HSC IPT

Course Review
Project Management
Project Management focuses on a project to:

• Meet established goals within cost, schedule and quality objectives.

• Coordinate phases to achieve identi ed goals:
• Understanding the problem.
• Planning.
• Designing.
• Implementing
• Testing, evaluating and maintaining.
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• Consists of the project leader, or systems analysts, programmers if required
and participants.

• Project management skills are those required to select and apply a

methodical approach to planning, designing or implementing a system, e.g.
diary/journal, gantt charts.
Project Management
Project Plan

• A project plan is a summary of a project that speci es who, what, how and when. It lists in detail
what is required to successfully complete the project.

• It clari es what needs to be done and helps people to understand how they t into the project.
• It usually breaks the project into major tasks called subprojects.
• It must provide an overall schedule, the details of the subprojects and a schedule for each
subproject.

• It must also identify the people, information technology and data/ information required by the
system.

• The project goal is the result of the project if it is successful. Goals may be broad or very speci c.
• It calculates estimated costs and determines time schedules for each task
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 Project Management
Communication Skills

• Active listening involves restating, re ecting and summarising the speaker's major
ideas and feelings. Active listeners encourage the speaker and are non-committal.

• Con ict resolution solves arguments and disputes. It involves listening to the
other person's views and looking at the con ict as a problem to be solved. The aim
is to create a 'win-win' situation.

• Negotiation skills involve a discussion between two parties with a goal of

reaching agreement on issues.

• Interview techniques involve careful preparation, implementation and follow-up.

• Team building is the process of getting a group of people working together.
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 Project Management
Social and Ethical Issues

• Ethics is the set of beliefs we hold about what is right and wrong.
• Equity concerns equal rights for all. It means that all people should have equal access to the
bene ts of information technology - this includes gender equity.

• The changing nature of work includes deskilling and multi-skilling. It will also cause the loss
of jobs or new jobs will be created.

• Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their place of work. The work
environment includes the desk, chair, hardware and software, work routine and indoor
climate.

• Environmental factors such as lighting, climate (temperature and humidity) and noise a ect
the work environment. Machine centred systems are designed to simplify what the computer
must do at the expense of participants.
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Project Management
System Development Cycle

• Problems with systems involves the following:

Project Management
SDC - Understanding the Problem (1)

• A preliminary investigation, or requirement de nition, determines whether a quick x of

the existing system will solve the problem or a new system is necessary.

• Key questions to be asked include:

1. What are the problems with the existing system?

2. How does the existing system work?

3. How do you identify the problems with the existing system?

• Data is collected to understand the problem and to develop an appropriate solution.

• Methods of collecting data include surveys, interviews, observations and measurements.
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Project Management
SDC - Understanding the Problem (2)

• A prototype is a working model of an information system. It is produced to:

• Clarify how the existing system works.
• Clarify the nature of the problem if the problem is not easily understood in the existing
system.

• Be modi ed repeatedly until the nature of the problem is understood.

• Represent how the new system may work.
• More accurately re ect the needs of the participants.
• The prototype is created with an application package that generates screens and reports.
• Users provide the information to create the initial prototype and provide feedback to identify errors.
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Project Management
SDC - Understanding the Problem (3)

• The requirements report is a statement about the need for a new system.
• It outlines the aims and objectives of the new system and how it will help the
organisation.

• The requirement report is based on data collected from the participants.

• Participants play an important part in developing a workable system.
• Participants are people involved in the planning, design and implementation.
• The project plan is created at this stage.
• A Gantt chart is created to indicate the timing of each task.
Project Management
SDC - Planning (1)

• Decisions are made on possible solutions that have been developed using the requirements
report and the scope of the problem.

• A constraint can a ect the system and prevent it from achieving the desired objectives.
Constraints are:

• Economic - compares the costs of developing the new system with the expected bene ts.
• Technical - does the required information technology exist and what demands will be
placed on the new system?

• Schedule - determines the time frame by which the new system must be operational.
• Organisational - determines whether the new system will t into the organisation and meet
the current goals and objectives.
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Project Management
SDC - Planning (2)

• A feasibility study is a short report that analyses potential solutions in terms of the known constraints and
makes a recommendation.

• The feasibility study brie y examines the available options, estimates costs and identi es any constraints
to be considered.

• A feasibility study has three recommendations:

1. No change.
2. Develop a new system.
3. Investigate other solutions.

• The management will select the most appropriate option and the project plan may require modi cation.
• The details of the new system are presented, along with recommendations for design, implementation and
maintenance.
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Project Management
SDC - Designing (1)

• Designing a solution is the transformation of the speci cations into appropriate hardware,
software and information processes.

• It involves purchasing hardware, writing or purchasing software, and specifying information

processes to make the system operational.

• The new system is developed from the prototype.

• Screen designs for input and output of data are created. The format and layout of each
screen, report and menu must be created using good design principles.

• The technical speci cations of hardware need to be identi ed before the hardware is bought
and installed.

• The new system must be tested before implementation. Test data is prepared to test any
potential problem.
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 Project Management
SDC - Designing (2)

• Design tools are used to better understand the system and document the new system.
• The tools are used to assist in explaining the operation of the new system.
• The design tools used in the designing solutions stage of the system development cycle include:
• Context diagrams.
• Data ow diagrams.
• Decision trees.
• Decision tables.
• Data dictionaries.
• Storyboards.
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Project Management
SDC - Designing (3)

• Data dictionaries contain a comprehensive description of each eld in the

database.

• They commonly include a eld name, data type, number of characters ( eld
width), number of decimal places (if applicable) and a description for the
purpose of the eld.

• Context diagrams are used to represent entire information systems.

• The system is shown as a single process along with the inputs and outputs
(external entities) to the system.

• The external entities are connected to the single process by data ow arrows.
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 Project Management
SDC - Designing (4)

• Data ow diagrams represent the information system as a number of processes that together form the single
process of a context diagram.

• The source of data, its ow between processes and its destination along with data generated by the system is
represented.

• A data ow diagram shows:

• The input for the system (source).
• Processes performed by the system.
• Output from the system (destination).
• Storage.
• Data ow diagrams only show movement of data and not the movement of other things such as products.
• They do not explain how the processes work.
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Project Management
SDC - Designing (5)

• A decision tree is a diagrammatic way of representing all possible

combinations of decisions and their resulting actions.

• It represents the decisions made within a system as the branches of a tree.

Each branch ends with a particular action.

• A decision table represents all possible conditions and the actions that will
result.

• The table is divided vertically into conditions and actions, and horizontally
into the rules that are based on combinations of the conditions.

• Storyboards represent the logical sequence of animation video or website.

Project Management
SDC - Implementation (1)

• During the implementing stage the hardware and software is installed and tested.
• Participants are trained so that they understand the bene ts of the new system and how to use it.
• Participants need to be instructed about and assisted with the major features and functions of
the system.

• Information processes are continually tested during the implementation of the system over a
period of time.

• Minor changes to procedures are immediately implemented.

• Data is converted to the new system using one of the conversion methods.
• The method of conversion chosen must be justi ed, as there are advantages and disadvantages
in each of the methods.
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Project Management
SDC - Implementation (2)

• Direct conversion involves the immediate change to the new system on a

chosen date.

• Best used for converting small systems.

• Phased conversion is the replacement of one system by another in a series
of stages.

• Each module is tested individually and sta develops con dence in the new
system.

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Project Management
SDC - Implementation (3)
• Parallel conversion involves the old and new systems both working together
at the same time.

• It allows the participant and users to get used to the new system and to
check the new system's output.

• Pilot conversion involves building and testing the new system before
replacing the old system.

• The old system is still available if the new system fails or experiences
problems.
Project Management
SDC - Testing

• Testing is a way to verify the quality of the project.

• Testing a system is a very important part of the implementation of a system.
• Without rigorous testing, the system cannot be guaranteed to work as expected.
• Tests must be designed to examine the system operation under all possible events.
• Testing of hardware involves use of diagnostic software.
• Backup systems should be tested by selecting les to be restored.
• Software is tested using data that has been structured to test all decisions made within the
system.

• Test data must cover all possible combinations of data that may be encountered.
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Project Management
SDC - Evaluating and Maintaining

• Evaluation determines whether the system is working as expected or whether changes are required.
• Maintenance is the modi cation of the system by making minor improvements.
• The format evaluation will check to see if:
• The system has met its bene t and cost objectives.
• Make recommendations for future changes.
• The operations manual details the procedures participants should follow when using a new system.
• The operations manual should:
• Be in a user-friendly format.
• Have clear, concise instructions in point form.
• Contain screen dumps to clarify instructions.
• Have instructions for le management and security.
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Information Systems and Databases
Information Systems in Context

• An information system in context is shown below:

Information Systems and Databases
Information Systems (1)

• The environment is anything that is in uenced by or in uences the system.

• Two crucial questions are:
1. Who is the information system for?

2. What are their needs?

• The participants are the people who carry out the information
processes.

• The data is the raw material that the information processes deal with to produce information.
• The information technology is the hardware and software used in the information processes of the system.
• The information processes are collecting, organising, analysing, storing and retrieving, processing,
transmitting and receiving and displaying.
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Information Systems and Databases
Information Systems (2)

• Information processes can involve both computer and non-computer activities.

• The processes are:
‣ Collecting - the gathering of data to be used in the information system.
‣ Organising - preparing the data to be used by other information processes.
‣ Analysing - transforming the data into useful information.
‣ Storing and retrieving - the movement of data to and from storage devices.
‣ Processing - the updating, altering or editing of the data.
‣ Transmitting and receiving - the exchange of data/information with other information systems.
‣ Displaying is the output of the information systems.
 Information Systems and Databases
Information Systems (3)

• Information systems are created to provide information to a person or organisation.

• The characteristics of an information system are the:
‣ Organisation of data into information.
‣ Analysis of information to give knowledge.
• Di erent types of information systems:
‣ Process transactions of an organisation.
‣ Provide users with information about an organisation.
‣ Help in decision-making by providing information, models and analysis tools.
‣ Manage information used within an organisation by providing an e ective way to complete tasks.
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Information Systems and Databases
Databases

• Most information systems store data in a database.

• Examples that you should be familiar with include:
‣ School databases. These information systems store and provide information about the
organisation, pupils and teachers.

‣ Roads and tra c authority. This system stores information on registration of vehicles
and holders of driving licences.

‣ Video stores. This system holds information on videos held in store and borrowers of
videos.

• The components of each of these information systems should be identi ed as well as the
relationships between data/information, participants and information technology.
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 Information Systems and Databases
Flat File Databases

• A at le database is a collection of related records stored in one le.

• A record is a collection of related data items that occur in elds.
• A eld is a collection of related data entries. Each record is subdivided into
elds.

• An entry consists of the characters entered into the eld.

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Information Systems and Databases
Relational Databases (1)

• A relational database organises data using a series of related tables.

• Relational databases have the following features:
‣ Every record has a unique key eld or unique combination of elds forming a compound key.
‣ Reduced data redundancy.
‣ Shared data, as with numerous linked les the subsets of data required by each user can be de ned.
‣ All data is stored in tables.
‣ The schema is an overall view, which shows how the tables are linked.
‣ Data can be viewed for di erent purposes using forms.
‣ Relational databases provide consistent reports so the correct updated data appears on all the
reports extracted from the database.
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Information Systems and Databases
Relational Databases (2)

• The elements of a relational database include:

• Schema: An organised plan of entire database, showing where the data is found and the logical relationships.
• Entity: The speci c subject/area about which data is collected and stored. The entities are indicated by separate
tables in the schema.

• Attribute: The de ned property of an entity. Attributes are the same as elds in a at le database.
• Relationship: The way in which entities are related to one another.
The key eld is used to link entities.

• Entities can be related in three ways:

‣ One to one.
‣ One to many
‣ Many to many.
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 Information Systems and Databases
Relational Databases (3)

• Information about an entity is displayed in a table. A table is the organisation of data into
columns and rows.

• A row in the table is called a tuple of an entity and represents a record.

• A column of the table is the attribute of the entity and represents the eld.
• The intersection of the column and row stores a particular item of information or the entry.
• A foreign key is an attribute which is the primary key of another table.
• Calculation eld is a eld that can be created by a calculation using data taken from other
elds.

• A required eld is one that must contain data. It cannot be left blank.
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Information Systems and Databases
Manual Database Systems

• Manual systems include telephone books, dictionaries, recipe books, encyclopaedias, photograph albums and library card les.
• The advantages of manual systems include:
‣ They do not require a computer or electricity.
‣ They can be highly portable.
‣ No special skills or training are required.
• The disadvantages of manual systems include:
‣ A very in exible layout.
‣ Access is usually by one method only.
‣ Usually only one person can access data at a time.
‣ Often duplicates sets of data.
‣ Slow to locate a particular item.
‣ Require a large storage space.
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Information Systems and Databases
Electronic Database Systems

• Advantages of electronic database systems include:

‣ Data can be easily edited without having to retype all the data.
‣ Large storage space is available on disc and easily retrieved when required. Data can be searched
for and retrieved quickly.

‣ Data can be presented in many formats such as tables, forms or reports.

‣ Data can be accessed by several people at the same time.
‣ Backup storage can be kept, eliminating the risk of loss of data.
‣ Access to con dential data can be restricted.
‣ Sorting of data is exible on a range of elds.
‣ Arithmetic manipulation of data is possible.
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Information Systems and Databases
Data Dictionaries

• A data dictionary is a list of eld names (attributes) in a database containing information about how the data
in each eld is to be constructed.

• A data dictionary contains metadata, or information about data. The description helps to standardise data
entry and provide documentation for the database. It contains the following information:

• Field name.
• Data type. The types of data that can be entered into a eld are alphanumeric, numeric, date, time and
boolean.

• Field size, or width. This is the number of characters allowed in the eld.
• Description, which speci es the content of the eld.
• Data Form, shows how data is to be.
• An example of data displayed.
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Information Systems and Databases
Calculation of Storage

• To calculate the le size of a database:

• Use a data dictionary to calculate the storage requirements for a given number of records.
‣ For one record: sum of eld sizes = number of bytes.
‣ For 1000 records: = number of kilobytes

• Storage of data can be o ine or online.

• The following storage media can be used:
‣ Hard discs (storage capacity measured in Gb).
‣ Optical discs (CD or DVD).
‣ A removable cartridge.
‣ Magnetic tape is used as backup medium.
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Information Systems and Databases
Database Management Systems (1)

• A database management system (DBMS) is a software application that allows the entry,
manipulation and storage of data in a database format. Database management systems o er
a possibility of reduced data redundancy.

• The functions of a database management system include:

‣ The facility for entry of data into elds.
‣ The ability to sort records on one or more elds.
‣ The storage of le/s according to the software managing the data.
‣ The retrieval of records which satisfy certain criteria through the use of query language.
‣ The ability to backup plus recovery capabilities to guard against loss of data.
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Information Systems and Databases
Database Management Systems (2)

• The degree of data independence should always be high. There are two aspects of data independence:
1. The physical organisation of the data. This is achieved when the Operating System determines the
way in which the data is physically organised on the storage medium. If the user must determine this,
there is no physical independence.

2. The logical organisation of the data is the how to DBMS de nes the data. The users interpretation or
view of the data is determined by the DBMS.

• Files in a database can be accessed in three di erent ways:

1. Sequential le access, where each record in a le must be accessed in a series from rst through to
last.

2. Indexed sequential le access allows serial access starting at various locations marked with pointers.

3. Direct (or random) access of les still uses the key eld to store the records, but as well as recording
the value of the key eld there is also a record of the address of the location of that record in the le.
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Information Systems and Databases
Normalisation

• Normalisation of data is the process of analysing data to create the most e cient
database structure. The most important procedure in normalisation is to eliminate data
redundancy.

• There are three main normal forms, each with increasing levels of normalisation:
1. First Normal Form (1NF): Each eld in a table contains di erent information. For
example, in an employee list, last name and rst name should be in separate elds.

2. Second Normal Form (2NF): No eld values can be derived from another eld. For
example, birth _year can be determined from the date _of birth eld.

3. Third Normal Form (3NF): Each non-key eld should be a direct description of the
primary eld.
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 Information Systems and Databases
Extracting Information from a Database (1)

• Sorting - alphabetical, numerical, chronological (either ascending or

descending). A eld is selected and then the sort is made. It is possible to sort
on multiple elds in some databases.

• Reporting - where selection only produces a soft copy of records that satis es
a set of rules, reporting permits the production of a hard copy. For example, in a
report which includes the names and addresses a set of mailing labels can be
printed.

• Calculated elds - a calculated eld uses numerical data. The eld will contain
a formula using data from other elds. For example, a formula can be entered
into a eld to calculate the average of students' marks that are stored in other
elds.
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Information Systems and Databases
Extracting Information from a Database (2)

• In searching, records may be chosen and displayed which satisfy a certain

criterion or set of rules. Database managers can conduct queries or
searches for data that meets a certain criteria.

• SQL statements contain keywords that are used to perform a particular task.
The correct syntax must be used when searching in SQL.

• Relational operators allow the values to be compared to extract the required

information (<,>, =, contains).

• Logical operators are a part of query language which links statements or

conditions (AND, OR, NOT).
 Information Systems and Databases
Social and Ethical Issues (1)

• In the process of gathering and preparing data for entry into a database, and in maintaining a database with a high degree of data
integrity, a number of factors need to be considered:

‣ Privacy - how private this information can remain.

‣ Security - information is a tradable and valuable commodity.
• Security measures can include:
‣ Restrictions on the level of access.
‣ Passwords and biometric security scanners designed to restrict initial entry.
‣ Closed circuit television in computer areas.
‣ Data encryption.
‣ Backups of data on a regular basis.
‣ A rewall can be used on the internet or any network to verify all incoming data.
‣ Two-factor authentication to provide a secondary access check.
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Information Systems and Databases
Social and Ethical Issues (2)

• Issues related to accuracy of data include:

‣ Data integrity is the accuracy and reliability of data.
‣ Validation of data is a means of checking its accuracy and appropriateness in the data
entry stage.

‣ Data bias may occur in the way in which the data is captured and manipulated, as well
as the way it is gathered.

• Data is protected by copyright regardless of where it is sourced or obtained.

• Data warehousing is a collection of data designed to support management decision-making.
• Data mining involves the use of software that looks for hidden patterns in a group of data.
Information Systems and Databases
Hypertext and Hypermedia (1)

• Hypermedia is the storage of information using a set of documents that may contain
text, numbers, images, audio and video.

• Hypertext is a system where documents can be cross-linked in such a way that you
can navigate from one document to the next by clicking on hyperlinks, which are
electronic connections.

• The most well known application of hypermedia and hypertext is the World Wide Web.
• Storyboards are a frame-by-frame plan for the website. They can include the
navigation paths, the images to be used and the information to be presented.

• The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the address of the le or resource on the
web.

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 Information Systems and Databases
Hypertext and Hypermedia (2)

• An example of a URL is: http://www.smh.com.au/crossword.

• There are three parts to the URL:
1. Protocol indicates the particular type of resource. http:// (Hypertext Transfer
Protocol) or ftp:// (File Transfer Protocol).

2. The domain name is the address of the speci c computer where the resource is
located. For example, www.smh.com.au.

3. The le path is the full path to the le to be retrieved. The domain name and le
path is separated by a forward slash, for example, /crossword.

• Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is a set of special instructions that indicate how
parts of a document are to be displayed and navigated.
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Communication Systems
Characteristics of a Communication System

• A communication system supports people who are working together by enabling the
electronic exchange of data and information.

• Components of a system include the sender (source), receiver, medium (transport method),
and message (data).

• A protocol de nes the meaning of information exchanged by describing parameters such as

speed of transmission (bps, baud), transmission mode (answer or originate), handshake, parity,
error detection and correction. Examples include X-modem, Z-modem, smtp, http, NETBIOS.

• Handshaking is the process by which two devices initiate communications. It enables a

communications protocol to be agreed upon.

• Bandwidth (bps) is a measure of how much information can ow along a data pipe.
Throughput refers to rate of signal change per second.
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Communication Systems
Error Detection and Correction

• Causes include electrical, magnetic, thermal and radio frequency interference, signal degradation/ cable
damage.

• Parity check is the use of the eighth bit in a byte to maintain an even or odd count of 1's. It cannot detect
more than one error or bit ipping.

• Checksum is a sum sent as the last byte in a block of data for comparison. It cannot detect position of error.
• CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is a number derived from a block of data. By recalculating the CRC and
comparing it to the value originally transmitted, the receiver can detect some errors.

• Retransmission resends data upon error detection.

• Encoding techniques are extra data transmitted with the original message to allow reconstruction of original
data.

• Symbol substitution replaces data with a placeholder.

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Communication Systems
Examples of Di erent Systems

• Teleconferencing
‣ Allows people in di erent geographical locations to meet and communicate via a computer.
‣ Requires video conferencing equipment, sound and video cards and a fast network connection.
‣ Advantage: saves travel costs and time.
‣ Disadvantage: loss of interpersonal relationships.
• Messaging systems
‣ Technology that supports transmission of messages, les and media between users.
‣ Examples include instant messaging applications, voice mail systems, electronic mail and
facsimile.
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Communication Systems
Types of Systems

• LAN
‣ Typically a network over a small geographical area.
‣ Common protocol standards used include Ethernet (uses CSMA/D for contention or
collision control) and token ring (uses a token for contention).

• WAN
‣ Typically a network covering a large area such as a city or country.
‣ Common protocol standards include ATM, frame relay or ISDN.
‣ A peer-to-peer LAN is one in which all computers can communicate directly with each
other. A client-server LAN consists of requesting computers called clients and service
supplying devices called servers.
Communication Systems
Topology

• The topology of a network describes the physical components, including distance, routes and capacity.
• Ring network
‣ Consists of a number of nodes connected to a closed loop.
• Bus network
‣ A common cable, called a bus, connects all nodes in the topology.
• Star network
‣ All nodes connect to a central point.
• Hybrid network
‣ A combination of more than one type of topology.
Communication Systems
Cabling
Communication Systems
Wireless Transmission

• A communications channel is the physical medium over which data travels in a telecommunications system.
• Microwave
‣ Voice and data transmission.
‣ Super high frequency (3GHz-10GH), line of sight.
‣ Impacted by weather.
‣ Examples include internet access, pay TV.
• Radio waves
‣ Voice and data transmission.
‣ Limited bandwidth and range.
‣ Limited security.
‣ Examples include LAN communication (802.11x), bluetooth, mobile phones (GSM, GPRS), infrared, WIFI.
 Communication Systems
Servers

• A server is designed to share specialised services to network users. Examples include:

‣ A le server is dedicated to the task of sharing disk space, and restricts access on a user
basis.

‣ A print server provides software called a spooler to centralise management of print devices.
‣ A mail server manages and provides email services.
Examples include Microsoft Exchange, Linux Send Mail.

‣ A web server delivers html pages and other static (images, documents) or dynamic
(database data) internet content to end user.

‣ A proxy server caches or stores frequently accessed internet content for local delivery. Has
faster delivery of content to local user than from internet directly.
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Communication Systems
Network Hardware

• Networks require devices to interconnect di erent sections.

‣ A bridge links two LANS with similar protocols and restricts broadcast tra c to source side of device.
‣ A hub connects multiple LAN nodes on a port-by-port basis. All tra c is repeated to all other ports on
device.

‣ A switch connects multiple LAN nodes on a port-by-port basis.

Dedicates entire bandwidth to single port by transmitting packets to destination port only.

‣ A gateway links LANS that are utilising di erent protocols.

‣ Routers interconnect networks with di erent structures or topologies.
‣ Repeater receives, ampli es and retransmits signal.
‣ WAP (wireless access point)
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Communication Systems
Network Administration

• A network operating system:

‣ Establishes/controls links between network nodes.
‣ Monitors network operations and authentication.
‣ An example is Microsoft Windows Server and client.
• Management tasks include:
‣ Creating and managing user accounts and passwords.
‣ Managing security for peripheral devices and network data shares.
‣ Software installation, data backup and restore.
• Internet versus Intranets:
‣ Internet is an international, publicly accessible interconnection of LAN's and WAN's.
‣ Intranet is an internal corporate network using the same protocols and standards as the internet.
Communication Systems
Other Processes

• Collecting
‣ Examples include EFTPOS, voicemail, phone, keyboard.
• Processing
‣ Centralised, parallel or distributed processing.
‣ Analogue to digital conversion involves a process called sampling. Sampling size
describes the number of bits used to store each sample from the analogue wave. Sampling
rate refers to the number of samples or slices taken of the analogue wave in 1 second.
CD quality would be 32-bit sample size and a rate of 44.1KHz.

• Displaying
‣ Examples include CRT, LCD, mobile phones or ATM screens.
Communication Systems
Social and Ethical Issues

• Social
‣ Employment impacts include types of jobs, skill levels, telecommuting, virtual organisations
‣ Junk mail and spam are signi cant issues.
‣ Netiquette, emoticons, aming.
‣ Relationships restricted by electronic communication.
• Ethical
‣ Invasion of privacy, data remains after any transaction.
‣ Local taxation laws can't deal with online transactions.
‣ Content censorship.
‣ Access to data under the freedom of information legislation.
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Transaction Processing Systems
Transaction Processing

• A transaction is an event (such as ordering a product) that creates or modi es

data in a computerised or manual system.

• Transaction processing systems (TPS) are used to process everyday

transactions, with large amounts of data involved.

• People are also involved in TPS, including:

‣ Users of information systems (e.g. company employees using the TPS).
‣ Participants (e.g. people who perform the transaction processing).
‣ People from the wider environment (e.g. credit card owners).

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Transaction Processing Systems
Batch and Real-time Processing

• The two main types of transaction processing systems are batch and real-
time.

• Batch involves collecting of the data and storing it until su cient data has
accumulated and the database is updated periodically.

• Real-time involves the processing of data immediately and the online

database is updated straight away.

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 Transaction Processing Systems
Accuracy of Data in TPS

• Data validation involves data being both accurate and complete for each and every transaction.
• Validation can be achieved by:
‣ Veri cation of data at entry time - the design of the layout should limit the possibility of errors.
‣ Comparison of the data - by the program to the expected range of data.
• Problems caused by invalidity include:
‣ Incorrect goods are ordered.
‣ Goods are dispatched to the wrong person.
‣ Goods are dispatched to the wrong location.
‣ Payment is not made or received.
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Transaction Processing Systems
Real-time Transaction Processing

• Examples of TPS which operate in real-time include:

‣ Reservation systems - travel agents make bookings on plane ights and need
immediate feedback for times and availability.

‣ Point of sale terminal - recording of items purchased at stores includes the

recording done at the cash register, calculating the total amount payable, credit
card checks and altering of the store inventory database.

‣ For many TPS immediate processing is either not needed or too di cult to
achieve. Examples include cheque clearing (takes 3 days) and bill generation -
a telephone bill will be sent out to cover a certain time, and cannot be calculated
until that time period is nished. Thus bills are batched and a date is given for the
payment.
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 Transaction Processing Systems
Storing and Retrieving Data

• Transaction data is normally stored in digital form in relational or at le databases

(sometimes as other les depending on the data format).

• Data is often collected as batched paperwork and processed each day.

• Storage of sometimes millions of transactions (in very large companies) may be on
huge hard drives with tape backups.

• Databases may store data as sequential les, indexed sequential les or as hashed
les.

• Retrieving data for analysis is di cult while data entry is occurring, and so periodic
downloads into separate databases (termed data warehousing) is normally
performed.
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 Transaction Processing Systems
Backup

• Backup of data les allows the company to get the database back up and working in a minimum
of time after a computer system or database has gone down.

• Backup types include:

‣ Full backup - grandfather (oldest), father, son (youngest).
‣ Partial backup is of two main types - di erential (full copy periodically plus a regular copy
of all les that have changes) and incremental (only the les that have changes are copied).

• Storage is of two main types:

‣ Secure on-site (locked and reproof).
‣ O -site (di erent location).
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Transaction Processing Systems
Storage and Recovery

• Storage media will depend on the volume of data to be stored, from cloud servers, USB
sticks, hard disk drives, solid state drives and zip disks to CD-RWs, DVD-RAMs and tapes.

• Storage software is specially designed to perform full or partial backups.

• Recovery is performed by a recovery management program.
• Types of recovery include:
‣ Backward, which has to undo the unwanted changes from aborted transactions (a
slow method).

‣ Forward, which starts with a recent stored full backup, and adds the partial backups
in order to most recent a faster method).
Transaction Processing Systems
Hardware for TPS

• MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition) produces machine-readable characters printed onto cheques,
allowing very rapid sorting plus identi cation of each cheque as it is presented.

• ATMs Automated Teller Machines allow customers to perform a limited range of transactions, including withdrawal
of cash.

• NFC (Near Field Communication) allows for devices to wirelessly perform transactions within a speci ed range.
• RFID (Radio Frequency Identi cation) uses radio waves for close-range wireless transactions.
• Barcode readers collect stored data, using re ected light from barcodes to identify products.
• Forms for data collection include:
‣ Paper documents (used for centuries).
‣ Screens (online connection such as Netbank).
‣ Web forms (allow online purchasing of products from internet companies).
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 Transaction Processing Systems
Analysing Data and Related Issues

• Once processed and stored, transaction data may be the input for other information
systems, including:

‣ Decision Support Systems (DSS) are programs to assist management in dealing

with rst time situations where no precedents are available.

‣ Management Information Systems (MIS) are programs to assist management in

planning and decision-making by producing reports that allow improved analysis
and monitoring of performance.

• The e ects on the business community of TPS have been mainly about changing the
nature of work, including automation of jobs (replacing people with information
technology) and new jobs (increased numbers of part-time workers, increased use of
the internet for making purchases etc.
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Transaction Processing Systems
Data Bias and Security

• Bias is always present to some degree, due to the nature of collecting, processing or
presenting data. Strict protocols at collection time help reduce bias. Checks need to
be made at presentation time to reduce the misrepresenting of trends or results.

• Data security is the protection of the data after it has been collected, and since most
TPS are used by large numbers of people the chances of unauthorised access is
considerable.

• Security methods include:

• Passwords and biometric methods ( ngerprints or retinal scans) are the rst
level.

• Data encryption and rewalls are aimed at the next level, the hackers.
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Transaction Processing Systems
Data Accuracy, Integrity and Control

• Accuracy errors can occur because of data collection and entry and out-of-date and
mismatching errors.

• Improve data accuracy requires:

‣ Careful design and wording of data collection forms.
‣ Checking data for accuracy at data entry.
‣ Missing or out-of-range data being detected.
• Integrity is the correctness and reliability of the data. If data is not complete for every
transaction, then these must be aborted or the integrity of the system can be compromised.

• Control measures must be adhered to, otherwise errors and problems with the huge volume of
data will cause output from the TPS to be less reliable and therefore less useful for planning.
Multimedia
Characteristics of a Multimedia System

• Multimedia means the presentation of information in a variety of forms and di erent digital
media types.

• Digital media types include text, numbers, audio (MIDI and waveform), images (bit mapped,
vector), animation (cel and path based) and video.

• The term hypermedia refers to any media object which can, when clicked, navigate the user
to another section or component of the system.

• Hypertext refers to an item of text which behaves in the above manner.

• Hardware requirements
‣ High level CPU plus large amounts of storage primary and secondary) plus high screen
resolution (at least 1024 × 768).

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 Multimedia
Di erences between Print and Multimedia

• Print • Multimedia

‣ Mode limited to hard copy such ‣ Multiple modes, including computer,

pocket PC, PC/TV combinations, etc.
as books, newspapers, etc.
‣ High development costs
‣ Cheap to produce and purchase
‣ Interactive with a high degree of user
‣ No interactivity input and control

‣ Static ‣ Dynamic
‣ Non-linear or hierarchical presentation
‣ Linear or sequential presentation
‣ Advanced and complete indexing of all
‣ Limited indexing available areas
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Multimedia
Multimedia Participants

• A variety of skilled and specialised personnel are required to produce a

complex multimedia presentation.
Area of expertise Personnel/task

• Content and data ‣ Subject matter experts (graphic artists, researchers,

writers, musicians).
collection
‣ Responsible for overall project design, development
• Management and completion (project leader, accountant).

‣ Determine presentation of project, ergonomically

• Design and layout sound layout etc (graphic artists etc).

• Technical ‣ Assist in technical implementation (programmers

etc).
Multimedia
Digitising Graphical Data

• Bit mapping describes the relationship between an image on screen and the image in RAM.
• Each pixel (dot on screen) is described by one or more bits in memory.
• Resolution describes the image quality or number of pixels in image.
• A palette is the number of available colours for an image. Bit depth refers to the number of bits describing each
pixel.
A 16-bit image would produce 65 536 (2^16) colours.

• Image size calculation:

‣ 400 x 600 pixel x 24 bit colour depth image.
‣ 400 x 600 x 24 bits per image.
‣ 400 x 600 x 24 ÷ 8 bytes.
‣ 400 x 600 x,24 ÷ 8 ÷ 1024 kilobytes = 703 Kb.
Multimedia
Digitising Audio

• Sampling size refers to the number of bits used to store each sample from the analogue wave. For example, an 8-
bit sample can describe 256 (2^8) levels.

• Sampling rate refers to the number of samples or slices taken of the analogue wave in 1 second. CD audio quality
uses a sample rate of 44.1 KHz.

• To calculate le size for 2 minutes of CD audio:

‣ Storage per sample = 16 bits.
‣ Storage per second = 16 × 44 100 bits.
‣ Storage per minute = 16 × 44 100 x 60 bits.
‣ Storage (2 minutes) = 16 × 44 100 x 60 x 2 bits.
‣ Total storage = 10 584 000 bytes.
‣ Total storage = 10.33 Mb.
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Multimedia
Multimedia Systems and Technological Advances

• Education and training

‣ Participants include students, teachers, parents, siblings.
‣ Data includes text, images and video.
‣ Technology includes multimedia computer with high-res screen, speakers/headphones, internet access and storage
capabilities.

‣ Examples include computer-based training and online resources.

• Other areas include virtual/augmented reality and information providers or kiosk and leisure and entertainment.
• A number of developments in recent years have impacted on multimedia systems including;
‣ Bandwidth ( bre-optic broadband, satellite, 5G).
‣ Mobile applications.
‣ Animation, gaming and multimedia editing software (Unity, Blender, Adobe, Steam).
‣ Cloud storage and le sharing.
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Multimedia
Hardware for Displaying Multimedia

• CRT Screens - three electron beams (blue, red, green) strike a phosphorescent surface in a
controlled manner. A glow results. Screen refresh rate is usually 72 Hz. Raster scans in
horizontal lines.

• Touch screen — a matrix of infra-red beams, ultrasonic waves or electrically charged

panels measure the location of a touch event.

• LCD screen (liquid crystal display) — liquid crystal materiat placed between a pair of
transparent electrodes that also polarises the crystal.

• Data projector - uses a tiny multi-faceted semiconductor mirror chip to produce an image
sharper than the traditional LCD model.

• Speakers — convert binary data into audible sound through a vibrating cone in the speaker.
Multimedia
Software for Displaying Multimedia

• Application software can be used to generate speci c content such as sound or

images. Examples include Microsoft Word, Adobe Photoshop and Ableton Live.

• Authoring software allows the generation and design of a complete multimedia

solution in a single package utilising external media elements. Examples include
Adobe Captivate and Articulate Storyline
360.

• Animation software can generate animated gifs or morph/ warp images in 2D and 3D.
An example is Adobe Animate.

• Web browsers and editors are used to display and/or generate multimedia-based
content. Browser examples include Google Chrome and Safari. Editor examples
include Adobe Dreamweaver and Microsoft Visual Studio.
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Multimedia
Other Information Processes (1)

• Organising
‣ A storyboard is an illustrated scene-by-scene layout of the multimedia project.
Details indicate links, buttons and destinations.

‣ The composite storyboard below shows linear and hierarchical elements.

• Processing
‣ A codec is an algorithm used to compress data by removing redundant or repetitive
elements from a le.

‣ Interleaving stores di erent data (audio/video) alternatively on the storage medium.

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 Multimedia
Other Information Processes (2)

• Storing and retrieving

‣ Compression schemes can be lossless where decompressed data is identical to original, or lossy, where some data is sacri ced for the
sake of le size.

‣ Compression strategies use coding, spatial, temporal or psycho visual redundancy.

• Data formats for audio, video and music les:
‣ Sound: MIDI, MP3, Waveform, AIFF.
‣ Video: AVI, MPEG, QuickTime8, Real Audio8.
• Data formats for images:
‣ JPG (Joint Photographics Experts Group).
‣ EPS (Encapsulated Postscript).
‣ PICT (Apple graphics format).
‣ TIFF (Tagged Image File Format).
‣ BMP (Bit Map) and GIF (Graphics Interchange Format).
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Multimedia
Social and Ethical Issues

• Social issues
‣ Digital convergence is the increasing trend to merge technologies such as radio, television,
phone etc into one.

‣ Nature of training and educational processes as a consequence of multimedia.

‣ Changing nature of work has implications for employers and employees.
• Ethical issues
‣ The Copyright Act makes it illegal to copy or reproduce a multimedia work without the express
permission of the author.

‣ Referencing the source of information is essential.

‣ Data integrity means that the data is reliable (accurate, consistent and up-to-date).