Introduction

ECE 3010 Microprocessor & Interfacing

Dr. Nu War
Professor
Faculty of Computer Systems and Technologies
Myanmar Institute of Information Technology
An Overview of Computers and
Microprocessors
 Objectives

• Understand overview of computer organization and its various

units

• Note the generations of computers with respect to their

hardware and software

• Know the advances in computer architecture

• Realize the advances in electronic integrated circuit technology

• Appreciate evolution of microprocessors due to Moore’s law

 Computers: An Overview

• Computing
• Advances in decimal number systems and mathematical notations eventually lead to the
formulation of mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, etc.
• The concept of programmable computers in 1820: Charles Babbage (English
mechanical engineer)
• A machine can do mathematical operations by hardware; the mathematical operations
and the sequence in which they are worked out is controlled by a program (software).

 Hardware: consists of active and passive interconnected

components

 Software: consists of commands

 Advances in electronics the first active component:

triode in 1906 (a three-electrode vacuum tube)
 Generation of Computers

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 Information Representation in
Computer Systems
• Information is represented in a binary form for reliability

• The information could either be machine instructions or data

• The input is either in Assembly or Higher Level Language(HLL)

• The input can also be sent directly to the memory using a

device called Direct Memory Access.
 Instruction Formats and Addressing
Modes
• Machine instruction consists of an opcode field telling the
computer what function it has to perform on the operand
(data) specified in another field of machine instructions.

• The opcode could be of fixed length or variable length

• Data could be specified in the machine instruction itself or

its address in main memory could be given.
Instruction Formats and Addressing
Modes
• The method of specifying data to be operated by an instruction is
called as addressing mode.
• The different ways that a processor can access the data are
referred to as addressing modes.
1. Immediate addressing
2. Direct addressing
3. Register addressing
4. Register Indirect addressing
(a) Based addressing
(b) Indexed addressing
5. Implicit addressing
6. Addressing modes for Control transfer / Branch Instructions
(a) Intra segment mode
(b) Inter segment mode
7. I/O port addressing
 Data Formats
• Fixed Point
• Signed magnitude form
• 1’s complement form The quality of freedom from mistake or error of
• 2’s complement form conformity to truth or to rule

• Accuracy vs Precision The degree of exactness or discrimination

which a quantity is stated
• Floating-Point Representation
• Single-precision
• Double-precision
 Normalized floating Point In normalized floating point, the first bits
 Unnormalized floating point (MSB) has to be ‘1’

• Decimal Representation
Up to 31 digits + sign
• ASCII/EBCDIC
• Packed Decimal
• Zoned Format
Zone + digit
Organization of Computer Systems

• CPU CPU MM
• Main Memory
• Device Controller
Bus
• Device
I/O I/O
DC Interface Interface

Address Data Controller

D D
 Building Blocks of
Processor Systems

MEM ORY
INPUT-OUTPUT

CONTROL

DATAPATH
CPU
 Processor System Architecture
The typical processor system consists of:
 CPU (central processing unit)
 ALU (arithmetic-logic unit)
 Control Logic
 Registers, etc…
 Memory
 Input / Output interfaces

Interconnections between these units:

 Address Bus
 Data Bus
 Control Bus
 Bus and CPU
Bus: A shared group of wires used for communicating
signals among devices
• Address bus: the device and the location within the device
that is being accessed
• Data bus: the data value being communicated
• Control bus: describes the action on the address and data
buses

CPU: Core of the processor, where instructions are executed

• High-level language: a = b + c
• Assembly language: add r1 r2 r3
• Machine language: 0001001010111010101
 Architecture of Computer

• Von Neumann

• Harvard
 Harvard vs. Von-Neumann
I/O CPU Memory
Progra Data
m CPU
memory
memory
Single shared Bus

 Have separate data bus  Share a single common bus for

and instruction bus fetching both instructions and
data
 Fetch instruction and data
simultaneously  Program instructions and data are
stored in a common main
 Pre-Fetch allows much memory.
faster execution  First fetch instruction and then
 Add silicon complexity fetch the data.
 Princeton Architecture
Harvard Von-Neumann
1. Separate buses for Single shared bus for instruction
instruction and data fetching and data fetching

2. Easier to pipelining Low performance

3. Comparatively high cost Cheaper

4. No memory alignment Allow self-modifying codes

problem
5. No chance for accidental Chances for accidental
corruption of program memory corruption of program memory
Interrupts and Interrupt Processing

• Events occurring asynchronously/synchronously

• Input and output can be done either in programmed I/O mode

by the CPU or interrupt mode by the CPU after it receives an
interrupt signal form I/O devices, direct memory access (DMA)
or by an I/O processors.

• I/O operation: initiation, data transfer, termination

Program I/O- CPU, CPU, CPU

Interrupt Mode—CPU, CPU only when data transfer interrupt, CPU
DMA – CPU, DMA without CPU intervention , CPU when DMA informs end
Advances in Computer Architecture

• Superscalar CPU
• Bus Interface Unit
• Prefetch unit and instruction queue
• Decoding unit(s)
• Instruction Cache (I cache)
• Data Cache (D cache)
• Branch Target Cache (BTC)
• Control unit
• Memory management unit
• Integer operation units
• Floating-point operations units
• Special functional units
 RISC and CISC
CISC RISC
1 Control unit is hardwired and Control Unit is hardwired only
microprogrammed
2 Complex multiclock instruction Simple signle clock instructions
3 Memory reference instruction Register reference instructions
except LOAD and STORE
memory reference instructions
4 Less registers in CPU More in CPU
5 Maximum memory addressing Minimum memory addressing
modes modes
6 Small code sizes Large code sizes
7 Variable instruction length Fixed instruction length
 Development in Electronics

• Small Scale Integration (SSI) 1960-64

• Medium Scale Integration (MSI) 1965-70
• Large Scale Integration (LSI) 1970-76
• Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) 1976
• Ultra Large Scale Integration(ULSI)
 Microprocessor Evolution
• 1971 -> 4004 chip- 4-bit –750kHz
• 1974 -> 8008 chip- 8-bit microprocessor– 2MHz
• 1978 -> 8086 chip- 16-bit—4.77MHz
• 1979 -> 8088 chip- 16-bit but supports an 8-bits—4.77MHz
• 1985 -> 80256 chip & 80386 DX- 16 bit—6MHz
• 1989 -> 80386 DX& 387 math coprocessor
• 1991  80486 chip – 50 MHz
• 1992  486SL – 20 MHz, 25 MHz, 33 MHz
• 1993  Pentinum —60 MHz
• 1994  Pentinum – 75 MHz
 Moore’s Law
1,000,000,000

100,000,000
Pentium 4
PentiumIII
10,000,000 PentiumII
PentiumPro
Transistors

Pentium
Intel486
1,000,000
Intel386
100,000
80286
Integration Levels
8086
10,000 8080 SSI: 10 gates
8008
4004
1,000 MSI: 1000 gates
LSI: 10,000 gates
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Year VLSI: > 10k gates

• 1965: Gordon Moore plotted transistor on each chip
• Fit straight line on semilog scale
• Transistor counts have doubled every 26 months
 Widely Used Processor
 Microprocessors
 Intel 8008
 Except 14bits PC (same as 4040)
 Serve terminal controller
 Intel 8080 (8bit processor)
 16 bit address bus and PC
 7 8bit registers
 Motorola (e.g. 6800)
 Zilog, AMD, Freescale, IBM, Cyrix,……
 16bit , 32bit , 64bit processor replaced 8bit.
 Harvard vs. Von-Neumann ( architecture )
 RISC vs. CISC (instruction set < ISA> )
Microprocessor

Generation of Microprocessors
 Microprocessor
• A microprocessor is a computer processor which incorporates the
functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single
integrated circuit (IC), or at most a few integrated circuits

• The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock driven, register based,

digital-integrated circuit which accepts binary data as input,
processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and
provides results as output.

• Microprocessors contain both combinational logic and sequential

digital logic.

• Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the

binary numeral system.
 INTEL 4004 ( 1971)

• 4-bit microprocessor
• 4 KB main memory
• 45 instructions
• PMOS technology
• was first programmable device which was used in
calculators
 INTEL 8008 (1972)

• 8-bit version of 4004

• 16 KB main memory
• 48 instructions
• PMOS technology
• Slow
 Intel 8080 (1973)

• 8-bit microprocessor
• 64 KB main memory
• 2 microseconds clock cycle time
• 500,000 instructions/sec
• 10X faster than 8008
• NMOS technology
• Drawback was that it needed three power supplies
• Small computers (Microcomputers) were designed in mid 1970’s
Using 8080 as CPU.
 INTEL 8086/8088

• Year of introduction 1978 for 8086 and 1979 for 8088

• 16-bit microprocessors
• Data bus width of 8086 is 16 bit and 8 bit for 8088
• 1 MB main memory
• 400 nanoseconds clock cycle time
• 6 byte instruction cache for 8086 and 4 byte for 8088
• Other improvements included more registers and additional
instructions
• In 1981 IBM decided to use 8088 in its personal computer
 INTEL 80186 (1982)

• 16-bit microprocessor-upgraded version of 8086

• 1 MB main memory
• Contained special hardware like programmable counters,
interrupt controller etc.
• Never used in the PC
• But was ideal for systems that required a minimum of
hardware .
 INTEL 80286 (1983)

• 16-bit high performance microprocessor with memory

management & protection
• 16 MB main memory
• Few additional instructions to handle extra 15 MB
• Instruction execution time is as little as 250 ns
• Concentrates on the features needed to implement
MULTITASKING
 Later

• Intel 80386 (1986)

• Intel 80486 (1989)
• Pentium (1993)
• Pentium pro(1995)
• Pentium ii (1997)
• Pentium iii (1999)
• Pentium iv (2002)
• Latest is Intel i9 processor