DBMS SEMESTER 4 PRACTICE QUESTION BANK

Introduction to Database concepts

What is data and Database ?
 Data is a collection of information, while a database is a structured collection of data.
 Databases are organized and stored in a way that allows for efficient retrieval and
manipulation of data.
 Databases typically consist of one or more tables containing related data organized into
rows and columns.
 Databases are commonly used in computing and technology to store and manage large
amounts of data.
 Effective use of databases is essential for businesses and organizations to access and
analyze data to make informed decisions and improve their operations.

What is DBMS?
A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that allows users to create, access, and
manage databases, providing an interface between the user and the data. It includes functions
such as creating and maintaining the database structure, managing user access, and
optimizing database performance. It is widely used in many industries and applications.

What is the difference between file system and DBMS?

What are the advantages of DBMS over file processing system?

Data integrity: A DBMS enforces data integrity rules to ensure that data is
consistent and accurate, reducing the risk of data errors and inconsistencies
that can occur in a file system.
Data security: A DBMS provides robust security features, including user
authentication, authorization, and encryption, to protect sensitive data from
unauthorized access and cyber threats.
Data access and retrieval: A DBMS provides powerful query and processing
capabilities, allowing users to efficiently retrieve and manipulate large
amounts of data.

Concurrent access: A DBMS is designed for concurrent access by multiple

users, allowing multiple users to access and modify the same data without
conflicts or errors.

Data consistency: A DBMS ensures that data is consistent and up-to-date,

even when multiple users are accessing and modifying the data
simultaneously.

Scalability and performance: A DBMS is optimized for performance and

scalability, with features such as indexing, caching, and transaction
management to improve performance and accommodate large datasets.

Overall, a DBMS offers greater functionality, reliability, and security than a file
system, making it the preferred choice for managing large amounts of data in
many industries and applications.

What is data abstraction and explain its levels ?

Data abstraction refers to the process of hiding the implementation details of

data and providing a simple and easy-to-understand interface for users to
interact with the data. It allows users to focus on the essential features and
functions of data without worrying about the underlying complexity.

There are three levels of data abstraction:

Physical level: This is the lowest level of abstraction and deals with the
physical storage and retrieval of data. It describes how data is stored in the
computer's memory, such as on disk or in memory, and how it is accessed and
retrieved by the computer's hardware.

Logical level: This level of abstraction describes the logical structure of data
and how it relates to other data. It defines the relationships between data
View level: This is the highest level of abstraction and provides a user-friendly
interface for users to access and interact with the data. It describes how data
is presented to users, such as through reports, forms, or queries, and hides the
underlying complexity of the data storage and retrieval processes.

In summary, data abstraction allows users to interact with data at a higher

level of abstraction, which simplifies the data management process and
improves usability. The three levels of abstraction provide a way to organize
and manage data in a logical and meaningful way, while also hiding the
underlying complexity of data storage and retrieval processes.

Describe Data Independence ?

Data independence refers to the ability to modify the schema or structure of a
database without affecting the application programs that use the data. It is one
of the key advantages of using a database management system (DBMS) over a
file-based system.

There are two types of data independence:

Physical data independence: This refers to the ability to modify the physical
storage of data without affecting the application programs that use the data.
For example, if a database administrator decides to move the data from one
storage device to another, or to change the storage format, the application
programs should not be affected. Physical data independence is achieved
through the use of a DBMS that separates the physical storage details from the
logical structure of the data.

Logical data independence: This refers to the ability to modify the logical
structure of the data without affecting the application programs that use the
data. For example, if a database administrator decides to add a new field to a
table or to reorganize the table relationships, the application programs should
not be affected. Logical data independence is achieved through the use of a
DBMS that separates the logical structure of the data from the physical storage
details.

Data independence provides several benefits, including:

Improved flexibility: Changes to the schema can be made without affecting the
applications that use the data, making it easier to modify the database as
business needs change.
Improved scalability: Data independence makes it easier to add new data or
modify existing data, allowing the database to grow and evolve as needed.

Overall, data independence is a key feature of DBMS that improves the flexibility,
maintainability, and scalability of databases, making them more useful for businesses and
organizations.

Explain three tier architecture of DBMS ?

The three-tier architecture of a database management system (DBMS)

separates the DBMS into three layers: the presentation layer, the
application logic layer, and the data storage layer. Here's a brief explanation
of each layer:

Presentation Layer: The presentation layer is responsible for presenting

data to users in a user-friendly manner. It includes the user interface
components such as forms, reports, and dashboards. The presentation
layer communicates with the application logic layer to retrieve and display
data, and it also allows users to enter or modify data.

Application Logic Layer: The application logic layer is responsible for

processing user requests and managing the business logic of the
application. It includes components such as the query processor, the
transaction manager, and the security manager. The application logic layer
communicates with the data storage layer to retrieve or modify data, and it
also ensures that users have the necessary access privileges and that
transactions are processed correctly.

Data Storage Layer: The data storage layer is responsible for storing and
retrieving data from the database. It includes components such as the file
manager, the buffer manager, and the index manager. The data storage layer
communicates with the application logic layer to retrieve or modify data,
and it also ensures that data is stored safely and securely.

The three-tier architecture of a DBMS provides several benefits, including:

Scalability: The three-tier architecture can be scaled horizontally by adding
more servers to each layer, or vertically by adding more resources to
existing servers.

Flexibility: The three-tier architecture separates the presentation layer

from the application logic layer and the data storage layer, which allows
each layer to be modified or upgraded independently.

Security: The three-tier architecture allows for fine-grained access control,

which means that users can be granted or denied access to specific data or
application logic components.

Performance: The three-tier architecture can improve performance by

caching data in the application logic layer or in the presentation layer,
reducing the number of requests to the data storage layer.

Overall, the three-tier architecture of a DBMS provides a flexible, scalable,

and secure way to store and manage data.

What are the Disadvantages of Three tier architecture of DBMS ?

While the three-tier architecture has several benefits, it also has some
disadvantages. Here are some of the potential drawbacks of the three-tier
architecture:

Complexity: The three-tier architecture can be more complex than other

architectures, such as the two-tier architecture, due to the additional layers
and components involved. This can increase development and maintenance
costs.

Increased Latency: The use of multiple layers can lead to increased latency
in the system, as each layer adds some overhead to the processing of user
requests.

Dependency: The three-tier architecture can create a tight dependency

between the layers, which can make it difficult to modify or upgrade one
layer without affecting the others. This can result in additional costs and
downtime.

Single Point of Failure: The application logic layer can be a single point of
failure, as it handles all the processing of user requests. If this layer fails,
the entire system may become unavailable.
Performance: The performance of the system may be impacted if the layers
are not properly optimized or if there is a high volume of data being
transferred between layers.

Overall, while the three-tier architecture offers many benefits, it is

important to carefully consider the potential disadvantages before deciding
to implement this architecture.

What is Database administrator (DBA) and enlist its functions ?

A DBA, or database administrator, is a person or team responsible for
managing and maintaining a database system. The specific functions of a
DBA can vary depending on the organization and the nature of the
database, but some common duties of a DBA include:

Database Design: DBAs are responsible for designing the database schema,
including defining tables, columns, and relationships between tables.

Database Security: DBAs manage database security, including setting

access levels for users, creating and managing user accounts, and ensuring
that data is secure and not vulnerable to attack.

Performance Tuning: DBAs are responsible for optimizing the performance

of the database system, including monitoring system performance,
identifying and resolving performance issues, and tuning system
parameters.

Backup and Recovery: DBAs are responsible for creating and managing
database backups, as well as developing and testing disaster recovery
plans.

Data Migration: DBAs may be responsible for migrating data from one
system to another, ensuring that data is transferred accurately and without
loss.

Database Maintenance: DBAs perform regular maintenance tasks on the

database, such as running scripts to update data, checking for errors or
inconsistencies, and ensuring that the database is running smoothly.

Capacity Planning: DBAs must plan for future growth of the database
system, including estimating the amount of storage and computing
resources needed to support projected growth.

Overall, the role of a DBA is critical to ensuring the smooth operation and
reliability of a database system.
 ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DATA MODEL

What is Strong and Weak entity ?

In a relational database, an entity is a real-world object or concept that has its
own set of attributes or properties. An entity can be classified as either a
strong entity or a weak entity, based on its relationship with other entities in
the database.
Here are some points to explain strong and weak entities:
Strong Entity:
A strong entity is an entity that exists independently and has its own unique
identifier or primary key.
It can have relationships with other entities, either as a parent or child entity.
A strong entity is capable of existing on its own and does not depend on any
other entity for its existence.
For example, in a database of a hospital, the "patient" entity would be a strong
entity, as it can exist on its own and has its own unique identifier, such as a
patient ID number.
Weak Entity:
A weak entity is an entity that does not have a unique identifier or primary
key of its own.
It depends on another entity, known as the owner entity, to give it a unique
identity or primary key.
A weak entity cannot exist on its own and must be associated with an owner
entity.
For example, in a database of a hotel, the "room" entity would be a weak entity,
as it depends on the "hotel" entity to give it a unique identity or primary key,
such as the room number within the hotel.
In summary, a strong entity has its own unique identifier and can exist
independently, while a weak entity depends on another entity for its unique
identity and cannot exist on its own.
What is entity and relationship?
In a relational database, an entity is a distinct object or thing that has its own
unique attributes or properties, represented by a table.
A relationship defines the association between two or more entities and
describes how they interact with each other, represented by lines connecting
Compare strong and weak entity .

What are degree of relationships ?

In a relational database, the degree of a relationship refers to the number of entities involved
in the relationship. Here are some points to explain unary, binary, ternary, and quaternary
relationships:

Unary Relationship: A unary relationship is a relationship between one entity and itself. This
type of relationship is also known as a reflexive relationship. For example, an employee may
have a relationship with their supervisor, who is also an employee.

Binary Relationship: A binary relationship is a relationship between two entities. This is the
most common type of relationship in a relational database. For example, a customer may
place an order for a product.

Ternary Relationship: A ternary relationship is a relationship between three entities. This

type of relationship is also known as a degree-3 relationship. For example, a student may
attend a particular class on a specific day with a particular instructor.

Quaternary Relationship: A quaternary relationship is a relationship between four entities.

This type of relationship is also known as a degree-4 relationship. Quaternary relationships
are relatively rare in a relational database, but they can occur in certain situations. For
example, a hospital may have a relationship between patients, doctors, nurses, and
medications.
binary relationships involve two entities, ternary relationships involve three entities, and
quaternary relationships involve four entities.

Explain the types of Cardinality constraints ?

Cardinality constraints in a relational database management system (DBMS) define the
maximum and minimum number of times that an entity can be associated with another entity
in a relationship. Here are some types of cardinality constraints in points:

One-to-One (1:1) Relationship: A one-to-one relationship is a type of cardinality constraint

where one entity is associated with exactly one other entity, and vice versa. For example, each
employee in a company may be assigned a unique employee ID number.

One-to-Many (1:N) Relationship: A one-to-many relationship is a type of cardinality

constraint where one entity is associated with zero, one, or many other entities, but each of
the associated entities can be associated with only one entity. For example, each department
in a company may have many employees, but each employee can only belong to one
department.

Many-to-Many (N:M) Relationship: A many-to-many relationship is a type of cardinality

constraint where each entity can be associated with many other entities, and vice versa. For
example, a university may have many students who can enroll in many courses.

Many To One (N:1) Relationship : In a many-to-one relationship, multiple instances of one

entity can be associated with a single instance of another entity. This type of relationship is
also known as a "many-to-single" relationship. For example, in a database for an e-commerce
website, many orders can be associated with a single customer. In this scenario, the
"Customer" entity would be the "one" side of the relationship, and the "Order" entity would
be the "many" side of the relationship.

What is participation constraints and it types ?

Participation constraints refer to the rules that determine whether an entity in a relationship
is mandatory (must participate) or optional (may participate). There are two types of
participation constraints: total participation and partial participation.

Total participation means that every instance of the parent entity must participate in the
relationship with at least one instance of the child entity. In other words, the participation is
mandatory. This is denoted by a solid line connecting the parent entity and the relationship in
an entity-relationship diagram. For example, in a database for a university, every department
must have at least one instructor. So, the relationship between the "Department" entity and
the "Instructor" entity would have total participation.

Partial participation means that an instance of the parent entity may or may not
participate in the relationship with an instance of the child entity. In other words, the
for a library, a book may or may not have an associated author. So, the relationship
between the "Book" entity and the "Author" entity would have partial participation.

ER diagrams :-
What is an attribute and enlist the types of attributes?
In a relational database, an attribute refers to a characteristic or property of an entity. It
is a column in a table that stores values related to the entity.

There are several types of attributes in a relational database:

Simple attribute: A simple attribute is an atomic value that cannot be further divided.
For example, "age" can be a simple attribute for a person entity.

Composite attribute: A composite attribute is made up of smaller sub-attributes. For

example, "address" can be a composite attribute that is made up of sub-attributes like
"street," "city," and "zip code."

Single-valued attribute: A single-valued attribute is one that can only have one value for
each instance of an entity. For example, "date of birth" can be a single-valued attribute
for a person entity.

Multi-valued attribute: A multi-valued attribute is one that can have multiple values for
each instance of an entity. For example, "hobbies" can be a multi-valued attribute for a
person entity.

Derived attribute: A derived attribute is one that is derived or calculated from other
attributes in the same entity. For example, "age" can be a derived attribute for a person
entity, which is calculated based on the "date of birth" attribute.

Key attribute: A key attribute is an attribute that uniquely identifies each instance of an
entity. It can be a simple attribute or a composite attribute. For example, "student ID"
can be a key attribute for a student entity.

Attributes are important for organizing and categorizing data in a relational database.
They help to define the structure of entities and relationships and ensure that data is
consistent and well-organized.

What is key and what are the types of keys?

In a relational database, a key is a field or combination of fields that uniquely identify a
record in a table. Keys are used to establish relationships between tables and ensure
the integrity and consistency of the data.

There are several types of keys in a relational database:

Superkey: A superkey is a set of one or more attributes that can uniquely identify a
record in a table.
Primary key: A primary key is a candidate key that is selected to be the main key for a
table. It must be unique, non-null, and should not change over time.

Alternate key: An alternate key is a candidate key that is not chosen to be the primary
key.

Foreign key: A foreign key is a field in one table that refers to the primary key of
another table. It is used to establish relationships between tables.

Composite key: A composite key is a key that is made up of two or more fields. It can be
used to uniquely identify a record in a table when no single field can do so.

Describe EER (Extended Entity Relationship )model?

The Extended Entity-Relationship (EER) model is an enhanced version of the original
Entity-Relationship (ER) model used in database design. It was developed to address
some of the limitations of the ER model in representing complex relationships and
constraints.
The EER model includes additional constructs beyond those found in the ER model,
such as subclasses, superclasses, specialization, and generalization. These constructs
help to better represent complex relationships and hierarchies among entities.

Here are some key features of the EER model:

Subclasses and superclasses: Entities can be organized into a hierarchy of classes, with
each class representing a group of related entities. Superclasses are higher-level classes
that can be broken down into subclasses, which represent more specific types of
entities.
Specialization and generalization: Specialization is the process of defining a new
subclass based on an existing superclass. Generalization is the process of defining a
new superclass based on existing subclasses.
Attribute inheritance: Subclasses can inherit attributes from their parent class. For
example, a subclass of "vehicle" called "car" might inherit attributes such as "make",
"model", and "year" from the "vehicle" superclass.
Disjointness and completeness: Disjointness refers to whether or not a subclass can
have multiple parent classes. Completeness refers to whether or not all instances of a
superclass must be included in at least one subclass.
Overlapping subclasses: Subclasses can overlap with each other, meaning that an
instance of the superclass can belong to more than one subclass.

The EER model allows for more flexible and expressive database designs than the ER
model, and is particularly useful for modeling complex relationships between entities.
However, it can also be more difficult to design and implement, and may require more
advanced skills and tools.
Write note on generalization ?
 Generalization is a process of abstracting common attributes and relationships
from a set of entities and grouping them into higher-level entities, known as
supertypes.
 Generalization allows for the creation of hierarchies of entities, with increasingly
general concepts at higher levels and increasingly specific concepts at lower
levels.
 Generalization can be used to represent complex relationships among entities,
such as the "is-a" relationship.
 Generalization can help to simplify the design of a database by reducing the
number of entities and relationships that need to be modeled explicitly.
 Generalization can also make the design of a database more flexible and
adaptable to changing requirements, by allowing for the creation of new subtypes
or changes to existing subtypes without affecting the overall structure of the
database.
For example, in a database for a hospital, one might have entities such as doctors,
nurses, and patients. By identifying common attributes such as name, address, and
contact information, and grouping them into a higher-level entity called "person," one
can create a more general concept that includes all individuals associated with the
hospital.

Write note on specialization?

 Specialization is a process of defining sub-groups of an entity based on the
common characteristics. Here are some key points on specialization:
 Specialization allows an entity to be divided into more specific entities, each with
its own attributes and relationships.
 The specialization process results in a hierarchy of entities, with the most general
entity at the top and more specific entities branching out from it.
 Specialization can be done by identifying the distinguishing characteristics of
each entity in the hierarchy and creating new entities for each group with shared
characteristics.
 There are two types of specialization: exclusive and overlapping. In exclusive
specialization, each entity can belong to only one sub-group. In overlapping
specialization, entities can belong to more than one sub-group.
 The process of specialization can be applied to any entity in a database. For
example, in a university database, the entity "Person" can be specialized into
"Student," "Faculty," and "Staff" entities.
 Specialization can be used to simplify the design of a database and make it easier
to manage. It can also help to ensure that the data in the database is more
accurate and consistent by allowing for more specific validation rules and
constraints to be applied to each entity.
 One of the drawbacks of specialization is that it can result in a large number of
entities, which can make the database more complex and difficult to understand.
  Another potential issue with specialization is that it can lead to redundant data,
where the same information is stored in multiple entities. This can be mitigated
by using relationships between entities to link related data together.

Write a note on Aggregation ?

 Aggregation is a process of combining multiple entities and treating them as a
single entity. Here are some key points on aggregation:
 Aggregation is used to simplify the representation of complex relationships in a
database. It allows multiple related entities to be combined and treated as a
single entity.
 In aggregation, the combined entity represents a higher-level concept that is
composed of the lower-level entities.
 The combined entity is referred to as the aggregate or whole, and the lower-level
entities are referred to as components or parts.
 Aggregation can be represented using a diamond-shaped symbol that connects
the aggregate entity to the component entities.
 Aggregation is commonly used in hierarchical structures such as organization
charts and file systems. For example, in a file system, a folder can be viewed as an
aggregate entity that contains multiple files and other folders as components.
 Aggregation is different from composition, which is a stronger form of
aggregation where the components cannot exist without the aggregate entity.
 Aggregation can be used to simplify the design of a database and make it easier to
manage by reducing the number of entities and relationships.
 However, aggregation can also lead to a loss of information by combining entities
with different characteristics, so it should be used carefully and with
consideration of the specific needs of the database.
 Relational Model and Relational Algebra
What is relational model and its advantages?
The relational model is a conceptual framework for representing data in a database. It
was introduced by Edgar F. Codd in 1970 and is based on the principles of set theory
and predicate logic. The relational model represents data in the form of tables, which
consist of rows (records) and columns (attributes).

Advantages of the relational model include:

 Simplicity: The relational model is easy to understand and use. It consists of a
simple and intuitive structure of tables and relationships, which makes it easy to
create and manage databases.
 Flexibility: The relational model allows for easy modification of the database
structure and data. It also supports a wide range of data types and operations,
making it suitable for a variety of applications.
 Data independence: The relational model provides a high degree of data
independence, which means that changes to the database structure do not affect
the application programs that use it. This makes it easy to update and maintain
databases without disrupting the applications that use them.
 Security: The relational model supports security features such as access control
and authentication, which help protect the database from unauthorized access
and use.
 Scalability: The relational model can be easily scaled to handle large volumes of
data and users. It also supports distributed databases, which can be spread
across multiple servers for improved performance and reliability.

Write note on relational schemas ?

A relational schema is a blueprint or blueprint for a database that describes the
structure of the database, including the tables, columns, relationships, and constraints.
It is used to create, modify, and maintain the database, and is a key component of the
relational model.

A relational schema consists of several components, including:

 Tables: Tables are the basic building blocks of a relational database schema. They
contain rows of data and columns that define the attributes or fields of the data.
 Columns: Columns are also known as attributes, fields, or properties. They define
the data type and structure of the data in the table.
 Keys: Keys are used to uniquely identify rows in a table. They can be primary
keys, which uniquely identify each row in a table, or foreign keys, which link two
tables together.
 Relationships: Relationships describe the connections between tables in a
database. They define how data in one table is related to data in another table.
  Constraints: Constraints are used to enforce rules and restrictions on the data in
the database. They can be used to ensure data integrity, such as ensuring that
only valid data is entered into the database.

In order to create a relational schema, a database designer must first identify the
entities and their relationships. This is usually done using an entity-relationship
diagram (ERD). Once the relationships have been identified, the database designer can
begin creating the tables and columns, defining keys and relationships, and applying
constraints to ensure data integrity.

Overall, a relational schema is a critical component of a relational database, providing a

clear blueprint for the structure and organization of the data. It helps ensure that the
data is organized and stored in a logical and efficient manner, which is essential for
maintaining data integrity and facilitating data retrieval and manipulation.

What is schema ?
Schema can be defined as a blueprint or a plan that describes the structure of a
database, including its tables, columns, relationships, and constraints.
It provides a framework for organizing and understanding the data stored in a
database. A schema helps in maintaining the integrity of the database and ensures that
the data is stored in a structured and organized manner.

What is key and its types ?

In a relational database, a key is a field or set of fields that uniquely identifies a record
in a table. There are several types of keys:

Primary key: A primary key is a field or set of fields that uniquely identifies each record
in a table. It cannot contain null values and must be unique across all records in the
table. For example, in a table of students, the student ID could be the primary key.

Foreign key: A foreign key is a field or set of fields that refers to the primary key of
another table. It is used to establish a relationship between two tables. For example, in
a table of orders, the customer ID could be a foreign key that refers to the customer
table.

Candidate key: A candidate key is a field or set of fields that could potentially be used as
a primary key. It must be unique and not contain null values. For example, in a table of
employees, the employee ID and the social security number could both be candidate
keys.

Super key: A super key is a combination of fields that uniquely identifies a record in a
table. It may contain more fields than the primary key, but not all of them are
necessarily required to be unique. For example, in a table of customers, a super key
could be a combination of the customer ID, name, and address.
Composite key: A composite key is a combination of two or more fields that together
uniquely identifies a record in a table. For example, in a table of sales, a composite key
could be a combination of the date and the product ID.

Overall, keys are essential for maintaining the integrity and consistency of a database
by ensuring that each record is uniquely identified and related to other records in a
consistent and accurate manner.

Write note on mapping of ER and EER model to relational data base ?

Mapping of ER and EER model to a relational database involves transforming the
conceptual schema of the ER/EER model into a physical schema of the relational
database. This process is called schema refinement, which consists of two steps:
mapping entity types to relations and mapping relationship types to relations.

Mapping Entity Types to Relations:

Create a relation for each entity type, with the same attributes as the entity type.
Choose one of the candidate keys of the entity type as the primary key of the relation.
If the entity type has a multi-valued attribute, create a new relation to represent that
attribute.
Example:
Consider an ER diagram containing two entity types - Student and Course. The Student
entity has attributes Student_ID, Name, and Address, while the Course entity has
attributes Course_ID and Title. The primary key for the Student entity is Student_ID,
while the primary key for the Course entity is Course_ID.

Mapping Relationship Types to Relations:

Create a relation for each relationship type.

Include the primary key attributes of the participating entity types as foreign keys in
the relationship relation.
Include any relationship attributes as attributes of the relationship relation.
Example:
Consider an ER diagram containing a relationship type between Student and Course
entities, where a student can take multiple courses and a course can be taken by
multiple students. The relationship has an attribute 'Grade'. We can create a new
relation named 'Enrollment' to represent the relationship. The Enrollment relation will
have foreign keys Student_ID and Course_ID referencing the primary keys of Student
and Course entities, respectively, and the attribute Grade.

Overall, the mapping process from ER/EER models to the relational database involves
careful consideration of the relationships and dependencies among the entities,
attributes, and relationships in the ER/EER model to produce an efficient and reliable
relational database schema.
Explain all relational algebra operators in detail?
Relational algebra is a procedural query language used to retrieve data from a
relational database. There are six primary relational algebra operators:

Select (σ) Operator:

The select operator retrieves a subset of the tuples from a relation that satisfies a
specified condition.
Example: Consider a relation named Employee with attributes EmpID, EmpName, Age,
and Salary. If we want to retrieve the details of all employees with a salary greater than
50,000, the select operator will be used as follows:
σ Salary > 50000 (Employee)
The output will be the subset of the Employee relation that has a salary greater than
50,000.

Project (π) Operator:

The project operator selects certain columns or attributes from a relation.
Example: Consider a relation named Employee with attributes EmpID, EmpName, Age,
and Salary. If we want to retrieve only the employee name and salary from this relation,
the project operator will be used as follows:
π EmpName, Salary (Employee)
The output will be a new relation with only two columns, i.e., EmpName and Salary.

Union (∪) Operator:

The union operator combines the tuples from two relations and removes any duplicate
tuples. The two relations must be union compatible, i.e., they must have the same
number of attributes with the same domains.
Example: Consider two relations, R1 and R2, with attributes A, B, and C. If we want to
combine these two relations, we can use the union operator as follows:
R1 ∪ R2
The output will be a relation with all the tuples from R1 and R2 without any duplicates.

Set Difference (-) Operator:

The set difference operator returns the tuples that are in one relation but not in the
other relation.
Example: Consider two relations, R1 and R2, with attributes A, B, and C. If we want to
find the tuples that are in R1 but not in R2, we can use the set difference operator as
follows:
R1 - R2
The output will be a relation with all the tuples that are in R1 but not in R2.

Cartesian Product (×) Operator:

The Cartesian product operator returns all possible combinations of tuples from two
relations.
R1 × R2
The output will be a relation with all possible combinations of tuples from R1 and R2.

Join (⋈) Operator:

The join operator combines the tuples from two relations based on a common attribute
or set of attributes. There are four types of joins: inner join, left outer join, right outer
join, and full outer join.
Example: Consider two relations, R1 and R2, with a common attribute A. If we want to
combine these two relations based on the common attribute A, we can use the join
operator as follows:
R1 ⋈ R2
The output will be a relation with tuples that have the same value of attribute A in both
R1 and R2.

Explain the types of joins?

Joins are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column
between them. There are several types of joins in SQL, including:
 Inner join: Returns only the rows that have matching values in both tables.
 Left join (or left outer join): Returns all the rows from the left table and the
matching rows from the right table. If there is no matching row in the right table,
then it returns null.
 Right join (or right outer join): Returns all the rows from the right table and the
matching rows from the left table. If there is no matching row in the left table,
then it returns null.
 Full outer join (or full join): Returns all the rows from both tables, including the
rows that do not have matching values in either table. If there is no matching row
in one table, it returns null.
 Cross join (or cartesian join): Returns the Cartesian product of the two tables,
which means it returns all possible combinations of rows from both tables.
 Each join type has its own use case and can be helpful in different scenarios,
depending on the desired output.

Explain Division , Rename and Aggregation operation in short ?

Division:
Division is a binary relational algebra operation that is used to find all values
of one relation that are associated with a set of values in another relation. It is
denoted by ÷ symbol.
Example: Suppose we have two relations R(A, B) and S(B, C), the division
operation R ÷ S will give us a relation T(A) such that A is the set of values of
R.A that are associated with all values of S.C.
Rename:
Rename operation is used to change the name of an attribute in a relation. It is
denoted by ρ (rho) symbol.
Example: Suppose we have a relation R(A, B), and we want to rename attribute
B to C, the rename operation ρ(C/B) (R) will give us a relation R(A, C) where
attribute B is renamed to C.

Aggregation:
Aggregation is used to summarize the data by performing some mathematical
functions on the data of a relation. Commonly used aggregation functions are
COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG.
Example: Suppose we have a relation R(A, B, C) and we want to find the total
sum of values of attribute B, the aggregation operation ∑(B) (R) will give us a
single value which is the sum of all values of B in relation R.
 SQL (Structured Query Language)

What is SQL? List down its characteristics and advantages ?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language, which is a programming language
used to manage and manipulate relational databases. It is used to insert,
update, delete, and retrieve data from the database.

Characteristics of SQL:
 It is a standard language used to communicate with relational
databases.
 It is a declarative language, meaning that you only have to specify what
you want to do, and the database management system will take care of
the how.
 It is highly expressive, allowing for complex queries and data
manipulation.
 It is easy to learn and use.

Advantages of SQL:
 It allows for efficient and effective management of large volumes of data.
 It is a standard language, which means that databases can be easily
migrated or shared between systems.
 It allows for easy data retrieval and manipulation, enabling users to
quickly and easily generate reports and analyze data.
 It supports multiple users and can be used in both client-server and
web-based applications.

Explain database languages in short ?

Data Definition Language (DDL): This language is used to define and manage
the structure of the database objects such as tables, indexes, views, and
constraints. It includes commands such as CREATE, ALTER, and DROP, which
are used to create, modify, or delete database objects.

Data Manipulation Language (DML): This language is used to manipulate data

within the database objects such as tables. It includes commands such as
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE, which are used to retrieve, add,
modify, or remove data from the tables.

Transaction Control Language (TCL): This language is used to control

transactions within the database. It includes commands such as COMMIT,
ROLLBACK, and SAVEPOINT, which are used to commit or undo changes made
to the database.
 GRANT and REVOKE, which are used to give or revoke privileges to users or
roles.

In summary, DDL is used to define and manage the structure of the database,
DML is used to manipulate data within the tables, TCL is used to control
transactions, and DCL is used to manage the access and privileges of users on
the database objects.

Explain DDL and its commands ?

Data Definition Language (DDL) is a language used to define and manage the
structure of database objects such as tables, views, indexes, and constraints.
The commands in DDL are used to create, modify, and delete these objects.
Some of the commonly used DDL commands are:

 CREATE: This command is used to create new database objects such as

tables, views, indexes, and constraints. For example, the following
command creates a new table named "employees" with columns "id",
"name", and "salary":

CREATE TABLE employees (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
salary INT
);

 ALTER: This command is used to modify existing database objects such

as tables, views, and indexes. For example, the following command adds
a new column "age" to the "employees" table:

ALTER TABLE employees

ADD COLUMN age INT;

 DROP: This command is used to delete existing database objects such as

tables, views, indexes, and constraints. For example, the following
command deletes the "employees" table:

DROP TABLE employees;

 TRUNCATE: This command is used to delete all the data from a table
while keeping its structure intact. For example, the following command
deletes all the data from the "employees" table:

TRUNCATE TABLE employees;

COMMENT ON TABLE employees
IS 'This table contains information about the employees of the company.';

In summary, DDL commands are used to create, modify, and delete the
structure of the database objects, and to add comments to these objects.

Explain DML and its commands ?

Data Manipulation Language (DML) is a language used to retrieve, insert,
update, and delete data in a database. The commands in DML are used to
manipulate the data stored in database tables. Some of the commonly used
DML commands are:

 SELECT: This command is used to retrieve data from one or more

database tables. For example, the following command retrieves all the
data from the "employees" table:
SELECT * FROM employees;

 INSERT: This command is used to insert new data into a table. For
example, the following command inserts a new row into the
"employees" table:
INSERT INTO employees (id, name, salary) VALUES (1, 'John', 50000);

 UPDATE: This command is used to modify the existing data in a table.

For example, the following command updates the salary of the employee
with id=1:
UPDATE employees SET salary = 60000 WHERE id = 1;

 DELETE: This command is used to delete the existing data from a table.
For example, the following command deletes the employee with id=1
from the "employees" table:
DELETE FROM employees WHERE id = 1;

In summary, DML commands are used to manipulate the data stored in

database tables by retrieving, inserting, updating, and deleting the data.

Explain DCL and TCL with commands ?

Data Control Language (DCL) and Transaction Control Language (TCL) are two
important subsets of SQL used in database management systems.

DCL commands are used to grant or revoke privileges to database users, while
TCL commands are used to control the transactions in a database. Some
commonly used DCL and TCL commands are:
a. GRANT: This command is used to grant privileges to a user or a group of
users in a database. For example, the following command grants the SELECT
privilege on the "employees" table to the user "john":
GRANT SELECT ON employees TO john;

b. REVOKE: This command is used to revoke the privileges granted to a user or

a group of users in a database. For example, the following command revokes
the SELECT privilege on the "employees" table from the user "john":
REVOKE SELECT ON employees FROM john;

TCL Commands:

a. COMMIT: This command is used to permanently save the changes made to a

database. For example, the following command commits the current
transaction:
COMMIT;

b. ROLLBACK: This command is used to undo the changes made to a database

since the last COMMIT statement. For example, the following command rolls
back the current transaction:
ROLLBACK;

c. SAVEPOINT: This command is used to create a savepoint within a

transaction, which can be used to roll back the transaction to a specific point.
For example, the following command creates a savepoint called "sp1":
SAVEPOINT sp1;

d. RELEASE SAVEPOINT: This command is used to release a savepoint, which

means that the database will not roll back to that savepoint. For example, the
following command releases the savepoint "sp1":
RELEASE SAVEPOINT sp1;

In summary, DCL commands are used to grant or revoke privileges to database

users, while TCL commands are used to control the transactions in a database
by committing, rolling back, or creating savepoints within transactions.

Discuss aggregate functions in SQL?

Aggregate functions in SQL are used to perform calculations on groups of rows
or on the entire table, resulting in a single value. Here are some commonly
used aggregate functions in SQL:

COUNT(): This function is used to count the number of rows in a table or a

subset of rows that meet a specified condition.
SUM(): This function is used to calculate the sum of values in a column.
Example: SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees WHERE department = 'Sales';
This statement will return the total salary of all employees in the "Sales"
department.

AVG(): This function is used to calculate the average value of a column.

Example: SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees WHERE department =
'Marketing'; This statement will return the average salary of all employees in
the "Marketing" department.

MAX(): This function is used to find the maximum value in a column.

Example: SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees WHERE department = 'IT';
This statement will return the highest salary among all employees in the "IT"
department.

MIN(): This function is used to find the minimum value in a column.

Example: SELECT MIN(salary) FROM employees WHERE department = 'HR';
This statement will return the lowest salary among all employees in the "HR"
department.

Aggregate functions can be used with the GROUP BY clause to group the
results by one or more columns. This allows you to perform aggregate
calculations on subsets of rows within a table.

Explain types of integrity constraints with example ?

Integrity constraints are used to ensure the accuracy and consistency of data
in a database. There are different types of integrity constraints that can be
enforced on a database, including:

 Domain constraints: These constraints define the data types, formats,

and allowable values for a column or attribute in a table. For example, a
domain constraint for the "age" column in a table may specify that the
value must be a positive integer between 18 and 100.

 Entity integrity constraints: These constraints ensure that each row in a

table is uniquely identifiable using a primary key or candidate key. For
example, a table of employees may have a primary key constraint on the
"employee_id" column to ensure that each employee has a unique
identifier.

 Referential integrity constraints: These constraints ensure that the

relationships between tables are consistent and valid. For example, a
foreign key constraint can be used to enforce a one-to-many relationship
 key in the "customers" table, ensuring that each order belongs to a valid
customer.

 Check constraints: These constraints ensure that the values in a column

or attribute meet a specific condition or range of conditions. For
example, a check constraint on the "date_of_birth" column in a table may
specify that the value must be a date that is not in the future.

Here is an example of how these constraints can be applied in a simple

database:

Table: Customers

Column Name Data Type Constraints

customer_id integer primary key
first_name varchar(50) not null
last_name varchar(50) not null
email varchar(100) unique
date_of_birth date check(date_of_birth <= current_date)

Table: Orders

Column Name Data Type Constraints

order_id integer primary key
customer_id integer foreign key
(references
Customers(customer_id))
order_date date not null
total_amount decimal not null

In this example, the "Customers" table has a primary key constraint on the
"customer_id" column to ensure that each customer has a unique identifier.
The "email" column also has a unique constraint to ensure that each email
address is associated with only one customer. The "date_of_birth" column has
a check constraint to ensure that the date is not in the future.

The "Orders" table has a foreign key constraint on the "customer_id" column
to ensure that each order is associated with a valid customer from the
"Customers" table. The "order_date" and "total_amount" columns are also
required and cannot be null.

{ Solve the examples of writing queries for given data to more practice
those questions are very important and they can come for 10 marks }
 Relational database Design

What is normalization and discuss its types with example?

Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy
and dependency, and improve data integrity. The normalization process involves
breaking down a table into smaller tables and defining relationships between them.

There are several normalization techniques, which are listed below along with
examples:
 First Normal Form (1NF):
A table is in 1NF if it has no repeating groups, i.e., each column contains atomic values.
For example, a table of students with a column for their favorite courses violates 1NF
since it may contain multiple values. To normalize it, we can create a separate table
for the courses and relate it to the student table using a foreign key.
 Second Normal Form (2NF):
A table is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key columns depend on the entire primary
key. For example, a table of orders with customer name, product name, and price
violates 2NF since product name and price depend only on the product ID, not on the
entire primary key. To normalize it, we can create a separate table for products and
relate it to the order table using a foreign key.
 Third Normal Form (3NF):
A table is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and all non-key columns depend only on the primary
key and not on other non-key columns. For example, a table of customers with
customer name, address, and zip code violates 3NF since the zip code depends only
on the address, not on the customer name. To normalize it, we can create a separate
table for zip codes and relate it to the customer table using a foreign key.
 Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF):
A table is in BCNF if for every non-trivial functional dependency X → Y, X is a superkey.
This means that every determinant (X) must be a candidate key. For example, a table
of employees with employee ID and department name violates BCNF since
department name depends only on the employee ID, not on the entire primary key. To
normalize it, we can create a separate table for departments and relate it to the
employee table using a foreign key.
 Fourth Normal Form (4NF):
A table is in 4NF if it is in BCNF and has no multi-valued dependencies. Multi-valued
dependencies occur when a single value in one table corresponds to multiple values in
another table. For example, a table of employees with skills as a multi-valued attribute
violates 4NF since each employee can have multiple skills. To normalize it, we can
create a separate table for skills and relate it to the employee table using a foreign key.
What is functional dependency?
 Functional dependency is a constraint between two sets of attributes in
a relation.
 It states that the value of one set of attributes (the determinant)
uniquely determines the value of another set of attributes (the
dependent).
 The constraint is often written as A → B, where A is the determinant and
B is the dependent.
 Functional dependencies are used in database design to eliminate
redundancy and ensure data integrity.
 They can be used to check if a relation is in a normal form, such as 1NF,
2NF, or 3NF.
 Violations of functional dependencies can result in data anomalies, such
as update anomalies, insertion anomalies, and deletion anomalies.
Explain Armstrong’s Axioms ?
Armstrong's axioms are a set of rules used in relational database design and
normalization to derive all the functional dependencies in a relation. The
axioms are as follows:
 Reflexivity: If A is a set of attributes, then A → A. This means that a set of
attributes is functionally dependent on itself.
 Augmentation: If A → B, then A C → B C, where C is a set of attributes
that does not contain A or B. This means that if an attribute is
functionally dependent on another attribute, then it is also functionally
dependent on a set of attributes that includes the first attribute.
 Transitivity: If A → B and B → C, then A → C. This means that if two
attributes are functionally dependent on each other, and one of them is
functionally dependent on a third attribute, then the first attribute is
also functionally dependent on the third attribute.
These axioms can be used to derive all the functional dependencies in a
relation, which can then be used to determine the appropriate level of
normalization for the relation.
What are the properties of Armstrong’s Axioms?
The properties of Armstrong's Axioms are as follows:
 Closure: The closure of a set of attributes is the set of all attributes that
are functionally dependent on the original set. Armstrong's axioms can
be used to derive the closure of any set of attributes.
 Soundness: Any functional dependency that can be derived using
Armstrong's axioms is a valid dependency in the relation.
  Minimality: The set of functional dependencies derived using
Armstrong's axioms is minimal, meaning that it contains no redundant
dependencies.
What is decomposition and explain lossless join decomposition and
dependency preservation decomposition?
Decomposition is the process of breaking down a relation into two or more smaller
relations that can be used to store the same information. There are different types of
decomposition, but two common ones are lossless join decomposition and
dependency preservation decomposition.
Lossless join decomposition:
 The original relation can be reconstructed exactly by joining the smaller
relations using a join operation.
 No information is lost during the decomposition process.
 A decomposition is said to be lossless if and only if the join of the
smaller relations results in the original relation.
 It is important for maintaining data integrity and consistency.
Dependency preservation decomposition:
 This decomposition technique preserves all the functional dependencies
that hold in the original relation.
 It ensures that no new dependencies are introduced as a result of
decomposition.
 A decomposition is said to preserve dependencies if and only if every
functional dependency that holds in the original relation also holds in at
least one of the smaller relations created by the decomposition.
 It is important for avoiding anomalies and maintaining data consistency.
 Transaction Management and Concurrency
What is transaction?
 A transaction is a logical unit of work performed in a database
management system (DBMS).
 A transaction consists of a sequence of database operations (such as
reads and writes) that are executed as a single, indivisible unit.
 Transactions ensure that a set of related operations either complete
successfully or fail together as a group.
 The ACID properties define the characteristics of a reliable transaction.
ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.
 Atomicity ensures that a transaction is treated as a single, indivisible
unit of work. If any part of the transaction fails, the entire transaction is
rolled back and the database is restored to its state prior to the start of
the transaction.
 Consistency ensures that a transaction brings the database from one
valid state to another.
 Isolation ensures that each transaction is executed in isolation from
other transactions. This means that a transaction cannot see the
intermediate states of other transactions.
 Durability ensures that once a transaction is committed, its changes to
the database are permanent and will survive subsequent system
failures.
Discuss ACID properties of transaction ?
ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) properties are the key
characteristics of a transaction in a database management system. Here are
the explanations of each property:
 Atomicity: A transaction is considered as a single logical unit of work,
which means that either all the operations of the transaction must be
executed or none of them should be executed. This property ensures
that if any part of a transaction fails, the entire transaction is aborted,
and the database is rolled back to its previous consistent state.
 Consistency: This property ensures that a transaction transforms the
database from one consistent state to another. A transaction must
maintain the integrity constraints, which means that the database must
be in a consistent state before and after the transaction execution.
 Isolation: This property ensures that the execution of multiple
transactions concurrently will result in the same state as if they had
executed serially in some order. The transactions should be isolated
from each other so that they don't interfere with each other's
operations. This is achieved by using locking mechanisms, which
  Durability: Once a transaction is committed, its changes must be
permanent and persistent, even in the case of power failure or system
crash. The changes made by a committed transaction must be written to
non-volatile memory like a hard disk so that they are not lost.
These four properties ensure that a database is consistent, reliable, and
resilient to failures.
What is concurrent execution and list features of concurrent execution?
Concurrent execution refers to the execution of multiple transactions
simultaneously in a database system. The advantages of concurrent execution
are:
 Improved throughput: Concurrent execution allows multiple
transactions to be processed simultaneously, resulting in better overall
system performance and higher throughput.
 Improved response time: Concurrent execution enables multiple users
to access the database system simultaneously, resulting in faster
response times for queries and updates.
 Resource sharing: Concurrent execution enables multiple transactions
to share system resources such as CPU time, disk I/O, and memory,
resulting in more efficient use of system resources.
 Increased scalability: Concurrent execution enables a database system
to handle a larger number of transactions, which can help to increase
the scalability of the system.
 Improved reliability: Concurrent execution can improve the reliability of
a database system by providing mechanisms for ensuring data
consistency and preventing data corruption due to concurrent access.
 Reduced contention: Concurrent execution can help to reduce
contention for system resources by allowing multiple transactions to
execute simultaneously and by providing mechanisms for resolving
conflicts.
Explain the concept of serializability with its types ?
In database management, serializability is a concept used to ensure that
concurrent transactions do not interfere with each other in a way that violates
the consistency of the database. It ensures that the final state of the database
is the same as if the transactions were executed serially in some order.
There are two types of serializability:
Conflict serializability: In conflict serializability, transactions are serialized
based on their conflict with each other. A conflict occurs when two
transactions try to access the same data item, and at least one of them is a
write operation. The transactions are said to be conflict-equivalent if they have
the same set of conflicts.
View serializability: In view serializability, transactions are serialized based
on their order of accessing the data items. It ensures that the result of any
execution of concurrent transactions is the same as if the transactions were
executed in some serial order that is consistent with their read and write
dependencies.
Features of serializability:
 Consistency: Serializability ensures that the database remains in a
consistent state before and after the execution of transactions.
 Isolation: Serializability ensures that transactions are executed in
isolation, and the results of one transaction do not affect the results of
other transactions.
 Durability: Serializability ensures that once a transaction is committed,
its effects become permanent and cannot be rolled back.
 Atomicity: Serializability ensures that transactions are executed as
atomic units, which means that either all the operations of a transaction
are executed, or none of them are.
Advantages of serializability:
 Data integrity: Serializability ensures that the data in the database
remains consistent and accurate, even when multiple transactions are
executed concurrently.
 Reliable: Serializability ensures that the results of the transactions are
reliable and consistent, and do not depend on the order of execution.
 Efficient: Serializability ensures that the transactions are executed
efficiently, without any unnecessary delays or conflicts.
Difference between serial and serializable schedule .
Discuss conflict serializability with example ?
Conflict serializability is a property of schedules in database systems that ensures that
the outcome of executing concurrent transactions is equivalent to some serial execution
of those transactions.

Consider two transactions T1 and T2, where T1 transfers $100 from Account A to
Account B, and T2 transfers $50 from Account B to Account C.
The following is an example of a concurrent execution of T1 and T2:

To check if this schedule is conflict serializable, we construct a precedence graph. The

nodes of the graph are the transactions, and there is a directed edge from transaction Ti
to Tj if there exists an item (e.g., data item A) that is both read and written by Tj after
being written by Ti.

In this example, we have the following precedence graph:

T1 -> T2
This graph shows that T1 must come before T2 in any serial execution of the
transactions. Thus, the schedule is conflict serializable.

Discuss view serializability with example?

View serializability is a notion of serializability that ensures that the outcome of a
concurrent execution is equivalent to some serial execution. In other words, the order
of the operations in the concurrent execution appears to be equivalent to the order of
operations in a serial execution. View serializability is a stricter form of serializability
than conflict serializability.

Consider the following two transactions T1 and T2:

T1: r(x), w(y), w(z)
T2: r(y), w(x), r(z)

where r(x) denotes a read operation on variable x, and w(x) denotes a write operation on variable x.
Suppose that these transactions execute concurrently, and the following schedule S is produced:
S: r1(x), r2(y), w1(y), w2(x), w1(z), r2(z)
The schedule S is not conflict serializable because there is a conflict between T1 and T2
on variable x and y. However, the schedule S is view serializable. To prove this, we can
create a serial schedule S' that is equivalent to S. One possible serial schedule that is
equivalent to S is:

S': r1(x), w1(y), w1(z), r2(y), w2(x), r2(z)

The schedule S' is equivalent to the concurrent schedule S because it produces the same
final state of the database. Thus, S is view serializable, even though it is not conflict
serializable.

Explain log based recovery?

Log-based recovery is a technique used in database management systems to recover
data in case of a system failure or a crash. The main idea behind log-based recovery is
to maintain a log file that records all the database changes made by transactions in a
system. The log file serves as a backup of the database and allows for the system to be
restored to a consistent state after a failure.

In log-based recovery, the database management system maintains a log file of all
transactions executed on the system. Each transaction is identified by a unique
transaction ID, and the log file records all updates made by the transaction to the
database. The log file is periodically flushed to disk to ensure durability.

When a system failure occurs, the database management system uses the log file to
restore the database to a consistent state. The recovery process is performed in two
phases: redo and undo.

The redo phase involves applying all committed transactions that were not yet written
to disk before the failure occurred. This is done by scanning the log file and applying all
changes made by these transactions to the database.

The undo phase involves rolling back all transactions that were not committed before
the failure occurred. This is done by scanning the log file backwards and undoing all
changes made by these transactions to the database.

Log-based recovery provides several advantages over other recovery techniques,

including:
 Flexibility: Log-based recovery allows for recovery from any type of failure,
including hardware and software failures, user errors, and system crashes.
 Durability: The log file is stored on non-volatile storage, such as disk, ensuring
that it remains intact even if the system crashes.
  Scalability: Log-based recovery can be used in large-scale systems with multiple
users and transactions, ensuring that all changes are captured and can be
recovered in case of a failure.

Explain different concurrency control protocols ?

Concurrency control protocols are used to manage the concurrent execution of

transactions in a database system to ensure the consistency and correctness of data.
Some common concurrency control protocols are:

Lock-based protocols: These protocols use locks to control access to shared resources
in the database. They ensure that only one transaction can access a resource at a time,
preventing conflicts between transactions. Two popular lock-based protocols are Two-
Phase Locking (2PL) and Timestamp Ordering.

Optimistic protocols: These protocols assume that conflicts between transactions are
rare and allow multiple transactions to proceed without locking. They validate the
transactions after they have completed and undo any transactions that conflict with
others. Two popular optimistic protocols are Timestamp Ordering and Multi-Version
Concurrency Control (MVCC).

Time stamp based protocols : Timestamp-based concurrency control is a protocol that

assigns timestamps to transactions to establish a global ordering of transactions. The
protocol uses a transaction's timestamp to determine whether it can access a particular
data item. Transactions are allowed to execute only if they have a higher timestamp
than the previous transaction accessing the same data item. The protocol ensures that
the transactions are executed in a serializable order. If a transaction is found to be
violating the serializability property, it is aborted and rolled back.

Write note on shadow paging ?

Shadow paging is a technique used in database systems to provide support for efficient
and reliable recovery from system failures. Here are some key points about shadow
paging:
  The main advantage of shadow paging is that it eliminates the need for a log file,
which can improve the performance of the system by reducing the overhead
associated with logging.
 In this technique, changes are made to a copy of the page, known as the shadow
page, and are not immediately applied to the actual database. Instead, the
changes are logged in a separate area of memory called the log file.
 Once the transaction is committed, the changes are applied to the database by
copying the shadow page to the actual page.
 If a system failure occurs before the transaction is committed, the changes made
to the shadow pages can be undone by simply discarding the pages.
Overall, shadow paging is a useful technique for providing reliable recovery in database
systems, especially in environments where high performance is a key requirement.

Write short note on deadlock ?

Deadlock is a situation in which two or more transactions are waiting for each other to
release the resources they need to complete their execution. It is a state of impasse
where no transaction can proceed further. Deadlocks can occur in a concurrent
database environment when multiple transactions are competing for shared resources.
To resolve deadlocks, various techniques such as deadlock prevention, deadlock
avoidance, and deadlock detection and recovery are used in database systems. Proper
concurrency control mechanisms and resource allocation strategies can help prevent
and manage deadlocks in a database system.

Explain different ways to handle deadlock in detail?

Deadlock is a situation that occurs in a multi-user system where two or more
transactions are waiting for each other to release the locked resources. This can lead to
a standstill of all the transactions, resulting in a system failure. There are different ways
to handle deadlock, which are discussed below:
Deadlock Prevention: This approach aims to prevent the occurrence of deadlock by
either eliminating one of the necessary conditions for deadlock (i.e., mutual exclusion,
hold and wait, no preemption, circular wait) or by detecting and aborting one of the
transactions involved in the deadlock. This approach can be effective, but it can also be
too restrictive, as it may limit the concurrency level of the system.
Deadlock Avoidance: This approach involves the use of a mathematical algorithm that
predicts whether granting a request for a resource will result in a deadlock. The system
grants the request only if the algorithm predicts that no deadlock will occur. This
approach is more flexible than prevention but requires more computational overhead.
Deadlock Detection and Recovery: This approach involves periodically checking the
system for deadlocks. When a deadlock is detected, the system identifies the
transactions involved in the deadlock and rolls back one or more of them to resolve the
deadlock. This approach is less restrictive than prevention or avoidance and allows the
system to continue to operate, but it is more complex and requires more resources.
Resource Allocation Graph (RAG): This approach is used to detect and resolve
deadlocks in a distributed database environment. In this approach, a graph is
constructed that represents the relationship between the resources and the
transactions. The graph is analyzed to detect any cycle, which indicates a deadlock.
Once a deadlock is detected, the system can resolve it by rolling back one or more
transactions.

In conclusion, each of these approaches has its strengths and weaknesses, and the
choice of approach depends on the specific requirements and constraints of the system.
It is essential to carefully consider each approach and their trade-offs before selecting a
particular approach.