Energy Policy 149 (2021) 112062

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Policy
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol

Recycling of solar PV panels- product stewardship and

regulatory approaches
Peter Majewski a, *, Weam Al-shammari b, Michael Dudley c, Joytishna Jit a, Sang-Heon Lee b,
Kim Myoung-Kug d, Kim Sung-Jim d
a
Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Australia
b
School of Engineering, University of South Australia, Australia
c
Sustainability, Victoria, Australia
d
Tindo Solar, Mawson Lakes, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The rise in the utilization of solar energy for energy generation has grown exponentially throughout the past
Solar photovoltaic decade. By the end of 2019, the global total installed solar capacity is close to 600 GW (Gigawatts). This share is
End-of-life management only expected to rise.
Recycling
Although the current life of solar panels of about 25 years is a good figure to persist the interests of investors, a
Legislation
Regulations
higher potential is anticipated for PV panels. This results in the sheer interest in investment in the potential
Policy recycling of solar panels, which is leading to demand and the need for policy development that regulates the
responsibilities of stakeholders. This motive was led by a serious concern regarding the anticipated amount of
waste that the disposal of solar panels would resort to. This results in the need of recycling of solar panels which
is a relatively modern and growing phenomenon.
This article aims to provide a detailed understanding of the existing policies involved in recycling silicon based
PV panels currently being employed. In addition, the world’s current position on policy issues regarding the
recycling of solar panels will be discussed.

1. Introduction can sharply reduce this number. In order to avoid an unwanted waste
legacy, it is essential to have clear legislation in place, which regulates
The increase in the use of solar photovoltaic panels (solar PV panels) the end-of-life (EoL) management of unwanted solar PV panels, helps to
has significantly contributed to the steady increase in the application of develop stringent product stewardship, and encourages industry to
renewable energy technologies for generation of electric power all over consider recycling of solar PV panels at the point of product design and
the world. While fossil fuels are still the dominant source for electric develop environmentally friendly recycling processes.
power generation, it is expected that this situation will change within By the end of 2019, the total installed solar PV power was estimated
the next 30 years and renewable energy generation, especially via solar to be 580.159 GW (IRENA, 2020). Out of all the PV panels installed
PV panels, will be the main source for the production of electric energy. globally, China has the largest share with 35.3%, followed by the Eu­
At current total cumulated solar PV capacity of about 580 GW, the ropean Union (19%), USA (11.8%), Japan (10.6%), and India (6%).
related number of installed solar PV panels is staggering. Taking the Based on 2019 data, the globally installed PV capacity can be estimated
average output of a standard solar PV panel into account, Germany and to be equivalent to just under two Billion PV panels.
Australia have the highest uptake of solar PV power per capita (Table 1). A current estimate indicates that there are over 4 million tons of PV
This situation will result in a significant waste legacy within the next panels currently installed across Europe (Energy Balance Sheet, 2016)
10–30 years, depending on the life expectancy of the currently installed This sheds a light on an estimated 43,500 tons of waste contributed by
solar PV panels. While the usual life expectancy of a solar PV panel is PV panels once they need to be replaced within the coming few years. If
about 25–30 years, significant weather events, demolition of buildings the situation is unaltered, it is estimated that by the year of 2050,
on which solar PV panels are installed, and future solar PV innovations approximately 60 million tons of EoL PV panels would have entered the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Majewski).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.112062
Received 18 March 2020; Received in revised form 29 September 2020; Accepted 27 November 2020
Available online 10 December 2020
0301-4215/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Majewski et al. Energy Policy 149 (2021) 112062

Table 1 preferred options. In regard to solar PV panels, the option ‘Prevention’

Solar PV uptake per capita of nations with a significant contribution of solar PV and ‘Reduce’ is not desired for solar PV, as the increased demand in
towards their renewable energy mix (IRENA 2020). renewable energy to reduce carbon dioxide emission during the gener­
Country Solar PV Capacity (MW) Solar PV Uptake (W) per Capita ation of electric power requires the increased use of solar PV panels
Australia 15928 637.1
within the mix of electric energy generation technologies.
Germany 48960 589.9 The option ‘Reuse’ needs to considered in order to reduce the amount
Japan 61840 488.9 of waste from solar PV panels. However, as indicated in Fig. 1 the Early-
Italy 20900 346.0 loss scenario up to 2040 shows that more panels go to waste due to the
USA 68276 208.0
fact that they are either destroyed or damaged as outlined above. The
South Korea 10506 203.6
UK 13398 201.0 natural decay of the photovoltaic cells (Regular-loss scenario) due to
Spain 8761 186.6 solar irradiation result in a decline of the efficiency of the panels at a rate
France 10562 157.6 of about 1% per year which means that after 20 years of operation a
China 205072 146.5 panel’s efficiency is reduced to 80% compared to its original efficiency
India 34831 25.7
(Sharma and Chandel, 2013). Such panels can be re-used and it appears
very feasible that a second-hand market for such panels can be created.
global waste stream (Weckend et al., 2016). It can be observed that each However, this would not avoid the fact that such panels will eventually
continent’s contribution towards the global waste produced through need to go to waste at one stage.
disposal of PV panels is only set to increase. The major contribution is Due to such severe and critical predictions that the current path of
expected to be added from Asia which amounts to over 25 million tons of actions might lead to, and the fact that the waste hierarchy options
PV panel waste. This situation begs the question, whether there is any­ ‘Prevention’, ‘Reduce, and Reuse’ are not or limitedly feasible, the best
thing that could be done to avoid this situation and what such a high rate possible way out seems to be recycling of solar panels that would result
of disposal would cause? (Fig. 1). in not only the increase in the life of a PV solar panel enhancing its
PV technology is also among the most environmentally friendly feasibility making it economically much more attractive, but it would
technologies of all energy and electricity generation technologies, result in a significant decrease in disposal waste that the current
particularly when evaluated from a life-cycle viewpoint, including end- installed PV panels might resort to.
of-life management. This means that proper end-of-life management is Solar PV panels are considered to be responsible for significant
an indispensable issue for “clean” energy technologies. All technologies higher amount of waste per unit energy than any other source of electric
eventually degrade to where they enter their end-of-life stage, eventu­ energy generation (Baldwin, 2015). This is an alarming situation now
ally requiring replacement. PV modules have a useful lifespan of more than ever since in most developed countries, the rise of solar en­
approximately 25 years. However, on average this lifespan is shorter due ergy employment began in the 1990’s. An anticipated 60 million tons of
to circumstances mainly including. global PV waste containing dangerous elements like lead, chromium,
cadmium is under way which will only be subject to landfill disposal if
• severe weather events, nothing is done to avoid this situation (Weckend et al., 2016). Through
• natural disasters, PV recycling, this situation could be massively avoided.
• building fires, The current situation is problematic where only copper wires are
• high rates of low quality panels being installed on rooftops, reused out of the whole PV panel and burning of the plastic materials is
• financial incentives to remove panels prior to end of life, required, which causes emission of smoke released in the environment
• disincentives to replace single rooftop panels rather than whole containing carcinogens and teratogens which are hazardous to human
systems, health. By a complete recycling process where such situations could be
• lack of maintenance and penetration of moisture, avoided, a major contribution to the environment is made.
• inappropriate installation locations, and The prospect of significant value creation seems to be an additional
• damage during transport and installation. benefit. It is predicted that a value creation of US$ 450 million by 2030
and US$ 15 billion by 2050 can be achieved through the creation of a
The established waste hierarchy (Hansen et al., 2002) outlines that quasi new industry focused on recycling of PV panels (Weckend et al.,
the most favoured option in regards to waste management is prevention 2016; Dominguez and Geyer, 2019). However, it is also essential to
of waste, while the least favoured option is disposal. The options overcome barriers for introducing a viable recycling industry for solar
‘Reduce’, ‘Reuse’, and ‘Recycling’ follow ‘Prevention’ in terms of PV, like lack of policy, financial constraints, limited infrastructure

Fig. 1. End of Life PV Panels Waste Volumes by 2050 world wide (Weckend et al., 2016).

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capacity, immature end markets, and technology change, through material as much as possible is very useful since manufacturing of new
articulating a robust product stewardship scheme for solar PV (Salim material for such cells requires intensive energy. Therefore, the purpose
et al., 2019). However, as long as a robust product stewardship scheme, of recycling would then be baseless if new material are mainly used. The
regulatory directives, and financial as well as non-financial re­ often expressed opinion that PV panels are ‘unrecyclable’ is only but a
sponsibilities for unwanted PV panels are not articulated, these figures ‘myth’. Although, it is undeniable that such processes still require more
are highly speculative. From current outlook of the increase of energy research for potential advancements that are currently due in these
generated through PV panels, it is essential that robust systems and processes.
legislative directives for the collection and storage of PV waste and its Considering the average lifespan of solar PV panels, most of the
monitoring needs to be implemented before the volume of PV waste panels installed during the era of 1980–1990 would be subject to
becomes an environmental legacy or a viable industry for PV recycling is disposal by the present time if left untreated. The situation could only
established. worsen as time proceeds. This directs the study towards the methods of
A legislated product stewardship scheme is essential to regulate the treating solar panels. For the recycling of solar panels, first the anatomy
EoL management of solar PV panels. This is also important to ensure that of the panel needs to be understood. Although there are 2 types of panels
the solar PV industry as well as consumers have certainty about their based on material composition (silicon based and thin-film based), due
responsibilities in regard to the EoL management of solar PV panels. to the dominance of silicon based panels over the PV market exceeding
Without this, the necessary further increase of solar energy to prevent over 95%, recycling of crystalline silicon based PV panels are in the main
further increased greenhouse gas emissions may be jeopardized due to focus (Weckend et al., 2016; Latunussa et al., 2016; Ucar et al., 2008;
the possible situation that consumers are reluctant to replace their solar Strachala et al., 2017; Ashfaq et al., 2017; Choi and Fthenakis, 2014). It
panels or upgrade their solar systems as long as they do not have cer­ is generally accepted that recycling of solar PV panels comprise several
tainty what to do with the unwanted or damaged panels. . In addition, major steps, i.e. collection, transport, dismantling, incineration, sepa­
such legislation and associated schemes can also incentivize producers ration of non-compositional materials, and refinement of such materials
to give attention to all phases of the life cycle of solar PV panels and, (Komoto and Lee, 2018; Latunussa et al., 2016; Ucar et al., 2008; Stra­
therefore, to develop more easily recyclable solar PV panels and triggers chala et al., 2017; Ashfaq et al., 2017). The question occurs is whether
the exploration of economic opportunities and related business models the impacts of this process could be detrimental for the environment.
for the recycling triggers the exploration of economic opportunities and The main motive behind recycling PV panels is to reduce the amount
related business models for the recycling and re-use of solar PV panels as of waste by maximizing material recovery for further use in PV panels
demonstrated for other technologies (D’Adamoa et al., 2020). In addi­ but before diving in to the process adopted for recycling, it is important
tion, while recycling appears to be the preferred option for the EoL for the actual PV panel composition and its types to be established.
management of solar PV, an intermediate strong second hand economy The front of the PV Panel is all glass that is shock resistant capable of
for used solar PV panels also seems to be an appropriate path towards withstanding hail. The solar cell itself is placed beneath it after a layer of
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, e.g. especially for oil rich nations EVA (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate). EVA is applied to the glass acting as an
with a high fossil fuel share in the energy mix, lower per capita income, encapsulant for the solar cells. Finally, a backsheet made of polyvinyl
and a manufacturing sector which is the essential driver of carbon di­ fluoride (PVF) or a combination of PVF with polyethylene terephthalate
oxide emission in those countries as well as developing countries where (PTE), which is attached at the backend of the panel. After these com­
the economic development is driven by predominant use of energy ponents have been mantled together, the panel goes through an air-
sources based on fossil fuel (Sadik-Zada and Loewenstein, 2020; Ago­ evacuation process followed by heating applied to the point where the
vino et al., 2018). plastic EVA melts filling the space between the front glass of the panel
A robust product stewardship scheme for solar PV panels combined and the rear polyvinyl fluoride lamination sheet serving as a sealant. A
with effective EoL management schemes can also decrease the vulner­ junction box is added at the rear of the panel serving the purpose of
ability of solar PV technology against adverse reactions of consumers output connections. The final framing of the whole panel is done after an
when facing the issue of disposal of unwanted or damaged PV panels. additional sealant in the aluminum profiles has been added (Choi and
Such regulations can clearly contribute to the energy resilience of a Fthenakis, 2014).
country and the effeteness of such product stewardship schemes can be Although there may be advancements taking place, currently there
used as composite indicators on renewable energy uptake and related are mainly two types of PV panels available in global market based on
national policies and regulatory frameworks implemented for striving composition. The structure and material is almost the same in both of the
for sustainable energy targets (Banerjee et al., 2017, Gatto and Drago kinds whereas it is the composition that majorly differs.
2020a, Gatto and Drago, 2020b). Considering documented amounts of materials in PV panels, glass
This articles investigates the current legislation for the EoL treatment with about 68 wt%, aluminum with about 15 wt%, high purity silicon
of solar PV panels in countries with significant solar PV capacity in their with about 3 wt%, and copper cables with about 1 wt% represent the
overall energy mix to provide the reader with an overview of existing bulk of recyclable materials in PV panels. The scrap value of the metals
legislations, or the lack of them, and current thoughts on how EoL- can, therefore, be considered as economic benchmark for the commer­
treatment of solar PV panels can be managed. cial feasibility of PV panel recycling. While scrap glass has limited value
of only about US$ 10 per ton, the current value of scrap aluminum is
2. Recycling – the processes involved about US$ 800 per ton, that of silicon is about US$ 1000 per ton and US$
5000 for mixed copper. Considering that the weight of a solar PV panel
Currently, there are two types of PV panels manufactured and which delivers about 300 W is about 20 kg, at an optimistic recycling
employed throughout the globe; silicon based PV panels & thin-film rate of 100% the combined value of the recyclable materials is about US
based PV panels. Both have their own unique methods of $ 4.14 at the current value of the scrap metals.
manufacturing with each made up of almost the same materials (silicon The economic costs of recycling PV panels is more difficult to assess,
being the additional component in silicon based PV panels) but having as it involves a number of steps and processes. However, the costs for
difference in compositions. The process of recycling is much more energy, for disassembly, cable treatment, incineration, glass separation,
complex than it actually seems as it involves dismantling of the used PV milling, sieving, and filtering, to name a few steps, can be calculated
panel that is to be recycled, followed by reassembling of all the com­ based on local costs for energy where recycling takes place. Also, the
ponents separated from the panel itself in addition to new material costs for fuel to collect PV panels and transport them to the point of
employed as well. This is to be achieved with minimum damage to the recycling can easily be calculated considering current petrol prices and
panel material itself. In such processes, an attempt to reuse the gathered known distances between unwanted PV panels and the point of

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recycling. The same applies for costs for landfill of remaining compo­ 3.1. EU and UK recycling regulations
nents, costs for water and disposal of waste water, and chemicals for
neutralization of acidic waste water (Latunussa et al., 2016). Europe has seen widespread uptake in the installation of photovol­
When considering the environmental costs for the recycling of PV taic cells between 2005 and 2011, which led to an increase in energy
solar panels, the picture is much more complex. The study by Latunussa output from solar energy from 2.3 GW to 53 GW during that period. In
et al. (2016) models the impact of recycling on the environment. The 2019, the number has increased to 138 GW. Given the ratio between the
analysis results in a number of findings obtained. First of all, it can be quantity of waste produced and PV power units installed, estimated at
observed that transport of PV waste (29%), incineration process (34%) 70/80 t for each MWp installed (Tammaro et al., 2014), a considerable
and metal recovery treatment processes (29%) including electrolysis, increase in the production of PV waste is envisaged. The estimates on PV
acid leaching, sieving, neutralization and filtration had the most effect waste in Europe foresee, over the next decades, a significant increase of
on climate change amounting to up to 370 kgCO2 per 1000 kg solar PV the same, from more than 33,000 tons in 2020, to about 133,000 tons in
waste. The contribution, in percentage, of each phase of the recycling 2030, and to almost 4 million and 9.5 million tons, respectively, in 2040
process to each potential impact e.g. transport that has a minimum and 2050 (Weckend et al., 2016). Europe has begun to develop ways and
contribution of around 10% towards fresh water ecotoxicity and a concepts for recycling by manufacturers, thereby providing the potential
maximum of 80% towards abiotic potential minerals. The results also of economic benefits to the involved industry. Countries with a signifi­
depict the reduction in each impact due to energy recovery in different cant contribution of solar energy uptake to their overall energy pro­
phases of the process. The processes of recovery of metals also seemed to duction are Germany, Italy, and the UK.
be highly impacting regarding eutrophication, acidification, photo­ Germany entered the PV market in 1990 and has since experienced
chemical ozone formation and particulate matter like in the case of increasing demand for electric power from solar cells as clean and
terrestrial eutrophication where 80% of it was due to sieving, acid renewable energy. In 2019, Germany an installed capacity of close to 49
leaching, electrolysis and neutralization whereas cutting of PV sand­ GW that represents more than 6% from electricity consumption
wich, prior to incineration, just inherently had negligible impacts (Weckend et al., 2016). By 2016 Germany’s projected photovoltaic
overall (Held and Ilg, 2011). waste size is expected to be between 3,500 tons and 70,000 tons. In
A significant environmental issue concerning recycling are the 2030, solar PV panel waste is forecasted to reach between 400,000 and 1
presence of polymers in the PV panel. The encapsulation layer is usually million tons and in 2050 it will reach 4.3–4.4 million tons. Italy has seen
made of ethylene vinyl acetate (ETA) and represent about 5 wt%. More a significant increase in solar PV capacity during the past 10 years
significantly, the backsheet of a PV solar panel is made up of PVF or a reaching in 2019 just above 21 GW (IRENA, 2020). In the UK, the de­
combination of PVF and PET (about 1.5 wt%). The polymers need to be mand for energy from solar panels has grown from less than 1 GW in
removed for recycling and the generally considered process to remove 2011 to more than 14 GW in 2019, and now more than 750,000 units are
them is incineration of the panel. Incineration ETA is known to produce installed (IRENA, 2020).
C1 (methane, 3 wt% of the exhaust gas) to C5 hydrocarbons, besides Currently, only Europe has specific regulations on the recycling of
small amounts of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide [6]. Without solar cells, and the EU also plays an important and leading role in the
extraction of the hydrocarbons from the exhaust gas during incineration, treatment of electronic waste, including the waste from solar PV, their
the formation of hydrocarbons represent a concern. collection, and recycling. In 2003, Europe developed recycling regula­
Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) is a thermoplastic fluoropolymer with the tions including the Waste Electrical and Electronic Waste Directives
repeating vinyl fluoride. PVF has low permeability for vapors, burns (WEEE) and hazardous material restriction (RoHS) to reduce the amount
very slowly, and has excellent resistance to weathering and staining. It is of electronic waste in landfills. The RoHS system restricts and controls
also resistant to most chemicals, except ketones and esters. PVF is known the use of certain materials, but the WEEE manages collection, treat­
to release its total fluoride content as toxic hydrogen fluorides during ment, and disposal of products, and puts restrictions on design of goods
incineration at any temperature up to 750 ◦ C, as well as increases the to ease EoL treatments. In addition, under the WEEE legislation, pro­
potential formation of dioxin during recycling treatment stages (Aryan ducers who wish to put products into the EU market are legally
et al., 2018). responsible for managing the EoL of the products, regardless of the
location of their manufacturing sites.
3. Solar panel recycling The WEEE Directive, revised in 2012 (2012/19/EU), addresses the
waste management of all electronics, including waste PV modules, in the
While a number of activities and processes in regards to the recycling EU member states. It requires 75%/65% (recovery/recycling rate) of
of PV panels have started worldwide, the sheer number of installed PV waste PV modules by mass to be recycled through 2016, then increases
panels which will come off line in about 25 years is staggering. There­ to 80%/75% through 2018 and to 85%/80% thereafter. In addition to
fore, the question arises, whether the current approaches are sufficient such a regulatory scheme, it is obvious that recycling technologies must
to address the volume of PV waste without generating an unwanted be available to meet the increasing requirements of WEEE. Available
environmental legacy. Current barriers for the creation of a global PV recycling facilities that treat PV modules can meet current WEEE re­
recycling industry are still the lack of policies and regulatory directives quirements; additional research and development is required to meet
especially circling around the collection and recycling targets (Salim subsequent WEEE requirements at reasonable cost that might also
et al., 2019; Besiou et al., 2012; Besiou and Van Wassenhove, 2016; encourage waste avoidance and reuse.
Collins and Anctil, 2017; Dominiguez and Geyer, 2017), and the finan­ For e-waste from private consumers, companies are required to de­
cial and non-financial responsibilities of PV producers, PV users, and posit a certain amount of funds for the EoL treatment of each device sold.
local governments to avoid an unwanted environmental legacy, if PV This system is called business to consumer regulation (B2C). Besides e-
panels end up in landfills (Salim et al., 2019; Jung et al., 2016; Anctil waste from private households, producers are also responsible for e-
and Fthenakis, 2013; Fthenakis, 2000). Moreover, aspects of the emis­ waste from other than private households. This is e-waste from business-
sion of pollution generated during the recycling and the energy demand to-business (B2B) equipment. For such B2B e-waste from EEE put on the
for collection, transport, and recycling of PV panels need to be quanti­ market after introduction of the WEEE legislation, the producer must
fied with respect to local considerations (Ucar et al., 2008; Salim et al., offer a reasonable option for the return and disposal. The producer, thus,
2019; Tao and Yu, 2015). has the same obligations for this B2B e-waste like for e-waste from pri­
vate households. The producer and the holder of EEE, however, may
reach an agreement, which departs from these provisions. Currently,
B2C regulations covers almost 90% of all electronic waste. However, as

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the development of large solar farms is becoming more and more recycling regulations. The general waste regulations also cover pre­
important in the EU, it is expected that the B2B regulation will become scription of transportation, treatment, recycling, and disposal path
more important for covering the EoL treatment of solar PV panels. ways.
Since October of the year 2015, the EU WEEE directive has been Very recently Washington State is leading the way in addressing the
transferred to German law under the Electrical and Electronic Equip­ post-consumer management of spent solar panels. The authorities there
ment Act (Elektroaltgerätegesetz or ElektroG). Since then, new re­ recently passed a first-in-the-nation law (the Solar Incentives Job Bill
quirements on the recycling of PV panels came into force. Under the e- (ESSB 5939)) requiring solar panel manufacturers to finance and
waste compliance scheme embedded in WEEE specific legislations for manage the collection and processing of post-consumer photovoltaic
the collection and recycling of solar PV panels are in place and each modules. This extended producer responsibility law is considered to
provider must provide financial security for each panel sold to ensure have the potential to reduce waste, increase recycling, save money for
EoL treatment for the panels. governments, and create jobs.
Before the introduction of WEEE in the UK, solar PV waste was In California the Division of Occupational Safety and Health (Cal/
managed by voluntary product initiatives (e.g. PV CYCLE). In 2014 the DOSH) is an important agency in regards to legislation of EoL man­
WEEE directive was installed into the UK. All UK PV producers must agement of goods, but there are currently no new regulations on how
register through the product compliance plan and provide data for B2B and when solar PV panels should be disassembled or recycled. In Cali­
and business to consumer (B2C) scheme. When looking at financing B2C fornia, solar cell waste is considered an electronic waste. However,
and B2B sales, UK WEEE legislation differs greatly from the WEEE electronic waste is a broad and comprehensive expression. In California
Directive of the European Union. The volume of solar PV panels for EoL the State Electronic- Waste recycling program allows California waste to
processing currently in the UK is expected to be not of high value. be exported to other countries, which may not have infrastructure for
Therefore, the UK is likely to export solar PV panels to EU countries for recycling. However, California also has the Hazardous Waste Control
recycling purposes. The facilities there are in line with the requirements Act, which is more stringent than the Electronic Waste Act. During the
of the British Processing Facility. 2014–2015 legislative session a bill was proposed by the Senate (no.
Most solar power companies in Europe support EoL treatment and 489) which states that the California Department of Toxic Substances
total product recovery. In 2007, a company was established in Europe can change the classification of solar cell waste from hazardous waste to
whose goal is to recycle solar cells (PV Cycle). The company has universal waste. However, this law will remain on hold until the US
designed collection points, waste transporters, and particularize recy­ Environmental Protection Agency authorizes the addition of hazardous
cling partners. Since 2014, solutions for waste collection and processing solar panel waste to the hazardous waste program in California.
of treatment came in place to introduce solar PV industries in Europe.
3.3. Solar panel recycling in China
3.2. United States recycling regulations
China is the largest solar PV market. By the end of 2015, the National
The United States is the fourth largest market in photovoltaic energy Energy Administration has produced its 13th National Solar Plan. The
generation after China, Germany and Japan. The US PV market has initial target proposed by 2020 are 150 GW from solar PV. By 2019,
grown rapidly since the middle of the first decade of this century. By China has already installed about 205 GW of photovoltaic power by far
2019 the cumulative setup capacity reached about 68 GW (IRENA, the largest solar PV uptake per country (IRENA 2020). China is also the
2020). largest manufacturer of solar PV panel. This development foreshadows a
The use of photovoltaic cells has not been widespread in the United significant problem in regards to solar PV waste which is predicted to be
States, but use has increased in the last 10 years. At present, the accu­ between about 13 and 20 million tons by 2050, as shown in Fig. 3.
mulated large-scale waste from solar PV is calculated to be about 6,500 China has developed its own recycling policy for electronic and
to 24,000 tons, but it is expected that it will increase to between 170,000 electrical waste through the Institute of Electrical Engineering of the
tons and 1 million tons by 2030 and, again, to about 7.5–10 million tons National Academy of Sciences. In 2009, the State Council issued a
by 2050 (Fig. 2). regulation on the management of electrical and electronic waste recy­
EPA (Environment Protection Agency) guidelines dominate the cling, which started work in 2011. This regulation requires electronic
federal regulations In the United States. There is no special regulation waste to be collected in several ways like producers doing it themselves
for solar waste, although companies such as Solar World and First Solar or have collection centers or have third party collection agencies to
support total product recovery. Solar panel waste is treated according to collect them. However, PV panels are not considered as electronic waste
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Although recy­ in China and, therefore, no current legislation for the EoL management
cling laws exist at the federal level, each state must introduce its own of solar PV panels exists (Weckend et al., 2016). Due to the awareness of

Fig. 2. End of life PV panels waste volumes by 2050 in the US (Weckend et al., 2016).

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Fig. 3. China’s end of life PV panels waste volumes by 2050 (Weckend et al., 2016).

the non satisfactory recycling industry in China, the government has Rules and the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Trans­
funded research and development under China’s National High Tech boundary Movement) Rules. Waste management in India classified the
R&D Program for PV Recycling and Safety Disposal Research (2012-15) waste as toxic or non-toxic. The toxic waste can be transported for
for c-Si recycling methods through physical and thermal recycling treatment purposes within specific state laws.
(Weckend et al., 2016; Ding et al., 2016)
3.6. Solar panel recycling in Australia
3.4. Japan recycling regulations
Photovoltaic systems are being deployed in record numbers
Japan has a major role in the development and research of photo­ throughout Australia. Moreover, projections around increased penetra­
voltaic panels, including internationally recognized companies which tion within the Australian market show no signs of slowing down. As of
produce solar PV panels. In 2012, tariffs were introduced, which stim­ June 2019, there are now over 2 million Australian solar PV in­
ulated the solar PV market. Currently, Japan produces 62 GW through stallations, with 7.1 GW in residential (<10 kW), 1.8 GW in commercial
solar PV technology (IRENA, 2020). While it is expected that the accu­ (10–100 kW) and 4 GW in utility-scale installations (>100 kW), with a
mulated waste could reach between 200,000 and 1 million in 2030 and total combined capacity in Australia of 12.9 GW. However, as PV uptake
6.5–7.6 million tons in 2050 (Weckend et al., 2016), the Ministry of continues to surge, and before significant volumes of PV system products
Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) and the Ministry of Environment reach their end-of-life, there is concern from communities, industries
(MOE) provide a lower forecast, as they do not include potential early and Governments that there are insufficient management options to
failure of the panels in the accumulated waste expectations. Japan does safely dispose of these products in Australia; and a lack of established
not have specific regulations for the recycling of PV panels, yet. They are reprocessors and recyclers capable of recovering valuable resources; or
listed under the Waste Management and Public Purification Act. In appropriately managing hazardous elements.
2013, METI and MOE developed a foundation for legislation on EoL In September 2015, Sustainability Victoria (on behalf of the Victo­
treatment of renewable energy equipment such as solar PV panels. But rian Government), conducted a Victorian-based e-waste market flow
so far, there are no dedicated programs for recycling solar PV panels and technology trends analysis in preparation for Victoria’s forthcoming
separate from programs regarding industrial waste. In 2017, the Min­ e-waste landfill ban. A key finding in the analysis identified solar panels
istry of Internal Affairs and Communication (MIC) recommended that as the fastest growing e-waste stream. Estimated to be growing from
the MOE and METI take necessary remedial measures for the disposal of around 550 tons in 2015, significantly increasing in 2023 and escalating
PV equipment. Between 2013 and 2019, some photovoltaic recycling to around 25,000 tons by 2035. This projection nationally estimates
projects have been successfully conducted in coordination with the New more than 100,000 tons of solar panels will enter Australia’s waste
Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO). stream by 2035.
On June 30, 2016, the Federal Minister for the Environment, with
3.5. India recycling regulations support from jurisdictions and industry, listed PV systems on the annual
priority product list in accordance with Section 108A of the Product
India is one of the top 10 in the PV market. In 2012, India began Stewardship Act 2011. In 2019, solar PV panels were listed in the 2019
installing solar panels with a capacity of more than 1 GW to reach about National Waste Policy Action Plan as priority for the development of a
35 GW in 2019 (IRENA 2020). In addition, India has a significant product stewardship scheme with the aim to have a product stewardship
off-grid solar PV capacity of about 1 GW (IRENA, 2020). The energy scheme established until 2023.
sector in India faces the challenge of meeting the growing demand for As a consequence, industry led research is underway to explore
energy. By 2022 India is expected to have installed 100 GW of solar PV management options for end-of-life solar panels and system accessories,
systems connected to the network through the Jawaharlal Nehru Na­ such as inverter equipment and energy storage systems used across
tional Solar Mission (JNNSM). In addition, JNNSM plans to install 2 GW domestic, commercial and utility-scale applications. Along with non-
of off-grid solar PV systems. PV use in India is recent, so, there is no regulatory options, this includes assessing voluntary, co-regulatory
cumulative waste in India. It is expected to peak between 4.4 and 7.5 and mandatory product stewardship pathways, and gathering the
million tons by 2050. sound evidence base required to identify a preferred product scope and
While India has solid infrastructure in the recycling of electronic management approach.
waste, there are no special regulations in India for EoL treatment of solar Stakeholder input is crucial for the success of any product steward­
PV panels and their waste treatment is included in the General Waste ship approach. Australia’s PV sector, and other potentially impacted
Law. Waste is controlled and managed by the Ministry of Environment, stakeholder groups, have been engaged throughout the initial options
Forest and Climate Change under the 2016 Solid Waste Management assessment phase and will continue to provide critical input into the next

6
P. Majewski et al. Energy Policy 149 (2021) 112062

phase of the approach; assessing and testing effective scheme design Table 2
elements for viable product stewardship pathways. Summarizes the exiting legislations for EoL management of some jurisdictions
Once the options assessment has been completed, the jurisdictional which are leading in the uptake of solar PV.
working group will make recommendations to Senior Officials and Country Legislation for Solar Recycling Comment
Ministers on a preferred product scope and management approach, or PV Required
approaches, for all or some of the products included in a PV system. If a EU Waste Electrical and Yes 85%/80% recovery/
regulatory model is recommended which may legally require those Electronic Waste recycling rate required
deemed liable to participate in a scheme, this will trigger the need to Directives (WEEE)
UK Waste Electrical and Yes 85%/80% recovery/
conduct a Council of Australian Government (COAG) Regulatory Impact
Electronic Waste recycling rate required
Statement (RIS) process to accurately assess likely costs, benefits and Directives (WEEE)
impacts. If a COAG RIS is required, a mandatory public consultation USA Resource No Each state must introduce its
period will be included to ensure a clear and transparent assessment Conservation and own recycling regulations.
approach has been followed, with all crucial information appropriately Recovery Act (RCRA) Only Washington State has
done so, so far
considered. China N/A No
Japan Waste Management No Project of New Energy and
4. Conclusion and policy implications and Public Industrial Development
Purification Act Organization (NEDO) on
development of recycling of
A robust product stewardship combined with effective EoL man­
solar PV panels concluded in
agement schemes for solar PV panels is essential to further increasing 2018. Regulations under
opportunities for economic and social development while simultaneous development.
reducing greenhouse gas emissions through electric energy generation. India General Waste Law No
This concept of energy sustainability is accepted to be important for Australia Electric and Electronic No PV systems listed on the
Waste annual priority product list in
further encouraging energy efficiency and investments in renewable accordance with Section
energy sources and clean energy (Agovino et al., 2018). National pol­ 108A of the Product
icies and regulatory frameworks on EoL management schemes for Stewardship Act 2011. EoL
renewable energy technologies are essential indicators for a country’s management regulation
expected in 2023.
commitment to renewable energy targets (Gatto and Drago, 2020a,
Banerjee et al., 2017).
A number of nations have significant contributions of solar PV in the the work reported in this paper.
renewable energy mix and most of these countries list solar PV waste as
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