| NSW Department of Education

Investigating Science Module 1: Cause

and effect-observing

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 Table of contents

Table of Contents
Teaching the Year 11 Modules..................................................................................................................................... 3
Course overview............................................................................................................................................................ 3
Module summary........................................................................................................................................................... 4
Big Ideas....................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Nature and Practice of Science (also referred to as the process of science).............................................................5
Observations.............................................................................................................................................................. 6
Questioning................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Relationship to other modules....................................................................................................................................... 7
Unpacking the inquiry questions.................................................................................................................................... 8
IQ1-1 How does observation instigate scientific investigation?..................................................................................8
IQ1-2 What are the benefits and drawbacks of qualitative and quantitative observations?......................................12
IQ1-3 How does primary data provide evidence for further investigation?...............................................................13
IQ1-4 How does the collection and presentation of primary data affect the outcome of a scientific investigation?. .16
IQ1-5 How do conclusions drawn from the interpretation of primary data promote further scientific investigation?. 17
Opportunities for extending concepts.......................................................................................................................... 18
IQ1-1: How does observation instigate scientific investigation?...............................................................................18
IQ1-5: How do conclusions drawn from the interpretation of primary data promote further scientific investigation? 18
Misconceptions............................................................................................................................................................ 19
Conceptual difficulties................................................................................................................................................. 20
Types of data........................................................................................................................................................... 20
The control of variables............................................................................................................................................ 21
Suggested teaching strategies.................................................................................................................................... 22
IQ1-1 How does observation instigate scientific investigation?................................................................................22
IQ1-2 What are the benefits and drawbacks of qualitative and quantitative observations?......................................22
IQ1-3 How does primary data provide evidence for further investigation?...............................................................22
IQ1-4 How does the collection and presentation of primary data affect the outcome of a scientific investigation?. .22
IQ1-5 How do conclusions drawn from the interpretation of primary data promote further scientific investigation?. 22
Resources................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Appendix 1.................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Relationships between modules 1-4......................................................................................................................... 24
Appendix 2.................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Observations instigating inquiry............................................................................................................................... 25
Appendix 3.................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Controlled variables.................................................................................................................................................. 27
Appendix 4.................................................................................................................................................................. 34
Teaching resource: The Bernoulli effect................................................................................................................... 34
Appendix 5.................................................................................................................................................................. 41
Depth Study: History and observation...................................................................................................................... 41
Appendix 6.................................................................................................................................................................. 45
Teaching resource: Cell observations...................................................................................................................... 45
Appendix 7.................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Teaching resource: Rock strata............................................................................................................................... 48
Appendix 8.................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Teaching resource: Design an investigation............................................................................................................. 51
Appendix 9.................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Teaching resource: Comparing the usefulness of observations from investigations................................................54

2 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 Teaching the Year 11 Modules
The content and skills covered in the four modules of the Year 11 Investigating Science course
lays the foundations for the Year 12 course. This course focuses on the Nature and Practice of
Science. The relationship between Investigating Science and the Stage 4/5 science course is not
explicit: there is little overlap in the content covered in these syllabuses. However, there are
definite continuums in the working scientifically skills between the Stage 4/5 science and the
Investigating Science courses. Those continuums can form the basis of instruction in this course.

While it is not focussed on any specific scientific discipline (for example, Biology, Chemistry and
Physics), the Investigating Science syllabus enables students to apply the principles of the nature
and practice of science to phenomena in those disciplines. In this course, students will explore
concepts from various scientific fields. When teaching those concepts, teachers should emphasise
their relevance to the inquiry questions.

The course has a high cognitive demand: by the end of the Year 11 and 12 courses, students
should be able to demonstrate proficiency in scientific literacy, as well as reasoning and
argumentation abilities. Teachers should provide Investigating Science students with opportunities
for developing those skills.

Course overview
The Investigating Science syllabus explores the construction of scientific knowledge and the
interplay between science, technology and society (Figure 1).

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 3

 Figure 1: Science, Technology and Society form the three focal points for the Investigating Science
course. Those focal points are centred on Working Scientifically skills.

The Year 11 course examines the construction of scientific knowledge. Students will explore the
role of observations and experimentation in generating information. Scientific knowledge is
produced when meaning is ascribed to scientifically obtained information.

Scientists endeavour to develop explanations for natural phenomena. Such explanations relate
cause and effect, thus uncovering the mechanisms that operate in the natural world. Students will
explore the different forms of scientific knowledge, such as theories, laws and models). Each
knowledge form serves a specific purpose in the scientific understanding of natural phenomena.
Understanding the purpose and limits of scientific knowledge form deepens one’s scientific
worldview.

Module summary
The inquiry questions in this module are:
 IQ1-1 How does observation instigate scientific investigation?
 IQ1-2 What are the benefits and drawbacks of qualitative and quantitative observations?
 IQ1-3 How does primary data provide evidence for further investigation?
 IQ1-4 How does the collection and presentation of primary data affect the outcome of a
scientific investigation?
 IQ1-5 How do conclusions drawn from the interpretation of primary data promote further
scientific investigation?

Observations play a central role in scientific inquiry. Observations are used in two ways – to
initiate investigations and as evidence that support scientific ideas. Scientific observations are not
casual: they must be accurate, reproducible, informative and free of bias.

In this module, students examine historical examples of observations that led to significant
scientific discoveries. Those examples include cultural observational knowledge, such as those
developed by Aboriginal communities. Then, students compare and contrast quantitative and
qualitative observations, understanding the value and limitations of these observation types in the
process. Scientific investigations provide opportunities for gathering and analysing quantitative
and qualitative observations obtained in controlled settings. Therefore, students will design and
conduct a first-hand investigation to collect data. In planning the investigation, students examine
the role of variables. The correct manipulation and control of variables ensure the reliability and
validity of the investigation.

The data that the students collect must be processed and analysed. Students will consider
appropriate methods for representing their data. Proper data representation is a critical step for
analysing the data and identifying patterns, trends, and relationships. The data may provide

4 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 evidence to support existing ideas or highlight exceptions in contemporary scientific
understanding. Finally, students learn to make sense and meaning of the data. To do this,
students must contextualise their findings with those in the literature. While the data obtained in
the investigation may answer the inquiry question, they will invariably spawn further questions.
Students will reflect on how other related phenomena may be investigated on the back of the
current one.

Big Ideas
Nature and Practice of Science (also referred to as the
process of science)
 Scientific literacy, or the ability to understand the process of science, is essential for
developing scientific knowledge and understanding.
 Scientific inquiry is not a linear process. It is a complex and iterative process involving a
sequence of question-answer loops (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Left: A simplified view of the scientific process, showing the four domains and the
complex links between them. Right: A detailed view of the four domains. One important idea shown
in these diagrams is that the scientific process is not linear but iterative. © 2008 The University of
California Museum of Palaeontology, Berkeley, and the University of California Regents. Larger
readable images of these maps may be accessed from Understanding Science.

 Scientific inquiry focuses on finding the cause(s) of natural phenomena.

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 5

  Scientific knowledge is organised as theories and laws. They differ in the scope of
explanations but not in the truth of their propositions.
 Scientific explanations, theories and models are those that best fit the evidence available at
a particular time.
 Scientific knowledge is subject to change, as are all forms of knowledge.

Observations
 Investigations are conducted for different reasons, such as
o to explore new phenomena,
o to check on previous results,
o to test how well a theory predicts, and
o to compare theories.
 Observations initiate all scientific investigations.
 Observations also provide evidence to support or reject scientific ideas. When observations
are used to test scientific ideas, they are called data. Data can be represented in different
ways for visualisation and analysis.
 Observations, when interpreted, become inferences. Inferences can be used to form
hypotheses for further inquiry.

Questioning
 The scientific enterprise is focused on finding answers to questions about natural
phenomena. Such question stems from a natural curiosity of ourselves and the world in
which we inhabit. Scientific explanations help us to construct meaning about our
observations.
 The Nobel laureate, Peter Medawar, said that “Science is the art of the soluble”.
Scientific questions are those that can be tested through inquiry and experimentation. They
define the limits of science.

6 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 Relationship to other modules
The conceptual links between module 1 and the other modules of the course are shown in Figure
3. A detailed concept map of the Year 11 course is provided in Appendix 1.

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 7

 Figure 3: A map of the conceptual links between module 1 and modules 2 – 4. The arrows’ colours
represent the destination modules, while the connections indicate the conceptual continuity or
overlap.

As shown in Figure 3, there are numerous continuums between the concepts described in
modules 1 and 2. These may provide opportunities to ‘integrate’ their instruction. The concept map
also highlights the holistic elements of the content in the year 11 course.

Other links between the concepts in the four modules (not shown in Figure 3) are equally
plausible. For example, scientific theories and laws, discussed in module 4, are also initiators of
investigations. Theories and laws promote further questioning and the development of
hypotheses, which are then investigated in controlled experiments. In this way, module 4 can be
linked to the relevant inquiry questions in modules 1 and 2.

Unpacking the inquiry questions

IQ1-1 How does observation instigate scientific
investigation?
 To observe something is to note, record, or attend to a result, occurrence, or phenomenon 1
(note: read about possible misconceptions students may hold about ‘observations’).
 Observations are usually made with our senses. Such observations are referred to as direct
observations. However, tools such as thermometers, microscopes, telescopes, radar,
radiation sensors, or mass spectroscopes extend our observational powers’ range, limits,
and precision. Observations that rely on the use of instruments are referred to as indirect
observations.
 Observations produce quantitative or qualitative data (data: information from
observations). These data, in turn, provide evidence that supports or refutes scientific
theories and hypotheses.
 Quantitative and qualitative data can be further subdivided into various categories, as shown
in Figure 4. Quantitative data (quantity = measure) is numerical, while qualitative data
(quality = non-numerical; describes a feature or characteristic). The discussion in conceptual
difficulties indicates some complexities when distinguishing quantitative data from qualitative
data.

1
Understanding Science.

8 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 Figure 4: A classification scheme for the various data types that are commonly used in science.
This scheme can be used to obtain quantitative and qualitative data for the investigations
suggested in the syllabus (IQ1-1)

 Qualitative vs quantitative data: Table 1 compares these two data types’ properties in
scientific investigations.
 Inferences are interpretations of observations. They refer to the conclusions drawn from
observations through reasoning. Inferences, in turn, are tested through further inquiries and
investigations (controlled experiments). One example of the relationship between
observations and inferences is shown in Figure 5.

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 9

 Figure 5: Figure showing the relationship between observations and inferences in Darwin’s Theory
of Evolution. Darwin made four observation about biological variation, the inheritance of traits and
the unequal survival of offspring. From those four observations, Darwin proposed two inferences.
The inferences formed the basis of Evolutionary Theory. It took Darwin 20 years to go from
inference to theory (that is, to find evidence in support of the theory).

 Prior experience and a deep understanding of the literature are important for developing
strong inferences.
 There are numerous historical examples of observations and inferences that instigate
experimentation (A detailed discussion is provided in Appendix 2):
o Archimedes: Archimedes observed that when he entered a bathtub filled entirely with
water, a specific volume of water was displaced (spilled). He inferred that the amount

10 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 (volume) of displaced water was related to the object’s volume immersed in it. He
investigated this with various objects, which confirmed his inference. Thus, given the mass
and volume of any object, its density may be calculated. The density of an object is unique
to its composition. This realisation made him conclude that the crown belonging to the King
of Sicily was not made of pure gold.
o Alexander Fleming: Fleming observed that in some mouldy bacterial culture plates, no
bacteria grew in the region around the mould. He inferred that the fungi produced a
substance that killed or prevented the bacteria’s growth in its immediate vicinity. Fleming
investigated this further and concluded that the mould, Penicillium, produced an antibiotic
that killed Gram-positive bacteria. Further experiments, conducted by other scientists,
isolated and purified the antibiotic (called penicillin).
o Galileo: Using his telescope, Galileo observed that Jupiter had four moons that orbited
it. Based on these observations, he inferred that planets revolved around (orbited) the sun.
This supported the Copernican model of the sun-centred (heliocentric) model of the solar
system. Subsequent investigations by other astronomers, such as Tyco Brahe and Kepler,
confirmed the model’s accuracy.
 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are an ancient culture whose identity is closely
tied with Country and Place. ‘Country and Place’ refers to the land to which Aboriginal
peoples and Torres Strait Islander peoples belong, where their ancestors’ spiritual essence
remains in the landscape, the sky, and the waters2.
 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have longstanding scientific knowledge
traditions and developed knowledge about the world by3:
o observation, using all the senses
o prediction and hypothesis
o testing (trial and error)
o making generalisations about food, natural materials, navigation and sustainability of
the environment.
 Various Aboriginal societies have used firestick farming practices to modify the ecology of
the lands on which they live. They observed that although natural bush fires destroyed the
flora and fauna on their lands, the ecosystems always recovered and were restored. This
occurred through ecological succession – several species of consumers appeared soon
after the burn, followed by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Firestick farming
practices deliberately used fires in a managed process to remodel ecosystems while
providing the following benefits:
o Harvesting of bush foods
o Hunting of animals that graze the new vegetation
o Prevent the growth of weeds

2
Relationships and place.
3
The Australian Curriculum: Cross curriculum priorities

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 11

  Firestick farming is not performed randomly but is carried out only after careful observations
of local conditions, climate, plants and animals (local knowledge).
 Ethnobotany: Observations of the medicinal and pharmaceutical effects of plant-derived
substances (botanicals or phytochemicals) are common to many cultures (for example,
turmeric, aspirin and artemisinin), including Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples. The knowledge of such substances was built on observations and testing (trial and
error). Some examples of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities’ understanding
and use of medicinal plants are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: This table summarises the medicinal use of native plant products by Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander peoples

Common Traditional uses in Aboriginal and Torres Straits Islander

Scientific name
name communities

Kangaroo Solanum aviculare The active ingredient is an alkaloid (solanine) – used poultice
apple Solanum laciniatum on swollen joints. The alkaloid functions as a steroid.’

Wattles Acacia spp Rheumatism; Indigestion

Eye and chest infections; skin complaints; colds and coughs;
Old man’s Centipeda cunning-
chest infections; strengthen immunity – ingested as water ex-
weed hamii tract or rubbed onto the skin

Drooping Allocasuarina verticil-

Rheumatism – external use
she-oak lata
Hop bush Dodonaea viscosa Juice of roots used to treat toothaches and cuts

IQ1-2 What are the benefits and drawbacks of qualitative

and quantitative observations?
 Qualitative and quantitative data differ in the information that they provide, as well as in their
utility (applicability). The advantages and disadvantages of these data types are shown in
Table 2.

Table 2: A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of quantitative and qualitative data.

Advantages Disadvantages

Qualitative  Generally, qualitative data is  Qualitative data is more subjective than

data easier to collect (direct obser- qualitative data (difficult to standardise),
vation, surveys, interviews), making comparisons more difficult.
as measurement tools are not  Smaller samples sizes mean that conclu-
required. sions may be limited and difficult to extra-
 A broader range of variables

12 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 Advantages Disadvantages

can be examined (for ex- polate (generalise)*.

ample, research in animal be-  Replication is difficult, as the outcomes
haviour or human psycho- depend on the investigator’s skills and
logy), as measurement tools may vary from group to group.
do not limit the inquiry.
 Cost and time effective -
equipment purchase is min-
imal or non-existent, as is the
time required to set up and
operate them. Qualitative re-
search also uses smaller
sample sizes*.
 Quantitative data can be ana-  Experiments involving collecting quantitat-
lysed using various mathemat- ive data can be costly (for example, large
ical and statistical models, sample sizes, equipment cost) and time-
thus enhancing the findings’ consuming.
robustness.  The studied variables are often limited by
 When instruments are used to the type of data (that is, only those vari-
gather quantitative data, the ables that are countable or measurable
Quantitative data has improved accuracy can be studied).
data and precision.  A lot of time and effort is devoted to set-
 Larger sample sizes allow for ting up controlled experiments so that the
robust conclusions to be collected data can be meaningfully ana-
drawn. lysed (using mathematical and statistical
 Experiments involving quantit- models). Therefore, complex interactions
ative data are objective, repro- between variables may be missed be-
ducible and reliable. cause of the highly structured design of
the experiment.

IQ1-3 How does primary data provide evidence for further

investigation?
 Most natural phenomena are complex events and have a multitude of causes. Often, when
investigating those phenomena, scientists will have to tease apart those causes, which they
refer to as variables. Table 3 presents some examples of natural phenomena with multiple
variables.

Table 3: Example of phenomena that are influenced by multiple variables

Phenomenon Variables that affect the phenomena

Gravitation Mass, distance

Force Mass, acceleration

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 13

 Phenomenon Variables that affect the phenomena

Electrostatic Charge, distance

Ideal gas law Number of moles, volume, temperature
Human blood groups Three different alleles (A, B and O)

 In controlled scientific investigations, scientists usually explore relationships between pairs

of variables while keeping all others constant. In this way, one variable’s effect on the other
can be studied (Table 4).

Table 4: Definitions of variables in scientific experiments

Variable What is means

Independ-
The condition within an experiment that the scientist manipulates
ent
The variable that is measured in an experiment (that is, the variable that is affected by
Dependent
the experimental manipulation of the independent variable)
Controlled* All other variables that are eliminated or maintained at constant levels

*Not to be confused with experimental controls, which are groups that do not receive the treatment
being investigated but are otherwise the same.

 A good understanding of experimental variables lays the foundations for:

o successful experimental designs
o the development of strong hypotheses
o optimal data collection, organisation and visualisation;
o outcome validation through statistical tests
o heightened reliability and validity of investigations
o minimising errors and uncertainty of measurements
 Scientists expend much time and effort to minimise risks and hazards when conducting
investigations. This process is called a risk assessment and is an integral part of the
experimental design. When conducting risk assessments, attention must be given to actions
that occur before, during and after a scientific investigation. Some considerations include:
o Develop a list of all of the chemicals (and the quantities) and equipment needed in an
experiment:
o Review the SDS (chemicals) and other safe working guidelines for the use of
equipment.
o Identify risky or hazardous processes (for example, working with electricity, heat,
corrosive or toxic substances).

14 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 o Identify the dangers associated with the locations where the investigation will be carried
out.
o Become familiar with specialist methods (for example, microscopes, titration equipment,
spectrometers), as breaches of those may cause injury.
o Being aware of the procedures involved in working with animals
o Use relevant PPE during the investigation
o Ensure that proper waste disposal procedures are followed
 For a long time, astronomical observations and measurements were limited to the functional
ranges of human senses (vision). For example, features such as hills and clouds obscured
views of the night sky. Humans could not explore those astronomical phenomena that were
evident in the visual range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 The invention of various instruments greatly expanded the range of the senses (Table 5).

Table 5: A list of instrumentation used in more astronomical research. These instruments allow
scientists to explore the Universe that lies beyond the range of our senses. Each instrument is
limited in the type and scope of information it collects.

Technology Function

 Optical
o Reflecting
o Refracting
 Non-optical
o Cherenkov (Gamma rays)
o X-ray
Telescopes
o Ultraviolet
o Infrared
o Submillimeter (far-infrared and microwave)
o Radio telescopes (radio waves) – the Square Kilometre Array (partly based
in Western Australia) will explore the birth of galaxies, dark matter and dark en-
ergy.

Recording of astronomical events for analysis and archiving

Recording  Photographic plates
 Electronic recording
Determine the elemental composition and other physical properties (temperature,
Spectroscopy density, magnetic fields) of planets and stars. Spectroscopes are also helpful for meas-
uring the velocities of astronomical bodies (Doppler shift)
Interfero- Detection of gravitational waves
metry  Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO)

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 15

 Technology Function

 Virgo interferometer

 Both digital and analogue instruments can be used to measure variables. Table 6 shows a
list of instruments used in the school science laboratory, while Table 7 compares the
features of digital and analogue devices.

Table 6: A comparison of digital and analogue measuring devices commonly used in school
laboratories.

Quantity Analogue instruments Digital instruments

Temperature Alcohol thermometer Digital thermometer

Time Clock, analogue stopwatch Digital timekeeper
Mass Spring & beam balances Electronic scale
Voltage Analogue voltmeter Digital voltmeter; multimeter
Current Analogue ammeter Digital ammeter; multimeter
Light intensity Analogue lux meter Digital light meter
pH Litmus paper, pH indicators pH meter

Table 7: A comparison of some features of digital and analogue measuring devices

Analogue measuring
Features Digital measuring devices
devices

Easy May be complex and subject

Readouts
to error (e.g. parallax)
Few moving parts – contrib- Many moving parts – more
Construction utes to the accuracy of meas- opportunities for errors of
urement measurements
Cheap – electronic parts are Expensive – many working
less costly than non-electronic parts to be assembled. Repair
Cost (comparatively) components. However, digital costs are relatively cheap
devices are expensive to re-
pair
Data can be recorded/stored Data recording/storage is not
Recording
for later use possible
Data may be fed from the The direct transfer of data to a
device to a computer directly computer is not possible
Data analysis
for subsequent analysis with
analytical software

16 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 IQ1-4 How does the collection and presentation of primary
data affect the outcome of a scientific investigation?
 The measurements obtained in first-hand investigations (primary data) must be recorded as
accurately as possible. Sometimes, data is recorded manually (for example, in lab books),
while at other times, electronic recording of data occurs (for example, data loggers and
computers).
 Data collection is followed by cleansing, processing, analysis and presentation:
o Cleansing: identify missing or incorrect data
o Processing: organise data for analysis (for example, collating data from replicate
measurements, unit conversion)
o Analysis: Apply mathematical or statistical models (for example, calculating the
averages of replicate measurements; deriving calculated values using appropriate formulae:
calculating data spread – standard deviation: calculating the significance of difference using
statistical tools; determining the uncertainties and errors of measurement; identifying
patterns and trends in the data)
o Presentation: Display information in the form of graphs, tables, image galleries or other
forms
 Raw data should be provided in the appendix or as supplementary information. Only
processed data should be included in the results section of the scientific report.
 The processing and analysis of the data must be considered in the experimental design
(planning). The analytical methods and software used must be included in the materials and
methods.

IQ1-5 How do conclusions drawn from the interpretation of

primary data promote further scientific investigation?
 Note: For the following discussion, ‘conclusions’ also incorporate the ‘discussion’
component of scientific reports.
 The conclusion of a scientific investigation represents the sensemaking aspect of scientific
inquiry. Sensemaking is the process of developing or refining an explanation (“figuring it
out”). It is not a restatement of the result but a construct of its meaning. To do this, students
should:
o Explain the findings (the data analysed) in the context of the hypothesis of the inquiry
question
o Reflect on the investigation’s findings in the context of relevant scientific theories.

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 17

 o Evaluate the robustness of the data collected (accuracy, precision and/or reliability)
o Examine the validity of the investigation, including its limitation
Thus, the conclusion provides evidence-based judgements of the findings. It contains both the
statements and interpretations of the results. Another term used to depict this is scientific
argumentation.
 The three elements of a scientific conclusion are Claims, Evidence and Reasoning (C-E-
R)4.
o The Claim is the conclusion of a scientific investigation and is related to the scientific
hypothesis being tested.
o The Evidence is the data collected
o The Reasoning links the evidence with the claim (the rule or scientific principle that
describes why the evidence supports the claim)
 The conclusion(s) of an investigation must be compared to information in the literature. Such
comparisons provide a context for the current research findings by indicating whether the
conclusions agree or disagree with other findings reported in the literature. Such
comparisons may also show the limitations of the current findings.
 A scientific investigation that is well-designed and conducted will spawn questions for further
investigation. Some things that scientists consider when designing further investigations
include:
o Increasing the sample size (and incorporating statistical testing)
o Expanding the range of variation applied to the independent variable
o Review the validity of the assumptions made in the experiment’s design and change
them in further studies.
o Consider what further evidence is required to explain the phenomena being
investigated (for example, testing other variables

Opportunities for extending concepts

IQ1-1: How does observation instigate scientific
investigation?
While observations initiate inquiries, most observations do not lead to discoveries. However, the
findings of Archimedes, Galileo and Fleming represent giants leaps in our understanding of the
relevant science concepts. Although the discoveries were chance events, their previous
experiences made them understand the significance of their observations. To understand this,
students should research the biographies of Archimedes, Galileo or Fleming (see the Depth Study
in Appendix 5). They should relate educational and other experiences that enabled those famous
4
Note that a claim may be supported by more than one piece of evidence. However, each piece of evidence must be accompanied
with the reasoning that connects it to the claim.

18 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 science personalities to make sense of their critical observations that led to the discoveries that
they are known for.

IQ1-5: How do conclusions drawn from the interpretation of

primary data promote further scientific investigation?
In this module, students plan and conduct a first-hand investigation. After that, they analyse the
data they collected and develop evidence-based conclusions. They also consider how their
conclusion may promote further investigation. To deepen this discussion, teachers may encourage
their students to explore published scientific articles. Using these articles, teachers may highlight
the following features of scientific inquiry:
1. Most scientific investigations are based on contemporary knowledge in the scientific
literature
2. The results of an investigation must be ‘contextualised’ using the information in the scientific
literature (that is, the results must be compared to related findings in the literature)
3. The results of an investigation often produce new questions for further inquiry.

It is important to note that these features are true of most, but not all, published scientific studies.
The following resources may be useful for such discussions in the classroom. Most of the articles
in these resources are aimed at high school students.
 Young Scientist journal
 Science Journal for kids
 *Frontiers for young minds
 The National High School Journal of Science
 Journal of Emerging Investigators
 ** The Student Journal of Science and Technology
 ** Science in Schools
 The Young Scientist Awards (a repository of scientific reports that were submitted for the
awards)

*Contains articles for primary and high school students

** Contains teaching resources

Misconceptions
 In everyday usage, the word ‘observation’ refers to information gathered from visual cues. In
science, observation use more broadly to refer to information gathered from our senses
(direct observations) or tools (indirect observations).

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 19

  Another misconception is that observations are explanatory – they indicate the mechanism
behind some phenomena. For example, students may assume that one can explain gravity
by observing a falling object’s motion. This is not true. Mechanisms that underlie natural
phenomena are only discovered after an exhaustive analysis of observations/data from
controlled experiments. Observations that are not derived from experiments can only
provide inferences.
 Qualitative data cannot be used for numerical analysis. While qualitative data do not involve
measurement, numerical values can be ascribed to them. For example, in survey
questionnaires, respondents are often asked to agree with particular statements (disagree,
neutral, agree). Those options are usually numbered, allowing analysts to analyse the
responses using various mathematical and statistical models.
 Controlled variables – this is a common misconception. Students confuse controlled
variables (variables that are kept constant throughout the experiment) with experimental
control (the group that does not receive the treatment) being investigated. If the terms are
used correctly and consistently, students should overcome this misconception.

Conceptual difficulties
This module is conceptually straightforward. It examines scientific inquiries – from conception to
end. Some possible conceptual difficulties include:

Types of data
All data are observations, but not all observations are data. For an observation to be considered
data, it must have been collected and recorded systematically. Students may also find the concept
of quantitative and qualitative data to be difficult. While quantitative data involves measurements
and counts, qualitative data does not include either. Measuring and counting are distinct
observational strategies and should not be confused. Some datasets possess multiple properties:
the same dataset may be qualitative and quantitative simultaneously (Table 8).

Table 8: Examples of situations where both quantitative and qualitative data may be obtained from a
single study

Data Description Data types

ABS dataset showing the pro- Blood groups represent qualitative data. Since the
portion of Australians with the groups have no inherent value, the data may be fur-
different blood groups (A, B, ther labelled as nominal qualitative data. The pro-
Blood group AB and O)
distribution portions of people represent quantitative data.
Since the numbers of people with particular blood
groups represent counts, the data may be described
as discrete quantitative data.

20 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 Data Description Data types

At the end of the Year 11 In- The grading scale, A – E, is qualitative data. Since
vestigating Science course, the grades are ranked (A is better than B, and so on),
students were awarded a the grading scale represents ordinal qualitative
Examination grade (A – E). data. The relative proportions of students achieving
grades
specific grades in quantitative data. Since propor-
tions represent counts, that data is discrete quant-
itative data.
Researchers measured the The blood glucose measurements represent con-
blood glucose levels of a group tinuous quantitative data (the measurements may
Blood gluc- of indigenous Australians. be any value in a continuum). The categories (high,
ose They classified the measure- medium and low) represent ordinal qualitative
ments as low, medium or high. data.

The type of data collected in a scientific inquiry influences their analysis, especially when applying
mathematical or statistical models. Students should realise that determining the data types for
many inquiry questions can be complicated. Consider a research question such as “is diabetes
associated with sex?”. While sex is a nominal qualitative data type, the proportions of males and
females in the study represent discrete quantitative data. The situation with the diabetes data is
a little more complicated. The researchers may rely on the participants’ responses (yes/no/do not
know) for this data (in which case, the data is discrete quantitative) or require blood glucose
measurements (where the data is continuous quantitative). Therefore, scientists spend a
considerable amount of time determining the types of data to be collected to answer the inquiry
question in a scientific investigation.

The control of variables

Stage 6 science students are usually able to identify the independent, dependent and controlled
variables in investigations. However, both the reasons and the approaches for controlling some
variables in investigations may be difficult for some. Before initiating classroom conversations
about controlled variables, teachers should review the information in Figure 6.

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 21

 Figure 6: This figure outlines four achievement standards to evaluate students’ understanding of
the need to control variables in scientific investigations. The standards are not presented in a
hierarchical order. However, the arrows depict a possible progression of idea development in
students.

The problem set in Appendix 3 may be used diagnostically or formatively to evaluate students’
understanding of controlled variables.

22 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 Suggested teaching strategies
This module’s suggested teaching strategies include approaches that teachers may use to
emphasise key concepts behind the inquiry questions. They also include relevant success criteria,
which may be used to evaluate student learning. The teaching strategies are integrated into the
lesson outlines presented in the appendices.

IQ1-1 How does observation instigate scientific

investigation?
 Appendix 4: Boomerangs and the Bernoulli effect
 Appendix 5: Depth study – History and observation

IQ1-2 What are the benefits and drawbacks of qualitative

and quantitative observations?
 Appendix 6: Cell observations
 Appendix 7: Rock strata

IQ1-3 How does primary data provide evidence for further

investigation?
 Appendix 8: Design an investigation

IQ1-4 How does the collection and presentation of primary

data affect the outcome of a scientific investigation?
 Appendix 9: Comparing the usefulness of observations from investigations

IQ1-5 How do conclusions drawn from the interpretation of

primary data promote further scientific investigation?
 Appendix 8: Design an investigation

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 23

 Resources
1. Kosso, Peter (2011). A Summary of Scientific Method. Springer. p. 9.
2. Bogen, James, “Theory and Observation in Science”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Winter 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
3. Observation and science. ScienceLearn, NZ.
4. Exploration and discovery. Understanding Science.
5. Bernoulli effect
a Prep room practicals
b Teach engineering_airplanes
c Teach engineering_Bernoulli
6. Indigenous medicinal knowledge
Packer, J., Brouwer, N., Harrington, D., Gaikwad, J., Heron, R., Yaegl Community Elders,
Ranganathan, S., Vemulpad, S. and Jamie, J. (2012). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal
plants used by the Yaegl Aboriginal community in northern New South Wales, Australia. Journal
of ethnopharmacology, 139 (1), 244- 255.
7. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ use observation to develop land management
practices, e.g. Firestick farming, harvesting of food sources.
Pascoe, Bruce Dark Emu. Black seeds: agriculture or accident, 2014 Magabala Books
8. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples use of observation
a Aboriginal people spread native plants by hand, a new study finds. ABC news.
b Protecting Country and culture
c Fighting fire with fire in the Kimberley
d Australian Curriculum: Science Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and
Cultures cross-curriculum priority
9. Indigenous medicinal knowledge -
a Australian edible plants

24 Investigating Science Module 1: Cause and effect-observing

 Appendix 1
Relationships between modules 1-4
The following diagram shows a map of the relationships between the concepts and inquiry
questions in the Year 11 course of the Investigating Science syllabus.

Fig 7. A concept map showing the relationship between the concepts discussed in the Year 11
course

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-24 25

 | NSW Department of Education

Appendix 2
Observations instigating inquiry
Table 9: Examples of historical discoveries where observations instigated experimentation.

Scientist Known for Observation Inference Investigation

Archimedes Archimedes’ Archimedes needed to know if the A submerged object displaces a Archimedes had two replicas of the
principle crown belonging to the king of Si- volume of water equal to the ob- crown made – one made of pure sil-
cily was made of pure gold or was ject’s volume ver, and the other pure gold. Both rep-
alloyed with silver. When he lica crowns weighed the same.
entered a bath, he noticed that the Archimedes immersed the silver
water overflowed as he immersed crown in a vessel that was filled to the
himself into it – the deeper the im- brim with water. He collected and
mersion, the greater the quantity of measured the volume of the water that
water that was displaced. overflowed. Then, he repeated the
process with the golden crown. This
was consistent with his understanding
of the metals: gold is heavier than sil-
ver. Therefore, for the two crowns to
be of the same weight, the silver
crown must be larger, thus displacing
more water. The original crown dis-
placed more water than the replica
golden crown, indicating that it was
not made purely of gold but was an al-
loy.

education.nsw.gov.au
 Scientist Known for Observation Inference Investigation

Fleming conducted further studies

showing that the mould’s secretions
killed a range of bacteria (Gram-posit-
Fleming noticed that some of his ive bacteria). However, Fleming only
bacterial culture plates were con- worked with crude extracts of the
Discovery of The mould was producing an anti-
Alexander taminated with mould (Penicillium mould’s secretion. More than ten
the antibiotic bacterial substance that killed bac-
Fleming notatum). Upon closer inspection, years after this discovery, scientists at
penicillin teria in its vicinity
he realised that the region around Oxford University purified the antibi-
the mould was free of bacteria. otic from the crude extracts. Sub-
sequent studies of the purified antibi-
otic (called penicillin) confirmed its an-
tibacterial properties.
Galileo Ga- Discovery of Using a self-made telescope, Ga- The stars are moons (like our moon) Subsequent work by several astro-
lilei Jupiter’s lileo noticed that four moons were According to Ptolemy’s geocentric nomers confirmed Galileo’s inference:
moons orbiting Jupiter. model of the solar system (prevalent Brahe: Detailed astronomical meas-
Over several months, Galileo no- in Galileo’s time), all heavenly bod- urements that supported the helio-
ticed that the ‘stars*’ around ies revolved around the Earth. centric model.
Jupiter moved in predictable pat- Based on his observations of
Kepler: Confirmed that planets re-
terns (appearing periodically on Jupiter’s moons, Galileo inferred
volved around the sun in elliptical or-
either side of Jupiter every 7-8 that not all heavenly bodies revolved
bits (thus removing Ptolemy’s require-
days). around the Earth but that they re-
ment for epicycles)
Not all ‘stars’ were visible every volved around the sun (as described
by Copernicus). Einstein: Perihelion of Mercury
night.

*When Galileo viewed Jupiter, he was using a low-powered telescope. Through it, Jupiter’s moons were indistinguishable from the stars
in the background. Hence, he called them stars. However, he noticed that the stars appeared to ‘follow’ Jupiter’s movement across the
sky. Only later did he realise that the ‘stars’ he was studying were Jupiter’s moons5.

5
Uri, John (2020). 410 Years Ago: Galileo Discovers Jupiter’s Moons.

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420 27

 | NSW Department of Education

Appendix 3
Controlled variables
Introduction
The concept of experimental variables may be difficult for some students. Research
indicates that many students do not understand the role of variables that are held constant
during experiments. In general, to test the validity of a hypothesis, scientific investigations
seek to establish the relationship between two variables is tested. To do this meaningfully,
other variables (that is, other than those that are being tested) must be held under
invariant conditions that minimise fluctuations. As such, the latter is referred to as
controlled variables.

The following problem set may be as a diagnostic or formative assessment to uncover

students’ thinking about the role of controlled variables. All question in this set are multiple-
choice questions and can be easily administered in an online format. However, it is
recommended that teachers discuss their students’ answers to determine their reasoning
behind their answer choices. A link to common misconceptions about the use and role of
controlled variables is provided in Table 10.

Note: some scientific investigations explore the effects of multiple independent variables
on their outcomes. Such experiments are complex (they are often referred to as bivariate
or multivariate) and usually use various statistical models. They are beyond the scope of
high school science.

education.nsw.gov.au
 Question 1
A farmer wants to find out which type of soil is best for growing his corn. He also wants to
find out which type of fertiliser is best for growing his corn. He does the following
experiment using two different types of soil and two different types of fertiliser:

What can the farmer conclude from this experiment?

A. He can conclude that Soil B is the best soil for growing his corn.
B. He can conclude that Fertilizer Y is the best fertiliser for growing his corn.
C. He can conclude that Soil B is the best soil for growing his corn and that Fertilizer Y
is the best fertiliser for growing his corn.
D. It is NOT possible to conclude from this experiment which soil is best for growing his
corn or which fertiliser is best for growing his corn.

Correct Answer: D

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 Question 2
A student is interested in the behaviour of fish. He has four fish bowls and 20 goldfish. He
puts eight fish in the first bowl, six fish in the second bowl, four fish in the third bowl and
two fish in the fourth bowl. He places each fishbowl under light, he keeps the temperature
at 25°C for all four bowls, and he observes the fish’s behaviour.

What can the student find out from doing this experiment?
A. If the number of fish in the fishbowl affects the fish’s behaviour
B. If the fishbowl’s temperature affects the fish’s behaviour
C. If the fishbowl’s temperature and the amount of light affect the fish’s behaviour
D. If the number of fish, the temperature, and the amount of light affect the fish’s
behaviour

Correct Answer: A

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 Question 3
A student thinks that two variables (X and Y) may affect her experiment’s result. She
decides to change only variable X and let variable Y stay the same. What can the student
find out about the effects of variables X and Y?
A. If variable X affects the result of her experiment
B. If variable Y affects the result of her experiment
C. If both variables X and Y affect the result of her experiment
D. She cannot find out if either variable X or variable Y affects the result of her
experiment.

Correct Answer: A

Question 4
A student thinks that three variables (X, Y and Z) may affect her experiment’s result. She
decides to change only variable X and let variables Y and Z stay the same. What is the
student trying to find out?
A. If variable X affects the result of her experiment
B. If variables X and Y affect the result of her experiment
C. If variables Y and Z affect the result of her experiment
D. If variables X, Y, and Z affect the result of her experiment.

Correct Answer: A

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 Question 5
A student wants to know if a cart’s weight affects its speed at the bottom of a ramp. He can
change the cart’s weight by adding different numbers of balls, and he can change the
ramp’s height by using different numbers of blocks. Which set of tests should he use (A, B,
C, or D)?

A.

B.

C.

D.

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 Modified from TIMSS item population 2 (I-12), 1994

Correct Answer: D

Question 6
A consumer group is interested in the effects of a car’s speed and weight on its fuel
efficiency. A car’s fuel efficiency is the number of kilometres it can travel for each litre of
fuel it uses.

First, the group decides to test if a car’s speed affects its fuel efficiency. They take two
identical cars and drive one at 30 kilometres/hour and the other one at 45 kilometres/hour
on the same road. They make sure that the two cars have the same weight. Why is it
important that the two vehicles have the same weight?
A. Using cars of the same weight, the group can learn about both the effect of weight
and speed on fuel efficiency.
B. Using cars of the same weight, the group can learn about the effect of the weight on
fuel efficiency.
C. If the cars do not have the same weight, the group cannot learn about the effect of
speed on fuel efficiency.
D. Both cars do not have to have the same weight because the group is not testing the
effect of the weight on the gas mileage.

Correct Answer: C

Misconceptions
Table 10: Misconceptions about controlled variables based on students’ incorrect answers

Question responses that in-

Misconceptions about controlled variables
dicate the misconceptions

A controlled experiment tests for the effects of ALL vari-

ables (that is, IV, DV and CV), regardless of whether they 2D, 3C, 4D, 5B, 6A
vary or are held constant.
A controlled experiment tests for the effect of the variable
held constant (CV), not the variable that is allowed to 2B, 2C, 3B, 6B
change (IV, DV).
When testing the effect of a variable (IV) on the outcome of
the experiment, it does not matter if other relevant vari- 5C, 6D
ables (DV, CV) change at the same time
In an experiment, the variable under investigation (IV) must 4B,5A

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 Question responses that in-
Misconceptions about controlled variables
dicate the misconceptions
be kept constant. In contrast, all other variables (DV and
others) can change.
In an experiment, only one variable needs to be controlled.
4C
The rest can vary.
If two variables change at the same time, one can learn
about the effect of at least one of the variables on the out- 1B, 1C
come

34 Replace with name of document

 Appendix 4
Teaching resource: The Bernoulli effect
IQ1-1: How does observation instigate scientific
investigation
Outcomes
 INS 11-3 conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary
data and information
 INS11- 8 identifies that the collection of primary and secondary data initiates
scientific investigations

Content
Students:
 carry out a practical investigation to record both quantitative and qualitative data
from observations, for example:
o burning a candle floating in a closed container
o the behaviour of slaters in a dry/wet or light/dark environment
o the Bernoulli effect
o strata in rock cuttings
 discuss and evaluate the characteristics of observations made compared to
inferences drawn in respect of the practical investigation

Context
In this lesson, students will collect qualitative data on the effects of moving air (a fluid) and
construct simple explanations using Bernoulli’s principle. The process of constructing
those explanations illustrate how inferences are developed from observations. Finally, they
consider how the investigations may be modified to collect quantitative data and the
advantages or disadvantages of using such data.

Time Estimate
1 lesson

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 Learning intentions
Students

 Record qualitative and quantitative data from observations

 Discuss and evaluate the observations compared to the inferences drawn

Success criteria
 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data
 Use observations to modify investigations
 Compare observations to the inferences made in the investigation

Task Outline

Bernoulli’s principle in a nutshell

Bernoulli’s principle relates to the behaviour of moving fluids. A fluid is a substance that
can easily change its shape and is capable of flowing. Some examples of fluids are air,
water and blood, all of which can move (flow). According to Bernoulli, an increase in the
velocity of any fluid always results in a decrease in pressure. This principle is important in
many areas of science and engineering. The motion of aircraft, the aerodynamic properties
of cars, and the study of blood pressure in humans all illustrate this principle’s use.

Students
1. This activity may be implemented in a ‘stations’ format, wherein each activity is
performed at a specific station. The activities’ instructions are indicated in Table 12,
and laminated copies may be placed in each station.
2. Tell the students that they will be conducting a series of experiments to explore the
Bernoulli Principle.
3. Tell the students that they will learn more about the specifics of the Bernoulli
Principle after they have conducted their experiments and recorded their
observations.
4. Before the students begin their experiments, introduce each experiment by showing
them the materials they will be using and providing them with a simple overview of
how each of the experiments will be conducted.
5. Instruct students to carefully read the directions for each experiment and predict
what they think will happen. Once the students’ predictions are discussed and
recorded (the Predict-Observe-Infer-Explain template is provided in Table 11), they
may begin their experiments.

36 Replace with name of document

 6. During the lesson’s experimentation stage, circulate throughout the classroom,
facilitating discussion and guiding students through the experiments as needed.
Students may want to know why the items in the experiment behave as they do but
resist the temptation to answer any “why” questions just yet. Instead, encourage the
students to look for patterns in the outcomes of the experiments.
7. After the investigations are complete, discuss the following:
a Explanations of the phenomena using Bernoulli’s Principle
b The type of data that was collected (qualitative)
c How could one or more of the investigations be modified to collect quantitative
data

Note: The independent variable (the strength of the blowing through the star or funnel) in
these experiments will be qualitative but may be arbitrarily coded as ‘weak’, ‘medium’ or
‘strong’. However, the dependent variable may be measured (quantitative data) by
measuring the objects’ displacement.

Table 11: The Predic-Observe-Inference-Explain template

Predict Observe Inference Explain

What do you What Why did it hap-
think will hap- happened? pen?
pen?

Paper Tent: Nor-

mal Airflow

Paper Tent: In-

creased Airflow

Aluminium drink
cans

Balancing a ping
pong ball

Levitate a Sphere

The broken straw

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 | NSW Department of Education

Table 12: Instructions for Bernoulli’s principle activities 6

Balancing a ping
Paper Tent Aluminium cans Levitate a sphere The broken straw
pong ball

 One 9 cm x 10 cm piece of  Two empty aluminium  One flexible drinking  Medium-sized funnel  Scissors
stiff paper drink cans (of the same straw  One ping-pong ball  One clear plastic cup
Materials

 One straight straw size)  One ping pong ball  Alcohol swab (to clean  Water
 Ruler the funnel when shared  One straight drinking
 One straight drinking between students) straw
straw

6
Adapted from NASA_Museum in a Box_Bernoulli’s principle_Principles of flight

education.nsw.gov.au
 Balancing a ping
Paper Tent Aluminium cans Levitate a sphere The broken straw
pong ball
1. Fold the paper in half to 1.Place the two cans next 1. Bend your straw into Note: For health Note: the spray from
make a paper tent. to each other, about 2 an “L”. reasons, only one the straws can get
2.Place the paper tent on a cm apart. 2.Place the long end of student should blow messy. You may wish
flat surface. 2. Use a straw to blow the straw in your into the funnel. to place some towel
3.Position the straw about between the two cans mouth, with the short on the table to keep
5 cm from the paper tent. about 3 cm above the end pointing up- the area as clean as
table’s surface. Be sure wards. 1. Place the ball in the
Blow a steady stream of funnel. possible
air across the surface of that the straw’s open 3.Take a deep breath
the table or desk and end is placed in front of and blow steadily 2.Tilt your head back
through the tent. the cans and not through the straw. and point the wider 1. Fill a clear plastic cup,
between them. end of the funnel up- nearly to the rim, with
4.Record the observations. 4.Try to balance the wards toward the ceil- water.
3.Observe and record ping pong ball in the
5.Next, blow harder and what happens. ing or sky. 2.Cut the drinking straw
observe what happens. stream of air coming
out of the end of the 3.Blow air forcefully in half.
6.Record the observations. straw. through the narrow 3.Place one half of the
end of the funnel to lift straw in the water so
5.Try to tilt your straw. the ball out of the fun- that the straw’s bottom
Instructions

6.Observe and record nel. does not touch the bot-

what happens. 4.Observe and record tom of the cup.
what happens. 4.The top of the straw
5.Now, with the ball in should be sticking out
the funnel as before, above the rim of the
hold the funnel in front cup.
of you and blow 5.Position the second
6.Observe and record half of the straw so that
what happens. it is perpendicular to,
but not touching, the
straw in the cup of wa-
ter. You should be able
to blow a stream of air
over the hole of the

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420 39

 Balancing a ping
Paper Tent Aluminium cans Levitate a sphere The broken straw
pong ball
The sides of the card will The two cans will move to- The ping pong ball will The air coming directly The water will rise
pull towards one another. gether. This is because the balance itself in the underneath the ping- through the straw in the
This occurs because the air blowing through the steady stream of air pong ball will be moving cup, spraying away from
faster-moving air under the straw will be faster moving coming from the short more quickly than the air the stream of air being
card creates relatively lower than the air on any other end of the straw. This over the top of the ball. blown across the straw.
pressure than the air over side of the cans. Thus, ac- happens because the As Bernoulli’s Principle As the student blows
the card. As a result, the cording to the Bernoulli air coming out of the states, this faster-moving through the straw, the
card will bend toward the Principle, the faster-moving straw is moving fast, so air decreases air pres- faster-moving air over the
table because higher pres- air exerts lower pressure, the faster-moving air sure under the ball. The top of the straw creates
sure air pushes toward and the two cans are has less pressure than higher air pressure at the an area of low pressure
lower pressure air, accord- drawn toward each other. the slower-moving or funnel’s top causes the while the pressure on the
ing to the Bernoulli Prin- still air around the ping ball to be pushed into, surface of the water re-
Explanation

ciple. pong ball. If the ping rather than out of, the mains unchanged. There-
pong ball starts to move funnel. The result is that fore, the water is drawn
away from the air the ball stays in the fun- up the straw because of
stream, it experiences nel. By blowing over the the area of low pressure.
pressure from the still funnel’s top, the air trav-
or slower moving air, elling over the funnel’s
which pushes the ping top moves faster, caus-
pong ball back in place. ing the air pressure in
If the straw is tilted, the that area to decrease.
force produced by the Therefore, the ball rises
stream of air will no because it is being
longer be sufficient to pushed out of the funnel
keep the ping pong ball by the higher air pres-
afloat because the sure below.
force of gravity will then
take over.

40 Replace with name of document

 | NSW Department of Education

Feedback
The predict-observe-explain format of this activity allows students to compare their
expected outcomes with experimental observations. Teachers should direct their students
to develop inferences about the phenomena. Then, they can provide feedback to those
inferences using the information provided in Table 11.

education.nsw.gov.au
 Appendix 5
Depth Study: History and observation

Note: the following activity constitutes part of a more extensive activity for a Depth Study in
this module.

IQ1-1: How does observation instigate scientific

investigation
Outcomes
 INS 11-3 conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary
data and information
 INS11- 8 identifies that the collection of primary and secondary data initiates
scientific investigations

Content
Students:
 research how observation has instigated experimentation to investigate cause and
effect in historical examples, including but not limited to:
o Archimedes observing the displacement of water
o Alexander Fleming’s observations of the effect of mould on bacteria
o Galileo’s observations of the movement of Jupiter’s moons
 assess ways in which Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples use observation
to develop an understanding of Country and Place in order to create innovative ways
of managing the natural environment, including but not limited to:
o firestick farming
o knowledge about plants for medicinal purposes

Context
This depth study enables students to explore historical Australian Aboriginal & Torres
Strait Islander people’s ‘scientific’ way of knowing. Students can explore and link
Australian Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander people’s observations to those by
Archimedes, Fleming and Galileo.

42 Replace with name of document

 Time Estimate
1-3 lessons, depending on any adaptations made to the task.

Learning intentions
Students

 Compare Australian Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander peoples ‘ways of knowing’
with approaches used in Western science

Success criteria
 Articulate how prior experiences and education influence observations and the
process of making inferences
 Compare and contrast Australian Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander peoples’
observations and cultural knowledge to the scientific approaches of known
scientists

Task Outline
Students
1. Research how observations and the corresponding inferences led Archimedes,
Fleming and Galileo to the scientific discoveries they made. Students should
explore the data that the scientists collected (including repeated observations).
Since prior experiences are important for the development of inferences from
observations, students should also examine the biographies of these scientists to
discover:
a Their educational experiences
d Their professional experiences (including other discoveries or inventions
made by the scientists)
2. Explore Australian Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander peoples’ examples of
observations that led to inferences. Students may explore firestick farming or the
knowledge of medicinal plants (or other topics of interest). The following
Australian Curriculum elaborations may be helpful starting points:
a Mazzocchi F. (2006). Western science and traditional knowledge.
Despite their variations, different forms of knowledge can learn from each
other. EMBO reports, 7(5), 463–466.
e Investigating how the knowledge and experience of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Peoples are being used to inform scientific decisions, such as the
care of Country/Place

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 f Investigating how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples use fire-
mediated chemical reactions to facilitate energy and nutrient transfer in
ecosystems through the practice of firestick farming
g Investigating how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples used
scientific understandings of complex ecological relationships to develop specific
fire-based agricultural practices
h Investigating the contributions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Peoples’ knowledge in the identification of medicinal and endemic plants
i Investigating how disease outbreaks and the emergence of drug-resistant
infections have focused scientific research into Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Peoples’ traditional medicines to identify effective therapeutic
compounds for use in pharmaceuticals
j Investigating how before germ theory, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Peoples used their scientific observations to develop traditional medicines to
treat wounds and infections of the skin
k Researching how Torres Strait Islander Peoples are at the forefront of the
development of scientific measures to prevent the transfer of certain infectious
diseases and pests to the Australian continent
3. Compare the observations and inferences of Australian Aboriginal & Torres Strait
Islander peoples’ examples to those used by Archimedes, Fleming and Galileo.
What are the similarities and differences? How have those approaches led to the
development of different types of knowledge about natural phenomena?

Information for teachers

Archimedes was a mathematician and engineer; Fleming was a bacteriologist (and
discovered the antibacterial enzyme, lysozyme, before discovering penicillin; Galileo was a
physicist-mathematician who knew of Copernicus’ heliocentric model of the solar system
before he observed Jupiter’s moons.

Feedback
Throughout the research, teachers provide feedback on the strength of the links between
observations made and how those observations may have led to investigations into cause
and effect. The feedback should be centred around the learning intention that various
individuals and cultures have used observations and inferences in different ways to
construct knowledge of phenomena.

Task resources
 Fleming

44 Replace with name of document

 o Tan, S. Y., & Tatsumura, Y. (2015). Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer
of penicillin. Singapore medical journal, 56(7), 366–367.
o Alexander Fleming. Science History Institute.
o Sir Alexander Fleming – Biographical. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB 2021.
Sun. 28 Feb 2021.
 Galileo
o There are many resources on Galileo’s biography. The Galileo project (Rice
University) is an extensive collection of works on the life and discoveries of Galileo
 Archimedes
o The Archimedes Palimpsest
o Archimedes of Syracuse

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 Appendix 6
Teaching resource: Cell observations
IQ1-2: What are the benefits and drawbacks of qualitative
and quantitative observations?
Outcomes
INS 11-4 selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and
information using a range of appropriate media

INS11- 8 identifies that the collection of primary and secondary data initiates scientific
investigations

Content
Students:
 carry out a practical activity to qualitatively and quantitatively describe, for example:
o microscopic images of a variety of cells
 analyse the quantitative data from the following information sources, including but
not limited to:
o digital images and hand-drawn diagrams of cells

Context
In this lesson, students learn that both quantitative and qualitative data from cell
microscopy have helped construct a deep and broad knowledge base about cell structure
and function.

Time Estimate
1-2 lessons

Learning intentions
Students

 Qualitatively and quantitatively describe microscopic images of a variety of cells

 Analyse quantitative data surrounding cell images

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 Success criteria
 Describe a variety of cells both quantitatively and qualitatively
 Analyse quantitative data from digital and hand-drawn images of cells

Task Outline
Students
1. Recall the general characteristics of qualitative and quantitative observations
2. In groups, students brainstorm how they might qualitatively and quantitatively
describe micrographs of cells. Groups share their ideas with the class to come up
with a framework for collecting the information.
3. Investigate using microscopes, digital images and hand-drawn diagrams to collect
qualitative and quantitative descriptions of various cells.
4. Compare the quantitative descriptions from the different sources (microscope,
digital and hand-drawn) and analyse the quality of the quantitative description
regarding accuracy and reliability.

Note to teachers
Qualitative data from micrographs: shape, arrangements of cells (unicellular,
multicellular), colour (stained and unstained), structure (parts of cells, including
organelles), cellular processes (for living specimens)
Quantitative data from micrographs: cell size, magnification, scale, sizes of organelles
and intracellular structures (from electron micrographs). Newer microscopy techniques that
use fluorescence imaging and video microscopy provide quantitative data on cellular
reactions.

Feedback
Teachers should try to uncover students’ thinking about the data that can be collected from
micrographs. Cells exist beyond the range of our senses, and complex instruments are
required to study them. Depending on the type of microscope used and the manipulations
applied (for example, staining, DNA and protein tagging), the range and depth of data
collected are enormous. Teachers should elicit students’ ideas about the need to collect
different types of data so that scientists can develop a deeper understanding of cells.

Task resources
 Dartmouth Electron Microscopy Facility
 Cell Image Library
 Cells Alive

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

  Youtube resources showing video micrographs – for example, neutrophils, cell
division, photosynthesis
 The inner life of the cell – this animation is based on a large volume of qualitative
and quantitative data. It is the culmination of many years of work.

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 Appendix 7
Teaching resource: Rock strata
IQ1-4: What are the benefits and drawbacks of qualitative
and quantitative observations?
Outcomes
INS 11-3 conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data
and information

INS11- 8 identifies that the collection of primary and secondary data initiates scientific
investigations

Content
Students:
 carry out a practical activity to qualitatively and quantitatively describe, for example:
o geological strata in rock faces and road cuttings
 analyse the quantitative data from the following information sources, including but
not limited to:
o geological succession obtained from rock strata
 evaluate the differences between qualitative and quantitative observations and data
and where these are used.

Context
This lesson or series of lessons enables students to investigate the qualitative and
quantitative observations and data generated from geological strata. Students have the
opportunity to evaluate both types of data using a PMI chart and determine where these
may be utilised in the real world.

Time Estimate
1-3 lessons

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 Learning intentions
Students

 Conduct a first-hand investigation to qualitatively and quantitatively describe

geological strata in rock faces and rock cuttings.
 Analyse the quantitative data from geological succession
 Evaluate the differences between qualitative and quantitative observations and data
and where these are used.

Success criteria
 Collected qualitative and quantitative data from geological strata
 Analyse quantitative data
 Evaluate the differences between qualitative and quantitative data.

Task Outline
1. The teacher discusses how geological data can give us an insight into Australia’s
geological history. This scientific knowledge usually comes from the data that
someone collected and analysed. Part of it might have been numbers and
measurements, and another part was perhaps photographs and descriptions.
Geographic data can be very diverse. Example of qualitative data in geology: The
rock formation is high and looks like a pyramid. Example of quantitative data in
geology: Mt Kosciuszko has an elevation of 2228m above sea level and an average
annual temperature of 13 degrees Celsius. Outline to students that they are going to
explore qualitative and quantitative data around rock strata. The term rock strata
refer to stacked-up layers of sedimentary rock. Other kinds of rocks can have layers
in them, but the word strata are reserved for sedimentary rocks - rocks composed of
individual fragments of minerals or other rocks. Geologists use the term ‘rock strata’
in a generic sense when referring to many rock layers that appear over large areas.
2. Images are displayed to the class of different road cuttings. The three laws that have
aided scientists to interpret the layers are outlined with images provided.
3. Students observe a diagram of rock strata (Figure 8).

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 Figure 8 Stratigraphy

4. Students answer the following questions about the section

a What is the oldest layer?
b Which is the youngest rock?
c Which is the youngest fault? The oldest?
d What does the dinosaur bone tell you?
e What is the evidence for erosion?
5. Once students have responded to the questions, visit the Stratigraphy site click
on the link below to access the video demonstrating the process to create the
above cutting. Students can check how close their observations and inferences
were to the video.
6. Students are divided into groups and undertake the relative and radiometric
dating activity found at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
website.
7. After completing the above activities, students evaluate each method using a
PMI chart to compare the qualitative and quantitative data generated and where
these methods could be used.

Feedback
Feedback is provided throughout the lessons to deepen student understanding and to
strengthen students’ skills in evaluating. Questioning is used to broaden student
responses, and gauge student understanding and the individual support required.

Task resources
 PMI chart
 Relative Dating of Rock Layers

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 Appendix 8
Teaching resource: Design an investigation
IQ3: How does primary data provide evidence for further
investigation?
Outcomes
 INS 11-4 selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and
information using a range of appropriate media
 INS11- 8 identifies that the collection of primary and secondary data initiates
scientific investigations

Content
Students:
 develop a method to collect primary data for a practical investigation by:
o describing how to change the independent variable
o determining the characteristics of the measurements that will form the dependent
variable
o describing how the data will be collected
o describing how the controlled variables will be made consistent
o describing how risks can be minimised

Context
This generic outline can be used to enable students to design and modify an investigative
method. The task enables the students to work individually and collaboratively, so the
limits of cognition are not those of the individual mind but the collective group. Students
plan an investigation and obtain peer feedback about its suitability, relevance, and
suggestions for improving this activity. After incorporating the relevant feedback into their
experimental design, they proceed to conduct their investigation.

Time Estimate
2-3 lessons

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 Learning intentions
Students

 develop a method to collect primary data from a first-hand investigation

Success criteria
 developed a suitable method to collect primary data from a first-hand investigation
 modified the method according to peer feedback received on the method design

Task Outline
1. Initially, students work individually to devise a suitable method for their investigation.
They use the following framework to design their method:
a describe how to change the independent variable
b determine the characteristics of the measurements that will form the dependent
variable
c describe how the data will be collected
d describe how the controlled variables will be made consistent
e describe how risks can be minimised
2. Students are then placed into groups of 3, and each member is required to present
their investigation to the team. As a team and using a POOCH (problem, options,
outcome, choice) scaffold, they explore each possibility and decide which
investigation they will conduct.
3. Groups present their investigative method and reasoning to the rest of the class via
a gallery walk around the room. Groups must give each team feedback via post-it
notes regarding the investigative method’s clarity, reasoning, accuracy, precision,
validity, and relevance. Groups respond to this feedback by answering the following
questions:
a What will we alter in our method design after receiving feedback?
b How will we alter our method design to improve its outcome?
4. After this, the feedback groups conduct the investigation using their refined
methodology.
5. Groups then analyse the results. At the end of the process, teams are again asked,
‘How could you change your method design if you were asked to rerun the
investigation?’

Feedback
Peer feedback is the primary technique used for modification of group method design.
Their group modifies their initial design before investigating by utilising specific feedback

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 given to their group during the gallery walk. Teacher feedback through targeted
questioning can also be used to generate student thinking during method generation.

Task resources
 POOCH scaffold (free templates are available at various websites)
 Post-it-notes

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 Appendix 9
Teaching resource: Comparing the usefulness of
observations from investigations
IQ1-3: How does the collection and presentation of primary
data affect the outcomes of a scientific investigation?
Outcomes
INS 11-4 selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and
information using a range of appropriate media

INS11- 8 identifies that the collection of primary and secondary data initiates scientific
investigations

Content
Students:
 compare the usefulness of observations recorded in the initial practical activity with
the primary data gathered in this planned practical investigation

Context
After collecting primary data, students use a thinking scaffold to compare the data
collected in this investigation with the investigations carried out for IQ1-2 (for example,
microscopic images of various cells or characteristics of acids and bases).

Time Estimate
1 lesson

Learning intentions
Students

 draw comparisons between the usefulness of qualitative and quantitative

observations from the initial investigation to the primary data collected in the
planned investigation

© NSW Department of Education, Mar-2420

 Success criteria
 Compare observational data and information using the language conventions of
compare

Task Outline
Students
1. Use the information gathered in the two investigations to compare the usefulness of
the observations recorded.
2. In groups, construct a table to compare the criteria of reliability, validity, accuracy,
precision and bias of the observations recorded.
3. Direct instruction by the teacher as to the nature of comparing the information in the
table. The teacher describes how to compare several ideas and then determine how
they are similar and different. The teacher explains the use of the language
conventions of compare and outlines an example.
4. Individually construct at least one to two sentences for each criterion for each
investigation using the keywords from the compare document provided.
5. Each student swaps their responses with a partner. Students provide feedback on
the response, linking several ideas together, comparing and comparing language
conventions and the overall response.
6. In groups, determine the overall usefulness of each set of observations and report
back to the class.

Feedback
Students provide immediate peer feedback about the depth of the response and any
improvements that could be made to the response. The teacher also uses prompting
questions to strengthen student responses.

Task resources
 Data and information from the two investigations to be compared
 Keyword document for Compare and Contrast

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