmitted by the
Why use piles? superstructure.
(earth-retaining structures,
foundations of tall structures) (b) When bedrock is not encountered at a
reasonable depth below the ground
surface, the pile will be long with frictional
resistance at the soil–pile interface.
(c) When subjected to horizontal forces, pile
foundations resist by bending, while still
supporting the vertical load.
(d) When expansive and collapsible soils may
be present at the site of a proposed
structure. Piles may be used extended into
stable soil.
(e) The foundations of some structures
subjected to uplifting forces. Piles are
sometimes used for these foundations to
resist the uplifting force.
(f) Bridge abutments and piers are usually
(transmission towers,
constructed over pile foundations to avoid
offshore platforms, and the loss of bearing capacity (erosion).
basement mats below
the water table)
10
I.1 General information

Types of piles and their structural characteristics

11
 I.2 Pile loading capacity – load transfer mechanism
Pile load test
(Mansur and Hunter, 1970)
= Q1 + Q2 Q

Q2
Q1 = Q – Q2
During pile load test:
 s = 2.5 mm: Q = 700 kN, Q1 = 600 kN, Q2 = 100 kN Q Qu = 45%, Q1 Qs = 55%, Q2 Q p = 22%
 
 s = 5 mm: Q = 1100 kN, Q1 = 800 kN, Q2 = 300 kN Q Qu = 71%, Q1 Qs = 73%, Q2 Q p = 67%
 s = 11 mm: Q = 1550 kN, Q = 1100 kN, Q = 450 kN
 u s p
Q1 is developed at a much smaller pile
Ultimate Skin friction Point displacement (or much faster) than Q2
19
 I.2 Pile loading capacity – load transfer mechanism
The load on the pile is gradually increased from zero to Q(z=0) at the ground surface.

dQ( z ) = f( z ) pdz
Q(z) dQ( z )
 f( z ) =
pdz

dQ(z) = f(z).p.dz A

Q(z+dz)

20
 I.2 Pile loading capacity – load transfer mechanism
The load on the pile Q(z=0) is increased up to yield value Qu

mostly
adopted
failure mode
❖ Pile foundations are deep foundations and
that the soil fails mostly in a punching mode
(a triangular zone I developed at the pile tip).
❖ In dense sands and stiff clayey soils, a radial
shear zone, II, may partially develop.

21
 I.2 Pile loading capacity – pile length
The ultimate load-carrying capacity of a pile is given by
where Qu = Q p + Qs
Q2 Q
Qp = load carried at the pile point
Qs = load carried by skin friction developed at the side of the pile (caused by shearing
resistance between the soil and the pile)

Extreme case:
The lengths of point
bearing piles up to Extreme case:
the rock-bed (or The lengths of friction
more embedded in piles depend on the
rock-bed). shear strength of the
soil, the applied load,
and the pile size.
Figure. (a-b) Point bearing piles; (c) friction piles
22
 I.2 Pile loading capacity – general equation
Qp = load-capacity of the pile point
Qs =Ʃ PLLf Qu = Q p + Qs Qs = frictional resistance (skin friction)
derived from the soil–pile interface.
Apap
Qp
=

Qs =  pLf

(Frictional Bearing Capacity

or Frictional Resistance)

Q p = Ap q p
(Point Bearing Capacity)
bearingcapacity

Figure. Ultimate load-carrying capacity of pile

23
I.3 Point bearing capacity – Derivation of Qp
Point Bearing Capacity, Qp
The general ultimate bearing capacity equation for shallow foundations was given in
Topic 2 (for vertical loading) as 1
qu = cN c Fcs Fcd + qN q Fqs Fqd +  BN  F s F d
2
Hence, in general, the ultimate load-bearing capacity may be expressed as
qu = cN c + qN q +  BN 
where Nc*, Nq* and Nγ* are the bearing capacity factors that include the necessary shape
and depth factors.
Pile foundations are deep. However, the ultimate resistance per unit area
developed at the pile tip, may be expressed by an equation similar in form to the above
equation, although the values of Nc*, Nq* and Nγ* will change. The notation used in this
part for the width of a pile is D. Hence, substituting D for B in the above equation gives

qu = q p = cN c + qN q +  DN 

24
I.3 Point bearing capacity – Derivation of Qp
Because the width D of a pile is relatively small, the term γDNγ* may be dropped from
the right side of the preceding equation without introducing a serious error; thus, we
have
q p = cN c + qN q +  DN 

Note that the term q for pile is the effective vertical stress at the pile tip, better to
expressed in q’. Thus, the point bearing of piles is

Q p = Ap q p = Ap ( cN c + qN q )
Where
Ap = area of pile tip
qp = unit point resistance at tip
c’ = cohesion of the soil supporting the pile tip
q’ = effective vertical stress at the level of the pile tip 三 γ D
Nc*, Nq* = the bearing capacity factors

25
 I.3 Point bearing capacity – Development of Qp
Ultimate Point Resistance, qp of Test Pile in sand at the Ogeechee River Site (Vesic 1970)

Observation: the point bearing capacity of a

pile in sand generally increases with the
depth of embedment in the bearing stratum
and reaches a maximum value at a critical
embedment ratio.

Q p = Ap q p = Ap ( cN c + qN q )

and Q p  Ap ql
Variation of qp &
N60 with depth V
limit
26
 I.3 Point bearing capacity – Development of Qp (Meyerhof’s Method)

Q p = Ap q p = Ap ( cN c + qN q )

For Sand, we have c’=0 三 γD

Vertical effective stress

Q p = Ap q p = Ap qN q

Q p = Ap qN q  Ap ql

with ql = 0.5 pa N q tan  

For Clay, we have ϕ=0, c’=cu

Very small value,
Q p = Ap q p = Ap ( cN c + qN q ) negligible

For piles in saturated clays under undrained

conditions the net ultimate load can be given as

Q p  N ccu Ap = 9cu Ap

where cu = undrained cohesion of the soil below

the tip of the pile. (“9” is from analytical solution) 27
I.3 Point bearing capacity – Development of Qp
Vesic’s Method for sand
Vesic (1977) proposed a method for estimating the pile point bearing capacity based on
Gi
the theory of cavity expansion.
V

_
h
6 Q p = Ap q p = Ap m N

“
⼀

where 6h Mean effective stress

1 1 + 2K0 :
 m = ( v + 2 h ) = q ( 0 =  v = q =  z , K 0 = 1 − sin 让
)
3 3
rz
N = f ( , I rr )
I
where Irr = reduced rigidity index for the soil I rr = r
1 + Ir 
Es Gs
Ir = rigidity index = =
2 (1 +  s ) q tan  q tan 

Es = modulus of elasticity of soil Es = m  pa

μs = Poisson’s ratio of soil    − 25 
 s = 0.1 + 0.3  
Gs = shear modulus of soil  20 
pa = atmospheric pressure (=101.325 kPa)
Δ = average volumetric strain in the plastic zone below the pile point
   − 25  q
 = 0.005 1 − 
 20  pa 28
I.3 Point bearing capacity – Development of Qp
Vesic’s Method for sand *
No table
Table. Bearing Capacity Factors Nσ* Based on the Theory of Cavity Expansion

29
I.3 Point bearing capacity – Development of Qp
Vesic’s Method for clay
In saturated clay (’=0), the net ultimate point bearing capacity of a pile can be
approximated as
Q p = Ap q p = Ap cu N c (N 
c = 9 in Meyerhof's method )

According to the expansion of cavity theory of Vesic (1977),

4 
N c = ( ln I rr + 1) + + 1
3 2
Ir
where Irr = reduced rigidity index for the soil I rr = (=0 for saturated clay)
1 + Ir 

Es c
( 347 u − 33  300)  Es  s =0.5 Es 
Ir = rigidity index = ⎯⎯⎯
 2 (1 +  ) q tan   f =cu → =
3cu pa 3cu 
 s

 = c +   tan  f
∠

Es = modulus of elasticity of soil  f n 
cu = undrained shear strength of saturated clay
pa = atmospheric pressure (=101.325 kPa)

30
I.3 Point bearing capacity – Development of Qp
Coyle and Castello’s Method for sand

Q p = Ap q p = Ap qN q

(Using the general equation,

but specify the coefficient N*q
based on 24 large-scale field
load tests of driven piles in
sand)

31
 *
Nq Apu
ap Apq '
≤
Example 1 Solution =

Consider a 15-m long concrete pile

with a cross section of 0.45 m x 0.45
' qu
C =0

m fully embedded in sand. For the

sand, given: unit weight  = 17 kN/m3;
(Figure left-down)
and soil friction angle ’ = 35o. Pa lookPa
=

Estimate the ultimate point Qp with

each of the following:
a. Meyerhof’s method
b. Vesic’s method (m = 250)
c. The method of Coyle and Castello
d. based on the results of parts a, b, 所 ( better to use  m to replace  0 )
and c, adopt a value for Qp
m

1 + 2 Ko
3

143

32
Example 1 Solution
Consider a 15-m long concrete pile
with a cross section of 0.45 m x 0.45
m fully embedded in sand. For the
sand, given: unit weight  = 17 kN/m3;
and soil friction angle ’ = 35o.
Estimate the ultimate point Qp with
each of the following:
a. Meyerhof’s method
b. Vesic’s method (m = 250)
c. The method of Coyle and Castello
d. based on the results of parts a, b,
and c, adopt a value for Qp

48

33
Example 2 5m 廿

30m
Consider a pipe pile (flat driving point)
having an outside diameter of 406 mm. Solution
The embedded lengthIvof Irr
' the pile in
'C = φ 0
a
= =

layered saturated clay is 30 m. The

, ,

following are the details of the subsoil. 为

The groundwater table is located at a
depth of 5 m from the ground surface.
Estimate Qp by using
a. Meyerhof’s method
b. Vesic’s method

Iv ≤ 300

  4  
 N c = ( ln I rr + 1) + + 1 = 11.51
 3 2 
Remark: I rr  300

34
I.3 Point bearing capacity – Development of Qp
Q p = Ap q p
Correlations for Calculating with SPT and CPT Results
「

On the basis of field observations, Meyerhof (1976) also suggested that the ultimate
point resistance in a homogeneous granular soil may be obtained from standard
penetration numbers as
L
q p = 0.4 pa N 60  4 pa N 60
D

N60 = the average value of the standard penetration number near the pile point (about
10D above and 4D below the pile point) ”

pa = atmospheric pressure ( = 101.325 kPa) ion

√
Λ
4D
According to Briaud et al. (1985), in granular soil with the standard penetration
γ
resistance N60
q p = 19.7 pa ( N 60 )
0.36

According to Meyerhof (1956), in granular soil with the cone penetration resistance qc
q p = qc

35
Example 3
Consider a concrete pile that is 0.305 m x 0.305 m in cross section in sand. The pile is 15.2 m
⼀

long. The following are the variations of N60 with depth.

a. Estimate Qp using q p = 0.4 pa N 60 L  4 pa N 60
D
b. Estimate Qp using
q p = 19.7 pa ( N 60 )
0.36

Solution

4D (not necessary to be integer)

☆

…
(15.2-10D=12.15 m
[should be N60=(17+20+28)/3=21.7] 15.2+4D = 16.4 m)

36
 I.3 Point bearing capacity – Point Bearing Capacity of Piles Resting on Rock
Sometimes piles are driven to an underlying layer of rock. In such cases, the engineer
must evaluate the bearing capacity of the rock. The ultimate unit point resistance in rock
(Goodman, 1980) is approximately

Where
q p = qu N +1 ( )
Nф = tan2(45+ ф’/2)
qu = unconfined compression strength of rock
ф’ =drained angle of friction qu( design ) = qu( lab ) 5

Q p = q p Ap = qu( lab ) ( N +1) Ap 5

Unconfined Compressive Strength of Rocks qu(lab) Typical Values of Angle of Friction ’ of Rocks

37
I.4 Frictional Resistance – Derivation of Qs
Frictional Resistance, Qs
The frictional, or skin, resistance of a pile may be written as
Qs =  pLf
Where
p = perimeter of the pile section
ΔL = incremental pile length over which p and f are taken to be constant
f = unit friction resistance at any depth z
p = D

(depending on f)
The key is how to calculate f ?

L
p = 2(d1+d2)
D = (d1+d2)/2

38
I.4 Frictional Resistance – Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Sand

sdiameter
(L’≈15*D)

15 D
f = K o tan   if 0  z  L
f = f z = L if z  L

Figure. Unit frictional resistance for piles in sand

K = effective earth pressure coefficient
Qs =  pLf ,
因为是三⻆形⾯积 σ’o = effective vertical stress at the depth
under consideration (sometime we use q’)
= p  15D  f 2 + p ( L − 15D ) f δ’ = soil-pile friction angle

with f = K o tan   at z = 15 D
39
I.4 Frictional Resistance – Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Sand
Effective Earth Pressure coefficient

Based on load test results in the field, Mansur and Hunter (1970) reported the following
average values of K.
H-piles . . . . . . K = 1.65
Steel pipe piles . . . . . . K = 1.26 Qs =  pLf
Precast concrete piles . . . . . . K = 1.5 f = K o tan  
f = f z = L
Replace the summation by average (different K)
Qs =  pLf = p  Lf = pf av L = p ( K o tan   ) L

 o = average effective overburden pressure along the depth

  = soil–pile friction angle (=0.5~0.8’)
p = perimeter of the pile section
L = Total pile length
40
Example 4 Solution
Consider a 15-m long concrete pile
with a cross section of 0.45 m x 0.45
m fully embedded in sand. For the
sand, given: unit weight  = 17 kN/m3;
and soil friction angle ’ = 35o.
(following example 1)
Estimate Qs with each of the
following: perimeter
7
15D
a. Based on f = K  tan   if 0  z  L
o
(K= 1.3)
f = f z = L if z  L 15)
( ’ = 0.8’)
b. Based on Qs = p ( K o tan   ) L
i

f 0.93

1702
2

p
If asked to determine Qall using result of example 1 with FS=3?
1702

z
41
 I.4 Frictional Resistance – Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Sand
Qs = pf av L
Correlation with Standard Penetration Test Results
Meyerhof (1976) indicated that the average unit frictional resistance, fav, for high
displacement driven piles may be obtained from average standard penetration
resistance values as
f av = 0.02 pa ( N 60 )

where
( N60 ) =
average value of standard penetration resistance. (Attention: from ground to the
Pa = atmospheric pressure (= 101.325 kPa or kN/m2) pile point, not 10D above and 4D
below the pile point)
For low-displacement driven piles
f av = 0.01 pa ( N 60 ) '

calulate Qp
Briaud et al. (1985) suggested

f av = 0.224 pa ( N 60 )
0.29

42
I.4 Frictional Resistance – Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Sand
Qs =  pLf
Correlation with Cone Penetration Test Results
Nottingham and Schmertmann (1975) and Schmertmann (1978) provided correlations
for estimating Qs using the frictional resistance (fc) obtained during cone penetration
tests. According to this method
f =   fc

The variations of α’ with L/D for electric cone and mechanical cone penetrometers are
shown in Figure below, respectively. We have
Qs =  p ( L ) f =  p ( L )  f c
(different fc for different soil layer)

Based on tests of mechanical cone penetrometer

Based on tests of electric cone penetrometer

(one pile, one L/D, one unique ’) 43
Example 5
Consider a concrete pile that is 0.305 m x 0.305 m in cross section in sand. The pile is 15.2 m
long. The following are the variations of N60 with depth. (following example 3)
a. Estimate Qs using f = 0.02 p ( N )
av a 60
b. Estimate Qs using
f av = 0.224 pa ( N 60 )
0.29

Solution

(not necessary to be integer)

If asked to determine Qall based on Meyerhof’s method and Briaud’s method (FS=3)?

44
Example 6
Consider an 18-m long concrete pile (cross section: 0.305 m x 0.305 m) fully embedded in a
sand layer. For the sand layer, the following is an approximation of the cone penetration
resistance qc (mechanical cone) and the frictional resistance with depth.
Estimate the allowable load that the pile can carry. Use FS=3.
Solution

(for mechanical cone)

0.44

45
I.4 Frictional Resistance – Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Clay
Qs = pf av L
λ Method
This method, proposed by Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972), Variation of  with pile
is based on the assumption that the displacement of soil embedment length, L
caused by pile driving results in a passive lateral pressure
at any depth and that the average unit skin resistance is
f av =  ( o + 2cu ) both average
where
 o = mean effective vertical stress for
the entire embedment length
cu = mean undrained shear strength (ф = 0)

In general case

 o = ( A1 + A2 + A3 + ... ) L
cu = ( cu(1)L1 + cu(2)L2 + cu(3)L3 + ... ) L
46
I.4 Frictional Resistance – Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Clay
Qs =  pLf
α Method
According to the method, the unit skin resistance in clayey soils can be represented by
the equation
f =  cu

where α = empirical adhesion factor.

The ultimate side resistance can thus be given as

Qs =  p ( L ) f =  p ( L ) cu

→α1 Variation of 
(interpolated values
→α2 based on Terzaghi, Peck
and Mesri, 1996)
→α3

47
I.4 Frictional Resistance – Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Clay
Qs =  pLf
β Method
When piles are driven into saturated clays, the pore water pressure in the soil around
the piles increases. The excess pore water pressure in normally consolidated clays may
be four to six times cu. However, within a month or so, this pressure gradually dissipates.
Hence, the unit frictional resistance for the pile can be determined on the basis of the
effective stress parameters of the clay in a remolded state (c’=0). Thus, at any depth,

f =  o
Where
σ’o = vertical effective stress
β = Ktanф’R
ф'R = drained friction angle of remolded clay
K = pressure coefficient
Qs =  pLf =  pLK tan R  0
β
1 − sin R for normally consolidated clays
K = ⼀每层的K都可能不⼀样
(1 − sin R ) OCR for over-consolidated clays

48
Example 7
QS
Refer to the pile in saturated clay shown in the figure below. For the pile, calculate the skin
resistance by (1) the -method, (2) the -method, and (3) the -method. For the -method,
use ’R = 30o for all clay layers. The top 10 m of clay is normally consolidated. The bottom clay
layer has an OCR = 2. (Note: diameter of pile = 406 mm)

OCRZ 2

49
 Solution

60
查表

K β= ktandk

50
Example 8
A concrete pile 305 mm x 305 mm in cross section is driven to a depth of 20 m below the
ground surface in a saturated clay soil. A summary of the variation of frictional resistance fc
obtained from a cone penetration test is as follows.
Estimate the frictional resistance Qs for the pile.
Qs =  p ( L )  f c

Solution

(Whatever mechanical or electric cone)

0.84
0.71
0.63

Attention:
different from sand (’ depending on L/D)

51
 I.5 Negative Skin Friction (NSF)

Negative skin friction is a downward drag force exerted

on a pile by the soil surrounding it. Such a force can exist
under the following conditions:
❖ If a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer
into which a pile is driven, the fill will gradually
consolidate. The consolidation process will exert a
downward drag force on the pile (See Figure below)
during the period of consolidation.
❖ If a fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of soft
clay, it will induce the process of consolidation in the
clay layer and thus exert a downward drag on the pile.
❖ Lowering of the water table will increase the vertical
effective stress on the soil at any depth, which will
induce consolidation settlement in clay. If a pile is
located in the clay layer, it will be subjected to a
downward drag force.
Key words: Qu = Qp + Qs − Qn
Clay layer
Increase of effective stress Total downward drag force 52
I.5 Negative Skin Friction (NSF)
(a) Clay fill over granular soil
the negative (downward) skin stress on the pile is
f n = K  o tan  
where
K’ = earth pressure coefficient = K0 = 1-sin’ (attention:
not c=cu & ’=0 assumed in NSF) ,

’0 = vertical effective stress at any depth60

z =  ’fz
’f = effective unit weight of fill
 ’ = soil-pile friction angle = 0.5~0.7’

by integrating with depth in clay fill, the total downward drag force on a pile is
Hf Hf 1
Qn =  f n pdz =  K  f z tan   pdz = K  f tan   pH 2f
0 0 2
where
Hf = Height of the fill (attention: if the fill is above water table, the ’f should be
replaced by the moist unit weight)
p = perimeter of the pile
53
 I.5 Negative Skin Friction (NSF)
(b) Granular soil fill over clay layer
fn of sand fill is rf
not considered
the negative (downward) skin stress on the pile is
f n = K  o tan   γ
where
K’ = K0 = 1-sin’ (of clay layer)
’0 =  ’fHf +  ’z ( ’ = effective unit weight of clay layer)
 ’ = 0.5~0.7’ (of clay layer)

Transition from downward to no-

by integrating with depth in clay layer downward, given by Bowles (1982)
( L − H ) L − H  f H f  2 f H f
Qn =  f n pdz =  K  (  f H f +  z ) tan   pdz
L1 L1 f f
L =  + −
0 0
1
L1  2   
1
= K  f tan   pH f L1 + K   tan   pL12 Attention: for end-bearing piles, the
2
neutral depth may be assumed to be
(attention: if the soil and the fill are above water located at the pile tip: √
table, the effective unit weight should be replaced
L1 = L − H f pile tip有
by the moist unit weight) rock
普通湿度的重量 。

54
 I.5 Negative Skin Friction (NSF)
A case history in Oslo by Bjerrum et al (1969)
(sand)

Since in this case the pile is a point bearing pile, then

L1 = L-Hf = 40-11-2 = 27 m

Thus, the maximum downdrag force on the pile:

Qn = p ( K  tan   ) (  f H f L1 + 0.5 L12 )

= (  0.5 )( 0.22 ) (16  2 )( 27 ) + ( 8.69  11)( 27 ) + 0.5 ( 9.19 )( 27 )  end bearing piles
2 -

 
= 2348 kN
(measured value was 2500 kN, very close) 55
Example 9a
In the figure right, let Hf = 2 m. The pile is circular in cross
section with a diameter of 0.305 m. For the fill that is
above the water table, and f = 16 kN/m3 and ’ = 32o.
Determine the total drag force. ( ’ = 0.6’)

Solution

P K ZfH5 81

56
 Solution (Attention: for end-bearing piles:
Example 9b L1 = L-Hf)
In the figure below, let Hf = 2 m
and L = 20 m. The pile is circular
in cross section with a diameter
of 0.305 m. For the fill that is
above the water table, and f =
16.5 kN/m3, ’clay = 34o and
sat(clay) = 17.2 kN/m3 Determine
the total drag force. ( ’ = 0.6’)

57
I.6 Pile driving
Piles are driven into the ground by means of
❖ Hammers (for big piles)
❖ vibratory drivers (for small piles)
❖ jetting or partial augering (for small piles in soft soils)
❖ drilling (Bored Pile, for big piles)

58
I.6 Pile driving
Piles may be divided into two categories based on the nature of their placement:
❖ displacement piles
✓ Driven piles are displacement piles, because
❖ non-displacement piles they move some soil laterally; hence, there is
a tendency for densification of soil
密
surrounding them.
✓ Concrete piles and closed-ended pipe piles
are high-displacement piles.
✓ Steel H-piles displace less soil laterally during
driving, so they are low-displacement piles.

✓ Bored piles are non-displacement piles

because their placement causes very little
change in the state of stress in the soil.

59
I.6 Pile driving
For pile-driving by hammers
❖ In the driving operation, a cap is attached to the top of the pile.
垫⼦
❖ A cushion may be used between the pile and the cap.
The cushion has the effect of reducing the impact force and
spreading it over a longer time; however, the use of the
cushion is optional.
❖ A hammer cushion is placed on the pile cap.
❖ The hammer drops on the cushion

Types of hammer
(a) drop hammer
(b) single-acting air of steam hammer
60
I.6 Pile driving

Types of hammer
(c) double-acting and differential air or steam hammer
(d) diesel hammer
(e) vibratory pile driver

61
I.6 Pile driving
Table. Examples of Commercially Available Pile-Driving Hammers

62
I.6 Pile driving
Pile-Driving Formulas: (a) EN formula
Dynamic equations are widely used in the field to determine whether a pile has reached a
satisfactory bearing value at the predetermined depth. The principle is (so-called
“(Engineering News Record (EN) Formula)”):
Energy imparted by the hammer per blow = (pile resistance)(penetration per hammer blow)
WR h
Qu =
撞击装制 S +C C = 25.4 mm (=1 inch) for drop hammers
WR = weight of the ram C = 2.54 mm for steam hammers
h = height of fall of the ram
S = penetration of pile per hammer blow the average value obtained from
C = a constant the last few driving blows.

For single- and double-acting hammers, the term WRH can be replaced by EHE
where
EH E
E is the efficiency of the hammer Qu =
HE is the rated energy of the hammer S +C

63
I.6 Pile driving
Pile-Driving Formulas: (b) Modified EN Formula
EWR h WR + n W p
2

Qu =
S + C WR + W p
E = efficiency of hammer
C = 2.54 mm if the units of S and h are in mm (whatever drop or steam)
Wp = weight of the pile with the cap
n = coefficient of restitution between the ram and the pile cap
Typical values for E
Single- and double-acting hammers 0.7–0.85
Diesel hammers 0.8–0.9
Drop hammers 0.7–0.9

Typical values for n

Cast-iron hammer and
concrete piles (without cap) 0.4–0.5
Wood cushion on steel piles 0.3–0.4
Wooden piles 0.25–0.3
64
 I.6 Pile driving
A case study of using the modified EN formula
Knowns :
W p = Ap L c + Wcap = ( 645  10−4 ) ( 24.4 )( 23.58 ) + 2.98 = 40.08 kN
EWR h WR + n W p
2

Qu = Rated energy H E = WR h = 26.03 kN-m

S + C WR + W p
Weight of ram WR = 22.24 kN
C = 2.54 Hammer efficiency E = 0.85
25.4 补偿
S= Coefficieint of restitution n = 0.35
N
(N=number of hammer blows per 25.4 mm of penetration)

( 0.85 )( 26.03  1000 )  22.24 + ( 0.35 ) ( 40.08 ) 

2

Qu =  
25.4  22.24 + 40.08 
+ 2.54
N
9639.08
=
25.4
+ 2.54
N

Normal value of N:
4-5 for wooden piles
6-8 for concrete piles
12-14 for steel piles
65
I.6 Pile driving
Pile-Driving Formulas: (c) Danish formula EH E
Qu =
(Olson and Flaate, 1967) EH E L
S+
2 Ap E p

E = efficiency of hammer
HE = rated hammer energy
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pile material
L = length of the pile
Ap = cross-sectional area of the pile

Pile-Driving Formulas: (d) Janbu’s formula

(Janbu, 1953)
EH E
Qu =
K u S
  

where K u = Cd 1 + 1 +  weight of pile with cap
 C d  ,

 Wp   EH E L 
with Cd = 0.75 + 0.14   and   =  2 
W A E S 
 R  p p 
ram
weight of 66
Example 10

( = WR h ) HE
E
WR

(with unit weight of concrete: 23.58 kN/m3)

n

N ×
) O 305
- 24.39 ( × 23. 58 + 2 45
.

W
EWR h R + n 2
Wp
Qu =
S + C WR + W p
EH E
Qu = v
~
2 54 mm
EH E L 25 4
.

S+ S=
.

N
2 Ap E p

67
Solution

单位 mm

68
I.7 Pile Load Test
❖ The primary reason is the unreliability of prediction methods.
❖ Force control: Step loads are applied (each step load = 1/4 of working load).
❖ Or displacement control: a constant rate of penetration 0.25-2.5 mm/min.
❖ The load test should be carried out to at least a total load of two times proposed
working load.
❖ After the desired pile load is reached, the pile is gradually unloaded.

69
I.7 Pile Load Test

snet = st − se

Curve (1): Pile settlement may increase with load to a certain point, beyond which
the load–settlement curve becomes vertical. The load corresponding to the point
where the curve of Q versus becomes vertical is the ultimate load, for the pile.
Curve (2): In many cases, the latter stage of the load–settlement curve is almost
linear, showing a large degree of settlement for a small increment of load. The
ultimate load, for such a case is determined from the point of the curve of Q versus
where this steep linear portion starts.
But not always clear? 70
I.7 Pile Load Test Total settlement

One of the methods to obtain the ultimate load Qu from the load-settlement plot is that
proposed by Davisson (1973). Davisson’s method is used more often in the field and is
described here. Referring to Figure below, the ultimate load occurs at a settlement level
(su) of
 D  Qu L
su ( mm ) = 0.012 Dref + 0.1 +
 D  A E
Where  ref  p p

Qu is in kN
D = pile diameter or width (in mm)
Dref = reference pile diameter 0.012Dr+
0.1D/Dr
or width (= 300 mm)
L = pile length (mm)
Ap = pile cross section (mm2)
Ep = Young’s modulus of pile material
(kN/mm2) Slope su/Qu
= L/(ApEp)

71
 Example 11
The figure below shows the load test results of a 20-m
long concrete pile (406 mm × 406 mm) embedded in
sand. Using Davisson’s method, determine the ultimate
load Qu. Given: Ep = 30x106 kN/m2.
Qu = 1460 kN
s = 3.735 mm
Solution
 D  Qu L
su = 0.012 Dref + 0.1  +
D
 ref  Ap E p Slope = 0.004
 406  Qu ( 20000 )
= 0.012  300 + 0.1  +
 300  406  406  30
= 3.735 + 0.004Qu

72
I.7 Pile Load Test
Soils surrounding the pile would be disturbed during pile driving, but they will be recovered
to some degree after certain time. So the test should be conducted after certain time.

(1) When piles are driven into soft clay, a

certain zone surrounding the clay
becomes remolded or compressed. This
results in a reduction of undrained shear
strength. With time, the loss of undrained
shear strength is partially or fully
regained. The time lapse may range from
30 to 60 days.

After t days (Skov & Denver 1988)

 t  
Qt = QOED  A log   + 1 (for clay:
  t0  
A = 0.6, t0 = 1)

After 14 days (Guang-Yu 1988)

Q14 = ( 0.375St + 1) QOED
OED: end of driving
St: sensitivity of clay 73
 I.7 Pile Load Test
Soils surrounding the pile would be disturbed during pile driving, but they will be recovered
to some degree after certain time. So the test should be conducted after certain time.

(2) For piles driven in dense saturated fine

sands, relaxation is possible. Negative pore
water pressure, if developed during pile
driving, will dissipate over time, resulting
in a reduction in pile capacity with time
after the driving operation is completed.
(3) In loose sand, excess pore water
pressure may be generated during pile
driving. The excess pore water pressure
After t days (Skov & Denver 1988) will dissipate over time, which will result in
 t   greater pile capacity.
Qt = QOED  A log   + 1
(for sand:
  t0   A = 0.2, t0 = 0.5)

(Both formulae for loose or

After t days (Svinkin 1996) medium dense sandy soils)
1.025t 0.1QOED  Qt  1.4t 0.1QOED

OED: end of driving 74

I.8 Settlement of Piles
The total settlement of a pile under a vertical working load Qw is given by
Se = Se(1) + Se( 2) + Se( 3)

Se(1) = elastic settlement of pile itself

Se(2) = settlement of pile caused by the load at the pile tip
Se(3) = settlement of pile caused by the load transmitted along the pile shaft

= 0.5 for uniform friction

Se(1) is attributed by “average axial force”

Se(1) =
( Q
wp +  Qws ) L
Ap E p

Qwp = load carried at the pile point under working load condition
Qws = load carried by frictional (skin) resistance under working load condition
Ap = area of cross section of pile
L = length of pile
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pile material

The magnitude of ξ varies between 0.5 and 0.67 depending on the nature of the
distribution of the unit friction (skin) resistance f along the pile shaft.
75
 I.8 Settlement of Piles
The total settlement of a pile under a vertical working load Qw is given by
Se = Se(1) + Se( 2) + Se( 3)

Se(2) is attributed by “Soil below the pile” (Similar to shallow foundation)

qwp D
Se( 2) =
Es
(1 −  ) I
2
s wp

D = width or diameter of pile

qwp = point load per unit area at the pile point = Qwp/Ap
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point
μs = Poisson’s ratio of soil
Iwp = influence factor ≈ 0.85

by Vesic (1977), just for reference

Table. Typical Values of Cp
Qwp C p
Se( 2) =
Dq p
Ultimate point
resistance of the pile

76
I.8 Settlement of Piles
The total settlement of a pile under a vertical working load Qw is given by
Se = Se(1) + Se( 2) + Se( 3)

Se(3) is attributed by “friction force of pile skin”

Q  D
Se( 3) =  ws  (1 −  s2 ) I ws
 pL  Es
Qws = load carried by frictional (skin) resistance under working load condition
p = perimeter of the pile
L = embedded length of pile
D = width or diameter of pile
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point
μs = Poisson’s ratio of soil
L
Iws = influence factor = 2 + 0.35
D

Qws Cs 
Se( 3) = L
Lq p Cs = an empirical constant =  0.93 + 0.16 C p
 D 
by Vesic (1977), just for reference
77
I.8 Settlement of Piles
Example 12: The allowable working load on a prestressed concrete pile 21-m long that
has been driven into sand is 502 kN. The pile is octagonal in shape with D = 356 mm (see
Table below). Skin resistance carries 350 kN of the allowable load, and point bearing
carries the rest. Use Ep = 21 X 106 kN/m2, Es = 25 X 103 kN/m2, μs = 0.35 and ξ = 0.62.
Determine the settlement of the pile.

Table. Typical Prestressed Concrete Pile in Use

78
I.8 Settlement of Piles
From the table, for D = 356 mm, the area of pile cross section. Ap = 1045 cm2, Also,
perimeter p = 1.168m. Given: Qws = 350 kN, so
- point bearing
Qwp = 502 − 350 = 152 kN

Se(1) =
(Qwp +  Qws ) L 152 + 0.62 ( 350 )  ( 21)
= = 0.00353 m = 3.35 mm
Ap E p ( 0.1045 m 2
)( 21  10 6
)
ip
qwp D  152  0.356 
Se( 2) =
Es
(1 −  ) I
2
s wp =  3 (
 0.1045  25  10 
1 − 0.352 ) ( 0.85 ) = 0.0155 m = 15.5 mm

Q  D L 21
Se( 3) =  ws  (1 −  s2 ) I ws  I ws = 2 + 0.35 = 2 + 0.35 = 4.69
 pL E
 s D 0.356
 350   0.356 
3 (
Se( 3) =   1 − 0.352 ) ( 4.69 ) = 0.00084 m = 0.84 mm
 (1.168 )( 21)   25  10 

Hence, the total settlement is

Se = Se(1) + Se( 2) + Se( 3) = 3.35 + 15.5 + 0.84 = 19.69 mm
79
Civil Engineering 2022/2023
Subject: Geotechnical Design (CSE40403)

Topic 5 Pile Foundations

II. Pile Group

By Dr. Ning Zhang

Office: ZS928, Tel: 3400-8473
Email: [email protected]
Consultation hours: 15:00~17:00 Monday
80
Main content:

❖ Configuration
❖ Group Efficiency
❖ Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay
❖ Elastic Settlement of Group Piles
❖ Consolidation Settlement of Group Piles

81
II.1 Configuration
Interference between two piles

d = center to center pile spacing

Figure. Group piles

In practice, the minimum d, is

2.5D and, in ordinary situations,
is actually about 3 to 3.5D.

82
II.2 Group Efficiency
The efficiency of the load-bearing capacity of a group pile may be defined as
Qg ( u )
=
Q u
Where
ŋ = group efficiency
Qg(u) = ultimate load-bearing capacity of the group pile
Qu = ultimate load-bearing capacity of each pile without the group effect
(for pure friction pile, approximation) 2

Qg ( u ) f av pg L ( )
pg = 2 Lg + Bg f av  2 ( n1 + n2 − 2 ) d + 4 D  L 2 ( n1 + n2 − 2 ) d + 4 D
= = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ = =
 Qu  f av pL number of pile=n1n2 n1n 2 pLf av pn1n2

Attention:  ≤ 1 !!!
(n1=n2=1, =4/, wrong!
So the expression needs
to be corrected!)

83
II.2 Group Efficiency
Equation for Group Efficiency of Friction Piles
Converse-Labarre equation
 ( n1 − 1) n2 + ( n2 − 1) n1 
 = 1−  
 90 n n
1 2 
where θ (deg) = tan-1(D/d)
Los Angeles Group Action equation
D 
 = 1−  n1 ( n2 − 1) + n2 ( n1 − 1) + 2 ( n1 − 1)( n2 − 1) 
 dn1n2

Seiler-Keeney equation (Seiler and Keeney,1994)

  11d   n + n − 2   0.3
 = 1 −   
1 2
 +
  7 ( d − 1)   n1 + n2 − 1   n1 + n2
2
where d is in ft

(n1=n2=1,  > 1, not a good form!)

85
II.3 Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay

The Figure shows a group pile in saturated clay.

Step 1. The ultimate bearing capacity of individual
pile is perimeter
7

Qu = Q p + Qs = Ap 9cu( p )  +   pcu L

Where cu(p) = undrained cohesion of the clay at

the pile tip
Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of pile
group by the summation of individual piles,
expressed as ΣQu =n1n2(Qp+Qs).

Qg (u ) = n1n2 9 Ap cu( p ) +   pcu L 

Note: Any previous methods of

Qp and Qs can be adopted!

86
 II.3 Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay

Step 2. Determine the ultimate bearing capacity by

assuming that the piles in the group act as a block
with dimensions Lg X Bg X L. The skin resistance of
the block is (“ = 1” assumed)
Qs = αpg cu L =  2 ( Lg + Bg ) cu L
Calculate the point bearing capacity:
Q p = Ap q p = Ap cu( p ) N c = ( Lg Bg ) cu( p ) N c

Obtain the value of the bearing capacity factor from

Figure. Thus, the ultimate load is

Qg (u ) = Lg Bg cu( p ) N c +  2 ( Lg + Bg ) cu L

Qgus = in( 9 ApCu (p) + 三 apacL )

87
II.3 Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay
Step 3. Compare the two values obtained from two methods. The lower value is taken
as the final Qg(u) for design.
Step 4. If step 1 is adopted, need to reduce it by .

Figure. Variation of N*c with Lg/Bg and L/Bg

88
II.3 Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay
Example 1
The section of a 3x4 group pile in a layered
saturated clay is shown in the Figure. The
piles are square in cross section (356 mm x
356 mm). The center-to-center spacing, d, 2)

×
of the piles is 889 mm. Determine the 。3
的2
b ) 2^
(3
allowable load-bearing capacity of the pile . . 7 4 .5
18 72]
F

(
group. Use FS = 4. Note that the ) 134 号 1 13
85 .
.

⼉
×

3。
groundwater table coincides with the ayur
ground surface. Qg (u ) = n1n2 9 Ap cu( p ) +   pcu L  or
 
Qg (u ) = Lg Bg cu( p ) N c +  2 ( Lg + Bg ) cu L
=
'

356 0 12 m ]
Ap
:
0. 了
.

Culps 85 1 = .
krlmi }
356 =
1 424m
4×0
-

92
LL 4 57
= .

220 68
.

clay 1 kNlm
>
. .

0 .3 525
a b α= 0
1 KNlor
= .

clay 2 a 85
.
. ≥

m
L 13 72
Δ
= .

θgl 12× 9× ) 127× 85 -1 + .68 × .424×50. 3× . 8 KN

× 13 72] = 14312
1 4
0
=

85 1 89
.

+ 0 .
525 1 424
× × .
. .
Solution of Example 1

90
Solution of Example 1

Remark: No good, in
practice should be Qu*

91
 ☆
II.4 Elastic Settlement of Group Piles
In general, the settlement of a group pile under a similar working load per pile increases
with the width of the group and the center-to-center spacing of the piles (d). Several
investigations relating to the settlement of group piles have been reported in the
literature, with widely varying results. The simplest relation for the settlement of group
piles was given by Vesic (1969), namely,

Bg (corresponding to the working load

sg ( e ) = se per pile (= total working load of the
D
group pile divided by the total
number of piles in group)
sg(e) = elastic settlement of group piles
Bg = width of group pile section
D = width or diameter of each pile in the group
类似的
se = elastic settlement of each pile at comparable working load

92
II.4 Elastic Settlement of Group Piles
For group piles in sand and gravel using standard penetration test results, for elastic
settlement, Meyerhof (1976) suggested the empirical relation
working load
0.96q Bg
sg ( e ) (mm) = I with q =
Qg
(in kN/m 2 )
N 60 Lg Bg

N60 = average standard penetration number within seat of settlement (around = Bg

deep below the tip of the piles)
Lg and Bg = length and width of the group pile section, respectively (m)
I = influence factor = 1-L/(8Bg) ≥ 0.5
埋置
L = length of embedment of piles (m)
,

Similarly, the group pile settlement is related to the cone penetration resistance by the
formula
qBg
sg ( e ) = I Average cone penetration resistance
2qc within the seat of settlement.

(for clay, we need to calculate consolidation settlement…)

93
II.4 Elastic Settlement of Group Piles
Example 2
Consider a 3x4 group of prestressed concrete piles, each 21 m long, in a sand layer. The
details of each pile and the sand are similar to that described in Example 12. The
working load for the pile group is 6024 kN (3x4xQall —where Qall = 502 kN as in example
12), and d/D = 3. Estimate the elastic settlement of the pile group. Use the equation
Bg
sg ( e ) = se
D
Solution
(Don’t forget: Lg ≥ Bg, so n2 = 3 for Bg)
Bg = ( n2 − 1) d + 2 D 2 = 2  3D + D = 7 D = 7  0.356 = 2.492 m
from the previous example, se =19.69 mm. Hence,
Bg 2.492
sg ( e ) = se =  19.69 = 52.09 mm
D 0.356

94
 II.5 Consolidation Settlement
of Group Piles
The consolidation settlement of a group
pile in clay can be estimated by using
the 2:1 stress distribution method. The
calculation involves 5 steps:

 C  C   +  av 
Sc ( p ) =  s log c + c log 0  Hc
 1 + e0  0 1 + e0  c 

95
Example 3
A group pile in clay is shown in the figure below. Determine the consolidation
settlement of the piles. All clays are normally consolidated.

96
Solution

(attention to this location!)

(9+7/2=12.5)

97
Solution

98