Modular Electronics Learning (ModEL)

project

* SPICE ckt
v1 1 0 dc 12
v2 2 1 dc 15
r1 2 3 4700
r2 3 0 7100
.dc v1 12 12 1
.print dc v(2,3)
.print dc i(v2)
.end

V=IR

Variable Frequency AC Motor Drives

c 2018-2023 by Tony R. Kuphaldt – under the terms and conditions of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License

Last update = 29 November 2023

This is a copyrighted work, but licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
Public License. A copy of this license is found in the last Appendix of this document. Alternatively,
you may visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ or send a letter to Creative
Commons: 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. The terms and
conditions of this license allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modification of all licensed
works by the general public.
ii
Contents

1 Introduction 3

2 Case Tutorial 5
2.1 Example: demonstrating DC injection braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Tutorial 7
3.1 Basic VFD function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 AC motor braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.1 DC injection braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.2 Dynamic braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.3 Regenerative braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.4 Plugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Important VFD parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.1 Maximum and minimum speed (frequency) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.2 Acceleration and Deceleration time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.3 Stopping method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.4 Volts per Hertz profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.5 PWM frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.6 Current limiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.7 Start/stop source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.8 Speed reference source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.9 Skip frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.10 Fault recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Line reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4 Derivations and Technical References 29

4.1 Electrical safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5 Animations 39
5.1 Rotating magnetic field animated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2 VFD transistor switching sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

iii
CONTENTS 1

6 Questions 93
6.1 Conceptual reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.1.1 Reading outline and reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.1.2 Foundational concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.1.3 Start-stop-speed-direction control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.1.4 VFD/pump configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1.5 Rockwell PowerFlex 4 configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.1.6 Currents within a VFD circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.1.7 Transistor states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.1.8 Grinding machine braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.2 Quantitative reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.2.1 Miscellaneous physical constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.2.2 Introduction to spreadsheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.2.3 Three-phase simulation program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.2.4 Line reactor harmonic impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2.5 Line reactor resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.6 Limited-adjustment speed potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.3 Diagnostic reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.3.1 Predicting effects of VFD component faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

7 Projects and Experiments 123

7.1 Recommended practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.1.1 Safety first! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.1.2 Other helpful tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.1.3 Terminal blocks for circuit construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.1.4 Conducting experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.1.5 Constructing projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.2 Experiment: DC injection braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.3 Experiment: AC motor starter with DC injection braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.4 Project: VFD-controlled AC induction motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

A Problem-Solving Strategies 139

B Instructional philosophy 141

C Tools used 147

D Creative Commons License 151

E References 159

F Version history 161

Index 162
2 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Introduction

Induction AC motors are simple, rugged, and efficient machines. For many years the major objection
to their use in some applications was the inability to control their speed, being a function of stator
poles and line power frequency, neither of which may be easily varied. The advent of reliable power
electronics, however, made possible the design and construction of inverter circuits for the express
purpose of providing variable-frequency AC power to three-phase induction motors for their speed
control. These inverters are generally called variable frequency drives, or VFDs.
VFDs are very popular for industrial motor control, as they permit extremely the efficient use
of electrical power for motors. No longer must an induction motor spin at the same speed all the
time – with a VFD connected that same motor may be slowed down at will to minimize energy
consumption and/or to achieve a different production rate for whatever machine or process is being
driven by that motor.

Important concepts related to VFDs include rectification, filtering, pulse-width

modulation, AC inductor motor theory, reactance, V/F ratio, electrical noise,
fundamental and harmonic frequencies, Conservation of Energy, transistors, DC-AC
conversion, motor base parameters, resonance, , , and .

Here are some good questions to ask of yourself while studying this subject:

• How might an experiment be designed and conducted to explore the concept of energy
conservation in a VFD-controlled motor system with braking capability? What hypothesis
(i.e. prediction) might you pose for that experiment, and what result(s) would either support
or disprove that hypothesis?

• How might an experiment be designed and conducted to explore harmonic mitigration

strategies in a VFD-controlled motor system? What hypothesis (i.e. prediction) might you
pose for that experiment, and what result(s) would either support or disprove that hypothesis?

• What are some practical applications of VFDs?

• How is the speed of an AC induction motor best controlled?

• What is the basic operating principle of an AC induction motor?

3
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

• What is the “slip speed” of an AC induction motor?

• What are the three basic sections of a VFD circuit, and the function each one performs?
• Why are the transistors of a VFD rapidly pulsed on and off rather than operated in their linear
regions?

• How exactly do VFDs create harmonic frequencies?

• What is a “triplen” harmonic?

• In what ways are harmonics potentially bad for electrical power networks?
• How may the bad effects of harmonics be reduced in an electrical power network?

• What are the various ways in which a VFD may act to turn the motor into a brake?

• Where does the kinetic energy of a spinning motor go when a VFD brakes that motor?

• What benefit(s) do reactors offer to VFD-controlled motor circuits other than harmonic
mitigation?

• What are “base parameters” for a VFD and why are they important?
• What is a reflected signal along a cable, and what causes this phenomenon to happen?
Chapter 2

Case Tutorial

The idea behind a Case Tutorial is to explore new concepts by way of example. In this chapter you
will read less presentation of theory compared to other Tutorial chapters, but by close observation
and comparison of the given examples be able to discern patterns and principles much the same way
as a scientific experimenter. Hopefully you will find these cases illuminating, and a good supplement
to text-based tutorials.
These examples also serve well as challenges following your reading of the other Tutorial(s) in
this module – can you explain why the circuits behave as they do?

5
6 CHAPTER 2. CASE TUTORIAL

2.1 Example: demonstrating DC injection braking

An easy demonstration of DC injection motor braking may be performed using commonly-available
components: a small AC induction motor (such as the type used in residential bathroom ventilation
fans, typically sold as replacement motors at most hardware stores) and a 6 Volt dry-cell battery.

Spin the motor’s shaft and feel how freely it turns. Then, connect the 6 Volt battery to the
motor’s terminals and try spinning the shaft again – you will notice the shaft does not spin as easily
as it did before, due to the effect of Lenz’s Law as the conductive rotor rotates within the stationary
magnetic field produced by the stator winding energized by the (DC) battery. The currents induce
in the spinning rotor produce magnetic fields that oppose its motion, making the rotor feel as though
there is some sort of friction working against its motion.

The analogy to mechanical friction is quite appropriate, as the work done by turning the motor’s
shaft becomes converted into heat inside the rotor, not unlike how a mechanical friction brake would
convert work into heat.
Chapter 3

Tutorial

AC induction motors are based on the principle of a rotating magnetic field produced by a set of
stationary windings (called stator windings) energized by AC power of different phases. The effect
is not unlike a series of blinking “chaser” light bulbs which appear to “move” in one direction due
to the blinking sequence. If sets of wire coils (windings) are energized in a like manner – each coil
reaching its peak field strength at a different time from its adjacent neighbor – the effect will be a
magnetic field that “appears” to move in one direction. If these windings are oriented around the
circumference of a circle, the moving magnetic field rotates about the center of the circle. Refer to
section 5.1 beginning on page 40 to view a flip-book animation showing how a set of three-phase
stator windings create a rotating magnetic field vector.
Any magnetized object placed in the center of this circle will attempt to spin at the same
rotational speed as the rotating magnetic field. Synchronous AC motors use this principle, where a
magnetized rotor follows the magnetic field’s speed in precise lock-step.
Any electrically conductive object placed in the center of the circle will experience induction as
the magnetic field direction changes around the conductor. This will induce electric currents within
the conductive object, which in turn will react against the rotating magnetic field in such a way
that the object will be “dragged along” by the field, always lagging a bit in speed. Induction AC
motors use this principle, where a non-magnetized (but electrically conductive) rotor rotates at a
speed slightly less than the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field. The difference between
the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field and the rotor’s actual speed is called slip speed,
and the amount of torque1 (i.e. twisting force) generated by the motor’s rotor is a function of this
slip speed.

1 To those unfamiliar with the term, torque is the rotational equivalent of force. Whereas force is expressed in the

metric unit of Newtons, torque is expressed in the compound metric unit of Newton-meters, one Newton-meter being
the torque (i.e. twisting force) generated by a one-Newton linear force applied perpendicularly to the end of a handle
one meter in length from the center of rotation.

7
8 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

The rotational speed of this magnetic field is directly proportional to the frequency of the AC
power, and inversely proportional to the number of poles in the stator:
120f
S=
n
Where,
S = Synchronous speed of rotating magnetic field, in revolutions per minute (RPM)
f = Frequency, in cycles per second (Hz)
n = Total number of stator poles per phase (the simplest possible AC induction motor design
will have two poles)

The relationship between synchronous speed, frequency, and pole number may be understood by
analogy: the speed at which the lights in a “chaser” light array appear to move is a function of the
blinking frequency and the number of light bulbs per unit length. If the number of light bulbs in
such an array is doubled by placing additional bulbs between the existing bulbs (so as to maintain
the same array length), the apparent speed will be cut in half: with less distance between each pair
of bulbs, it takes more cycles (more “blinks”) for the sequence to travel the entire length of the
array. Likewise, an AC stator with more poles in its circumference will require more cycles of AC
power for the rotating magnetic field to complete one revolution.
A synchronous AC motor will spin at the exact same speed as the rotating magnetic field: a
practical example is a 4-pole synchronous motor spinning at 1800 RPM with an applied power
frequency of 60 Hz. An induction AC motor will spin at slightly less than the speed of the magnetic
field: a practical example is a 4-pole induction motor spinning at 1720 RPM with an applied power
frequency of 60 Hz (i.e. 80 RPM “slip” speed). Induction motors are simpler both in construction
and operation, making them the most popular of the two types of AC electric motors in industry.

While the number of poles in the motor’s stator is a quantity fixed2 at the time of the motor’s
manufacture, the frequency of power we apply may be adjusted with the proper electronic circuitry.
A high-power circuit designed to produce varying frequencies for an AC motor to run on is called a
variable-frequency drive, or VFD.

2 Multi-speed motors do exist, with selectable pole configurations. An example of this is an electric motor with

extra sets of stator windings, which may be connected to form a 4-pole configuration for high speed, and an 8-pole
configuration for low speed. If the normal full-load “high” speed for this motor is 1740 RPM, the normal full-load
“low” speed will be approximately half that, or 870 RPM. Given a fixed line frequency, this motor will only have
these two speeds to choose from.
3.1. BASIC VFD FUNCTION 9

3.1 Basic VFD function

Variable-frequency motor drives are incredibly useful devices, as they allow what would normally
be a fixed-speed electric motor to provide useful power over a wide range of speeds. The benefits of
variable-speed operation include reduced power consumption (only spinning the motor as fast as it
needs to move, and no faster), reduced vibration (less speed = reduced vibrational forces), and the
ability to ramp the motor’s speed up and down for reduced wear and tear on mechanical components
resulting from acceleration forces.

Another feature common to most VFDs is the ability to actively brake the load. This is when the
drive causes the motor to actively apply a negative torque to the load to slow it down. Some VFDs
even provide means to recover the kinetic energy of the load during the braking process, resulting
in further energy savings.

Variable-frequency AC motor drives consist of electronic components to convert the constant-

frequency AC input power into variable-frequency (and variable-voltage) AC output power for the
motor to run on. This usually takes place in three distinct sections. The rectifier section uses diodes
to convert line AC power into DC. The filter “smoothes” the rectified DC power so it has little ripple
voltage. Lastly, the inverter section re-converts the filtered DC power back into AC, only this time
at whatever levels of frequency and voltage is desired to run the motor at different speeds.
A simplified schematic diagram for a VFD is shown here, with a rectifier section on the left (to
convert AC input power into DC), a filter capacitor to “smooth” the rectified DC power, and a
transistor “bridge” to switch DC into AC at whatever frequency is desired to power the motor3 .
The transistor control circuitry has been omitted from this diagram for the sake of simplicity:

Filter
Rectifier section section Inverter section

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase
AC power
source

AC
motor

Negative (-) DC bus

3 Note the reverse-connected diodes across the source and drain terminals of each power transistor. These diodes

serve to protect the transistors against damage from reverse voltage drop, but they also permit the motor to “back
feed” power to the DC bus (acting as a generator ) when the motor’s speed exceeds that of the rotating magnetic field,
which may happen when the drive commands the motor to slow down. This leads to interesting possibilities, such as
regenerative braking, with the addition of some more components.
10 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

The six power transistors in the inverter section of the VFD turn on and off in a sequence to
create a rotating magnetic field in the AC motor’s stator windings, which in turn drags the rotor
along with it and causes the motor’s shaft to spin. Refer to section 5.2 beginning on page 65 to
view a flip-book animation showing the switching sequence of these six transistors and how their
respective currents energize the stator windings to create that rotating magnetic flux vector.
In order to synthesize a smooth sine wave, the six power transistors don’t just switch on in square-
wave fashion at the desired line frequency, but rather pulse on and off many times to simulate the
rise and fall of a sinusoidal waveform. The following illustration shows how a continually varying
PWM duty cycle is able to synthesize a sinusoidal wave-shape from the DC power provided by the
rectifier and filter sections of the VFD:

This concept of rapid PWM transistor switching allows the drive to “carve” any arbitrary
waveform out of the filtered DC voltage it receives from the rectifier. Virtually any frequency
may be synthesized (up to a maximum limited by the frequency of the PWM pulsing), and any
voltage (up to a maximum peak established by the DC bus voltage), giving the VFD the ability to
power an induction motor over a wide range of speeds.

While frequency control is the key to synchronous and induction AC motor speed control, it
is not sufficient on its own. While the speed of an AC motor is a direct function of frequency
(controlling how fast the rotating magnetic field rotates around the circumference of the stator),
torque is a function of magnetic field strength, which is a function of stator current. Since the
stator windings are inductive by nature, their reactance varies with frequency as described by the
formula XL = 2πf L. Thus, as frequency is increased, winding reactance increases along with it.
This increase in reactance with increasing frequency would result in decreased stator current if the
VFD’s output voltage remained constant, leading to torque loss at high speeds and excessive torque
(as well as excessive stator heat and magnetic core saturation!) at low speeds. For this reason, the
AC voltage output by a VFD is made to vary4 in proportion to the applied frequency, so that the
4 The VFD achieves variable output voltage using the same technique used to create variable output frequency:
3.1. BASIC VFD FUNCTION 11

stator current will remain within good operating limits throughout the speed range of the VFD. This
correspondence is called the voltage-to-frequency ratio, abbreviated “V/F” ratio or “V/Hz” ratio.

To give an example of a VFD programmed with a constant V/F ratio, if the output line voltage
to the motor is 480 Volts RMS at full speed (60 Hz), then the output line voltage should be 240
Volts RMS at half-speed (30 Hz), and 120 Volts RMS at quarter-speed (15 Hz).

Variable-frequency motor drives are manufactured for industrial motor control in a wide range of
sizes and horsepower capabilities. Some VFDs are small enough to hold in your hand, while others
are large enough to require a freight train for transport. The following photograph shows a pair
of moderately-sized Allen-Bradley VFDs (about 100 horsepower each, standing just over 1 meter
high), used to control pumps at a wastewater treatment plant:

Variable-frequency AC motor drives do not require motor speed feedback the way variable-speed
DC motor drives do. The reason for this is quite simple: the controlled variable in an AC drive
is the frequency of power sent to the motor, and rotating-magnetic-field AC motors are frequency-
controlled machines by their very nature. For example, a 4-pole AC induction motor powered by
60 Hz has a base speed of 1728 RPM (assuming 4% slip). If a VFD sends 30 Hz AC power to
this motor, its speed will be approximately half its base-speed value, or 864 RPM. There is really
no need for speed-sensing feedback in an AC drive, because the motor’s real speed will always be
limited by the drive’s output frequency. To control frequency is to control motor speed for AC
synchronous and induction motors, so no tachogenerator feedback is necessary for an AC drive to
“know” approximately5 how fast the motor is turning. The non-necessity of speed feedback for AC
drives eliminates a potential safety hazard common to DC drives: the possibility of a “runaway”
event where the drive loses its speed feedback signal and sends full power to the motor.

As with DC motor drives, there is a lot of electrical “noise” broadcast by VFD circuits.
Square-edged pulse waveforms created by the rapid on-and-off switching of the power transistors
rapid pulse-width-modulation of the DC bus voltage through the output transistors. When lower output voltage is
necessary, the duty cycle of the pulses are reduced throughout the cycle (i.e. transistors are turned on for shorter
periods of time) to generate a lower average voltage of the synthesized sine wave.
5 For more precise control of AC motor speed (especially at low speeds where slip speed becomes a greater percentage

of actual speed), speed sensors may indeed be necessary.

12 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

are equivalent to infinite series of high-frequency sine waves6 , some of which may be of high
enough frequency to self-propagate through space as electromagnetic waves. This radio-frequency
interference or RFI may be quite severe given the high power levels of industrial motor drive circuits.
For this reason, it is imperative that neither the motor power conductors nor the conductors feeding
AC power to the drive circuit be routed anywhere near small-signal or control wiring, because the
induced noise will wreak havoc with whatever systems utilize those low-level signals.
RFI noise on the AC power conductors may be mitigated by routing the AC power through filter
circuits placed near the drive. The filter circuits block high-frequency noise from propagating back
to the rest of the AC power distribution wiring where it may influence other electronic equipment.
However, there is little that may be done about the RFI noise between the drive and the motor
other than to shield the conductors in well-grounded metallic conduit.

3.2 AC motor braking

There are several different methods useful for causing an AC induction motor to brake, or slow down:

• DC injection

• Dynamic braking

• Regenerative braking

• Plugging

DC injection uses the technique of energizing the stator windings with low-current DC instead of
high-current AC as is the case when the motor runs. Dynamic braking uses the motor as a generator,
dissipating the rotor’s kinetic energy through a resistive load. Regenerative braking also uses the
motor as a generator, but instead of wasting energy in the form of resistive heating, a regenerating
motor drive channels the rotor’s kinetic energy back into the power supply grid where it may be
used by other loads. Lastly, plugging works by applying reverse power to the motor, and is the most
aggressive means of bringing any motor to a halt.

All electronic motor braking techniques enjoy the advantage of mechanical simplicity. If the
motor itself can be used as a brake, then a separate mechanical brake may not be needed. This
simplifies the machinery of a system and potentially reduces maintenance costs.
A significant disadvantage of electronic braking techniques is that they all depend on the proper
function of the motor drive, and in some cases the AC line power as well. If a VFD’s braking ability
depends on the presence of AC line power, and that line power suddenly is lost, the VFD will have
no braking capacity at all! This means a large motor might suddenly have no ability to brake in the
event of a power outage or a tripped circuit breaker, which could be a serious safety issue in some
applications. In such cases, one must ensure the presence of other (alternative) braking methods to
function in the event of line power failure.
6 This equivalence was mathematically proven by Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), and is known as a

Fourier series.
3.2. AC MOTOR BRAKING 13

3.2.1 DC injection braking

If a spinning AC induction motor’s stator coils are energized with DC rather than AC, the rotor will
find itself spinning inside a stationary magnetic field. This causes currents to be induced in the rotor
bars, which in turn causes a braking force to develop in the rotor in accordance with Lenz’s Law.
The effect is exactly opposite of what happens when a motor is energized from a stand-still: there,
currents are induced in the rotor bars because the rotor is stationary and the stator field is rotating.
This method of braking is quite effective, with only small amounts of direct current through the
stator winding being necessary to cause a large braking torque.
The braking torque produced by DC injection varies directly with the magnitude of the DC
injection current, and also directly with the speed of the rotor. This means the braking force
created by DC injection tends to diminish as the motor slows down to a stop.
When any motor acts as a brake, the kinetic energy of the motor and the mechanism it attaches
to must go somewhere. This is a basic tenet of physics, codified as the Law of Energy Conservation:
energy cannot be created or destroyed, only altered in form. When DC injection is used to brake
a motor, the braking energy is dissipated in the form of heat by means of the induced currents
circulating through the rotor bars and shorting rings. This is something one must be careful to
consider when choosing DC injection as a braking method: can the rotor safely dissipate the heat
when needed? Repeated braking cycles, especially with little time between cycles, may overheat the
rotor and cause damage to the motor.

Modern solid-state AC motor drives easily provide DC injection for braking. All they need to
do is energize their output transistors in such a way that one or more of the stator windings sees a
constant voltage polarity instead of an alternating polarity as is the case when the motor is running.
The following diagram shows the power flow into the motor during DC injection:

Example showing a VFD injecting DC to the motor

From Positive (+) DC bus
three-phase
AC power
source

AC
motor

Negative (-) DC bus

The intensity of the DC injection current may be varied by altering the pulse-width duty cycle
of the transistors used to switch the braking current.
14 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

3.2.2 Dynamic braking

If a powered AC induction motor spins at a speed faster than its rotating magnetic field, it acts
as a generator: supplying power back to the voltage source, transferring kinetic energy from the
spinning rotor and machinery back into electrical power. This makes for an interesting experiment:
take an internal combustion engine, steam turbine, water turbine, or some other mechanical prime
mover and mechanically force a powered induction motor to spin faster than its synchronous speed
(i.e. force it to achieve a negative slip speed). If a power meter is connected between this motor and
the AC line power grid, the meter will register negative power (i.e. power flowing from the motor
to the grid, rather than from the grid to the motor).
This principle holds true for an induction motor powered by a VFD as well: if the rotor is spun
by some external force faster than the speed of the rotating magnetic field produced by the VFD, it
will act as a generator, sending back more power to the VFD than it receives from the VFD. Since
the magnetic field’s rotational speed is variable – thanks to the VFD’s ability to synthesize virtually
any desired frequency – it means an induction motor may be made to operate as a generator at
almost any speed we desire.
When acting as an electrical generator, an induction motor requires an input of mechanical
energy. That is, it will require mechanical effort to keep the rotor spinning faster than synchronous
speed, since the motor naturally “wants” to spin at synchronous speed or slower. This means a
generating motor acts as a brake, attempting to slow down whatever is keeping it spinning faster
than synchronous speed. This braking effect is in direct proportion to how much the generated
energy is used or dissipated by an electrical load. If we build a VFD to dissipate this energy in a
controlled manner, the motor will have the ability to act as a dynamic brake.
In a VFD circuit, the “reverse” power flow received from the motor takes the form of currents
traveling through the reverse-protection diodes placed in parallel with the output transistors. This
in turn causes the DC bus filter capacitor to charge, resulting in a raised DC bus voltage:

Generating currents through reverse-protection diodes

From Positive (+) DC bus
three-phase
AC power
source

AC
motor

Negative (-) DC bus

Without a place for this energy to dissipate, however, there will be little braking effort, and the
capacitor will be quickly destroyed by the excessive DC bus voltage. Therefore, in order for dynamic
braking to work, the VFD must be equipped with a braking resistor to dissipate the received energy.
A special transistor rapidly switched on and off to regulate DC bus voltage ensures the capacitor
will not be harmed, and that the braking is effective.
3.2. AC MOTOR BRAKING 15

This next schematic diagram shows how a braking resistor and its accompanying transistor could
be added to the simple VFD circuit. Once again, the switching circuitry used to turn the braking
transistor rapidly on and off has been omitted for simplicity:

Braking resistor provides a means of energy dissipation

From Positive (+) DC bus
three-phase
AC power
source Rbrake

AC
motor
ON

Qbrake

Negative (-) DC bus

The braking transistor switches on in direct proportion to the DC bus voltage. The higher the
DC bus voltage, the greater the duty cycle (on time versus total time) of the braking transistor.
Thus, the transistor functions as a shunt voltage regulator, placing a controlled load on the DC bus
in direct proportion to its degree of over-voltage. This transistor never turns on when the DC bus
voltage is within normal (motoring) operating range. It only turns on to clamp DC bus voltage to
reasonable levels when the motor spins faster than synchronous speed.
With this braking circuit in place, the only action a VFD must take to dynamically brake an AC
induction motor is simply slow down the applied AC frequency to the motor until that frequency is
less than the equivalent rotor speed (i.e. create a condition of negative slip speed).
As with DC injection braking, the braking torque created by dynamic braking is a function
of magnetic field strength and rotor speed. More precisely, it is a function of the Volts/Hz ratio
applied by the VFD to the motor, and the magnitude of the negative slip speed. Braking torque
is primarily limited by the braking resistor’s power rating and also the power rating of the VFD.
Since the kinetic energy dissipation occurs outside the motor, there is little rotor heating as is the
case with DC injection braking.
16 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

3.2.3 Regenerative braking

Regenerative braking takes the concept of dynamic braking one step further, in converting the DC
bus over-voltage into usable AC power to be placed back on the AC line for other AC devices to use.
Rather than regulate DC bus voltage via a shunt resistor switched on and off by a special transistor,
a regenerative drive manages the same task by augmenting the bridge rectifier diode array with a
set of six more power transistors, then switching those transistors on and off synchronously with
the line voltage (the AC power source). This line-synchronized switching takes the DC bus voltage
and “inverts” it to AC so that the drive may send real power back into the AC power system from
whence it originated:

Sending power to AC line through inverter transistors

From Positive (+) DC bus
three-phase
AC power
source

AC
motor

Negative (-) DC bus

Rectifier circuits equipped with a set of line-synchronized power transistors are often referred
to as an active front end to the motor drive. The term “active” refers to the transistors (diodes
are “passive” devices), and the term “front end” simply refers to the bridge being at the incoming
(front) side of the VFD power circuit. In such a drive, the front end’s transistors are sequenced as
needed to clamp the DC bus voltage to reasonable maximum levels, just like the braking transistor
is pulsed in a drive with dynamic braking to shunt-regulate DC bus voltage. If DC bus voltage in
a regenerating drive rises too high, the active front end transistors will pulse for longer periods of
time (i.e. with greater duty cycles) to apply more of that braking energy to the AC power grid.
Regenerative braking enjoys the unique advantage of putting the kinetic energy lost through
braking back into productive use. No other method of motor braking does this. The cost of doing
this, of course, is increased component count and complexity in the motor drive itself, leading to
a more expensive and (potentially) fault-prone VFD. However, in applications where the recovered
energy is significant, the cost savings of regenerative braking will rapidly offset the additional capital
expense of the regenerative drive.
3.2. AC MOTOR BRAKING 17

A simpler and cheaper way to enjoy the benefits of regenerative braking without adding a lot of
complexity to the VFD circuitry is to take multiple VFDs and simply connect their DC bus circuits
in parallel. If one of the drives slows down its motor, the raised DC bus voltage will be available at
the other motor drives to help them drive their motors.
The following schematic diagram shows two interconnected VFD circuits, with the upper drive
braking and the lower drive motoring (driving):

From (Braking)
three-phase
AC power
source

AC
motor

From (Driving)
three-phase
AC power
source

AC
motor

The major disadvantage to regeneratively braking in this fashion is that the braking energy is
only recoverable by the other motor(s) with their DC busses paralleled, and only at the exact same
time one or more of those motors are braking. This is not as convenient or practical as AC line
regenerative braking, where a virtually unlimited number of loads exist on the grid to absorb the
braking energy at any time. However, for certain applications7 it may be practical, and in those
applications the installed cost of the VFDs will be less than a comparable installation with AC line
regeneration.
As with dynamic braking, motor heating is reduced (compared to DC injection braking) because
the kinetic energy is dissipated elsewhere.
7 One such application is machine motion control, where one part of the machine always needs to slow down while

another part is accelerating. Another application is coupling the drive motors of two conveyor belts together, where
one conveyor always lifts the load uphill and the other conveyor always lowers the load downhill.
18 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

3.2.4 Plugging
Plugging is the most powerful method of braking an electric motor, consisting of actively applying
power to the motor in the opposite direction of its rotation. This is analogous to reversing the engine
thrust of a power boat or an airplane in order to quickly bring it to a halt. For a VFD, this means
a reversal of phase rotation while carefully applying power to the AC induction motor.
Like DC injection braking, plugging requires power be applied to the motor in order to make it
stop, and it also results in all the kinetic energy being dissipated in the rotor. The advantage held
by plugging over DC injection braking is that the braking torque may be maintained and precisely
controlled all the way to zero speed.
3.3. IMPORTANT VFD PARAMETERS 19

3.3 Important VFD parameters

In order for a VFD to properly and safely control an electric motor, that drive must “know” certain
things about that motor and its intended application. All AC motors have ratings for voltage,
current, power, etc. and these ratings are typically found written on a metal nameplate affixed to
the frame where they may be easily read. These “nameplate” ratings must be programmed into the
VFD so that the drive is aware of the motor’s limitations. Failure to properly configure an electronic
motor drive with these “base” parameters may result in damage to the motor, for example if the
drive is configured to output more current than the motor is rated for! As such, it is recommended
that you first program these parameters into a motor drive before setting any other drive parameters.

The following photograph shows the nameplate on a 300 Horsepower three-phase electric motor:

Critically important “base” parameters for any VFD tasked with safely controlling this motor
include the rated voltage (460 Volts), full-load current (427 Amperes), base frequency (60
Hz), and shaft speed8 (587 RPM) at that base frequency of 60 Hz. If the VFD’s output voltage
is too low for any given frequency, the motor will develop insufficient torque. If the VFD’s output
voltage is too high, there will a danger of magnetically saturating the motor’s stator or rotor iron.
If the VFD’s output current is set too low, it may limit itself to some speed less than desired when
that current limit is reached. If the VFD’s output current is set too high, there will be a danger of
damaging the motor, as the VFD will not “know” when the motor becomes overloaded.
In case you’re wondering, the “SF” and “SF Amps” nameplate ratings refer to the motor’s
service factor, representing the amount of overload it can safely withstand for short durations of
8 It is worth noting that some VFDs do not have a shaft speed parameter, but are “aware” only of frequency values.

Any VFD designed to control an AC motor to some target shaft speed, however, must know the equivalence between
base frequency and base shaft speed.
20 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

time. These should never be used as “base” parameters because they do not reflect what the motor
is continuously capable of.

Beyond “base” motor nameplate parameters, other VFD parameters are necessary in order to
ensure safe and efficient motor operation. Some of these are listed in the following subsections. Please
note that VFD features and details vary widely with the model, and that the following descriptions
of features are quite generic. Your best source of detailed information about any specific VFD model
is the user’s manual for that particular VFD.

3.3.1 Maximum and minimum speed (frequency)

Since VFDs synthesize their own sinusoidal voltages and currents and are not bound to the line
frequency, it is possible to configure a VFD to output frequencies greater than that of the line,
allowing the motor to exceed its base (nameplate) shaft speed. Some VFDs express this maximum
as a frequency value, while others specify it as a shaft speed value.
If an AC motor has a maximum speed printed on its nameplate, the VFD’s maximum speed (or
equivalent frequency) should obviously never exceed this value. However, not all applications require
the motor to achieve its maximum safe speed, and so this VFD setting will be application-specific.
Conversely, in some applications where speed control all the way down to standstill is either
unnecessary or undesired, the VFD may be configured for a minimum speed or equivalent frequency.
The motor speed will, of course, always go to zero when the VFD is commanded to stop the motor,
but while running the VFD will never output a frequency below this minimum pre-set value.

3.3.2 Acceleration and Deceleration time

VFDs limit the rate at which they increase and decrease output frequency, thereby limiting the rate
at which the motor’s shaft speed increases or decreases (i.e. angular acceleration/deceleration). The
concerns of acceleration and deceleration rates are both mechanical and electrical. Rapid acceleration
or deceleration places stress (torque) on rotating machine components, as greater torque is necessary
for greater acceleration9 . Rapid acceleration results in high inrush current as the motor’s speed
increases. Rapid deceleration results in high braking current and elevated DC bus voltage within the
VFD, placing extra stress on VFD power components. The acceptable acceleration or deceleration
rate for any VFD-controlled motor is therefore largely application-specific, as it is a function of the
total mechanical inertia of the motor and the machine it drives.

3.3.3 Stopping method

When a VFD is commanded to stop a motor, it may do so in two very different ways: (1) cutting
off all power to the motor and letting it coast to a stop, or (2) gradually ramping the target speed
of the motor to zero. The second option may require the VFD to actively brake the load if it has a
large amount of inertia (i.e. if its natural tendency to coast would take longer than the ramp-to-stop
profile).
9 This is a basic principle of physics. Newton’s Second Law of Motion describes how the acceleration (or
deceleration) of any mass is proportional to the force acting upon that mass (F = ma). The rotational (angular)
version of this formula is τ = Iα, where τ is torque in units of Newton-meters, I is the moment of inertia of the
rotating mass in kilogram-meters squared, and α is the angular acceleration in units of radians per second squared.
3.3. IMPORTANT VFD PARAMETERS 21

3.3.4 Volts per Hertz profile

A VFD must reduce its output voltage to the AC motor as it reduces frequency, in order to limit
line current and avoid magnetically saturating the motor’s iron10 . The most rudimentary way to
do this is to set output voltage as a direct proportion of output frequency (e.g. 100% voltage at
base frequency, 50% voltage at half-speed, etc.). However, a constant proportion of Volts to Hertz
(i.e. a fixed V/F or V/Hz ratio) across the VFD’s speed range is not always the best for any given
application.
When powering variable-torque mechanical loads such as fans and centrifugal pumps, a VFD
can output less than 50% voltage at half-speed because not as much torque (current, magnetic flux)
is necessary to maintain the slower shaft speed. This reduced motor heating (i.e. improves energy
conversion efficiency) and reduced line current, both of which are universally desirable.
When powering constant-torque mechanical loads such as conveyors, elevators, and positive-
displacement compressors, it is advantageous to boost the motor’s terminal voltage at low speeds in
order to generate more torque at its shaft than would otherwise occur with a constant V/F ratio.
This helps the motor start up from a standstill, and allows it to bear heavy mechanical loads at low
speeds. However, this feature comes at a price: the motor will draw more current and dissipate more
heat than it would otherwise, and so additional cooling11 may be necessary for reliable operation.

10 The amount of magnetic flux inside of an electromagnet is directly proportional to the amount of current passing

through the wire winding, and also proportional to the Volt-second product of applied voltage and time. If too much
voltage is applied across the coil for too long a time, the magnetic flux intensity will build up to values capable of
saturating the iron, at which point and additional applied voltage simply results in relatively large amounts of current
(i.e. the incremental inductance of that electromagnet dramatically decreases). Not only does magnetic saturation
result in excess heat dissipated in the iron, but the excess coil current also dissipates unwanted heat, both effects
resulting in undue thermal stress to the machine. Reducing output voltage from a VFD as a function of reduced
frequency helps maintain a more constant Volt-second product, and thereby avoids magnetically saturating the iron.
11 One practical option is to equip the motor with its own electric cooling fan rather than rely on the standard

shaft-driven fan sported by most AC induction motors. This will provide a full blast of cooling air to the motor even
when the motor’s shaft may be turning very slowly.
22 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

For some VFDs, the V/F profile incorporates boost for constant-torque applications, while in
other VFDs any available V/F profile may be augmented with a “DC boost” option. As usual, the
user’s manual for your specific VFD will be your best guide. Some V/F profiles commonly offered
by VFDs include the following:

Constant V/F ratio Variable-torque

Output Output
voltage voltage
(V) (V)

Output frequency (Hz) Output frequency (Hz)

Constant V/F ratio Variable-torque

with DC boost with DC boost

Output Output
voltage voltage
(V) (V)

Output frequency (Hz) Output frequency (Hz)

3.3.5 PWM frequency

The frequency at which the VFD’s output transistors pulse on and off is also configurable in
many VFDs. Note that this is entirely unrelated to the frequency of the synthesized sine-wave
voltage/current determining motor shaft speed, as PWM frequency12 refers to the pulses within
each cycle of the synthesized sine wave. As PWM frequency increases, audible noise from the motor
generally decreases in volume while electromagnetic interference emitted by the motor increases, as
does eddy-current losses in the iron laminations of the motor’s stator and rotor. Optimal PWM
frequency is usually determined experimentally.
When operating a VFD at high PWM frequencies, de-rating of motor horsepower may be
necessary as a result of the increased heating that eddy currents in the motor’s iron core produces.

12 Sometimes referred to as carrier frequency, because the use of a high-frequency signal to synthesize a lower-

frequency signal is similar to amplitude modulation (AM) technology where a constant-frequency “carrier” wave is
modulated in amplitude over a slower period to convey audio-frequency information over a radio-frequency channel.
3.3. IMPORTANT VFD PARAMETERS 23

3.3.6 Current limiting

A basic feature of any VFD is automatic shut-down in the event of motor overcurrent, usually based
on the nameplate (base) motor line current parameter. If the VFD senses motor current exceeding
this pre-set value for some short length of time, it will automatically shut off and output a fault
message indicating the nature of the shutdown. The VFD will have to be re-started in order to
resume control of the motor.
Some VFDs go one step further and actively limit motor current if it exceeds a certain value.
This current limiting feature causes the VFD to reduce its target speed (i.e. output frequency, and
along with that its output voltage) in order to not exceed the pre-set motor current limit. Thus a
VFD equipped with current limiting will respond to a high motor current by reducing motor speed
rather than simply shutting down completely.

3.3.7 Start/stop source

VFDs typically come equipped with pushbutton controls on their faceplates allowing manual starting,
stopping, and reversing of the motor. However, this is not the only way to command a VFD to start,
stop, or reverse. Alternative methods for triggering a VFD to start, stop, or reverse a motor include
external switch contacts and digital network messages.
External switch contacts wired to terminals on the VFD will not be heeded unless and until
certain parameters within the VFD are properly set. It is common for VFDs to provide user-
selectable options such as faceplate control only (default), external switches (usually in multiple
configurations) only, or both.
Digital network control is a very popular method for commanding VFDs to start, stop, and
reverse motor direction. Broadcast-style networks allow multiple VFDs to communicate over single
lengths of communications cable by assigning a network address to each VFD. The controlling
computer calls out each VFD by its address while transmitting the start/stop/reverse commands,
so that only the intended VFD on that network responds.

3.3.8 Speed reference source

VFDs typically come equipped with pushbutton controls or rotary knob controls on their faceplates
allowing manual speed control of the motor. However, as with starting, stopping, and reversal,
this is not the only way to command a VFD to set motor speed. Alternative methods for setting
motor speed include external potentiometers (powered by the VFD), external analog current signals
(e.g. 0-20 mA, 4-20 mA), external analog voltage signals (e.g. 0-10 V, 1-5 V), and digital network
messages.
The same digital networks capable of commanding a VFD to start, stop, and reverse a motor
may be used to convey speed command messages, with all the same advantages.
24 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

3.3.9 Skip frequency

The output of a VFD is obviously variable, since that is what the letter “V” stands for in VFD, but
sometimes a particular output frequency can be problematic for the machine or for the electrical
system the VFD is connected to. If a machine has a certain critical speed at which it tends to vibrate,
the VFD needs to be programmed to avoid operating at that speed (equivalent frequency). Likewise,
if the electrical network powering the VFD contains harmonic filter circuits that could dangerously
resonate at certain drive frequencies (or at harmonics of certain drive frequencies), those frequencies
should be avoided.
For these purposes, some VFDs offer skip frequency settings which forbid the VFD to output
power at the specified frequency(ies). If the VFD’s output frequency must increase or decrease past
a “skip” frequency value, it will do so by “jumping” past that value.

3.3.10 Fault recovery

Some faults flagged by a VFD are more important than others. For severe faults (e.g. electrical
ground fault detected), the VFD will refuse to re-start the motor unless and until the fault has been
manually cleared by a human technician. For other faults, automatic-restarting is an option. Note
that a parameter within the VFD may need to be properly set in order to activate this feature!
3.4. LINE REACTORS 25

3.4 Line reactors

Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching
transistors inside a motor drive, modulating the pulse-width of a high-frequency square wave to
the motor. The high-speed switching happening inside of a motor “drive” circuit results in the
drive drawing current from the AC power source as high-frequency pulses rather than as sinusoidal
waves. These current pulses tend to distort the voltage of the AC power source so that other devices
powered by the same AC source will “see” high-frequency noise on the power lines. This is true for
DC and AC motor drives alike:

3-phase 480 VAC 3-phase 480 VAC

input power input power

High-frequency current and voltage

"noise" appears at input terminals

L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3
Control signal Control signal
from the output Input signal
from the output Input signal
of a process of a process
controller VSD controller VFD
(DC motor drive) (AC motor drive)
Armature Field
T1 T2 T3

DC motor AC motor

T1 T2 T3

As French mathematician and physicist Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) mathematically
proved centuries ago, any repeating waveform – no matter how strange the shape may be – is
equivalent to a series of sine and cosine waves at integer multiples (“harmonics”) of some fundamental
frequency. Thus, the normal sine-wave AC power supplied to an operating motor drive unit will be
tainted by harmonic frequencies in addition to the fundamental frequency of 60 Hz13 .
Such high-frequency noise may be very troublesome to nearby electronic devices and to other
electrical components connected to the same AC power system. Power transformers will suffer
increased core heating from harmonic currents. System capacitances and inductances may resonate
13 In Europe, the fundamental power line frequency is 50 Hz rather than 60 Hz. Also noteworthy is the fact that since

the distortion caused by motor drives is typically symmetrical above and below the center-line of the AC waveform,
the only significant harmonics will be odd and not even. In a 60 Hz system, the odd harmonics will include 180 Hz
(3rd), 300 Hz (5th), 420 Hz (7th), and higher. For a 50 Hz system, the corresponding harmonic frequencies are 150
Hz, 250 Hz, 350 Hz, etc.
26 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

at these harmonic frequencies causing high currents and voltages to form. So-called triplen
harmonics 14 are especially troublesome in three-phase power circuits, where they tend to add in the
neutral conductors of Wye-connected system components and circulate through the phase elements
in Delta-connected system components. In some industrial installations, the magnitude of triplen
harmonic currents in a 4-wire Wye system have been so great that the neutral conductor actually
overheated from excessive current, even though the three line conductors were well within their rated
load current capacities!

One method useful to combat these effects is to filter harmonic frequencies from the rest of the
AC power system, preventing the subsequent “corruption” of the AC power source by the motor
drive’s pulsing currents. The most direct way to filter harmonic frequencies is to use an electrical
component acting as a low-pass filter – a simple inductor connected in series with the motor drive.
For three-phase-powered motor drives, this takes the form of three inductor elements, commonly
referred to in industry as reactors because they add (inductive) reactance to the circuit:

3-phase 480 VAC

input power

Minimal harmonic noise

present on AC power lines

Line reactor

Harmonic noise confined

to drive input wiring

L1 L2 L3

Motor drive

Line reactors work by presenting a greater series impedance to high-frequency harmonic currents
than to low-frequency fundamental currents, following the inductive reactance formula XL = 2πf L.
The greater the frequency (f ) of current, the greater the inductive reactance (XL ) and therefore the
greater the attenuation of that current through that conductor. As one might expect, line reactors
14 Harmonic voltages and currents whose frequencies are multiples of three of the fundamental (e.g. 3rd, 6th, 9th,

12th, 15th harmonics). The reason these particular harmonics are noteworthy in three-phase systems is due to their
relative phase shifts. Whereas the fundamental phase shift angle between different phase elements of a three-phase
electrical system is 120o , the phase shift between triplen harmonics is zero because 3 × 120o = 360o = 0o . Thus,
triplen harmonics are directly additive in three-phase systems.
3.4. LINE REACTORS 27

cannot prevent harmonic distortion in the AC power system, but they do a great deal to mitigate
the ill effects of harmonics produced by a motor drive.

Line reactors may also be used on the output of an AC motor drive to filter harmonics from
the motor itself. Like transformers, AC induction motors suffer greater core losses when exposed to
harmonic currents, causing the motor to heat up more than it would if powered by AC power of one
pure frequency:

3-phase 480 VAC

input power

Weak harmonics

Input line reactor

Weak harmonics

AC motor
Strong harmonics!

L1 L2 L3

Motor drive

T1 T2 T3

Output line reactor

Strong harmonics!

The presence of strong harmonic distortion on the motor drive’s input wiring means those
conductors should be kept short as possible to minimize electromagnetic interference with nearby
electrical and electronic components.

Not only do output line reactors help reduce heating effects in the AC motors powered by variable-
frequency drives, the reactors also reduce the severity of fault currents resulting from short-circuit
transistor failures in the motor drive, as well as minimize the ill effects of reflected signals in the
conductors stretching between the output line reactor and the motor itself15 . With such benefits
arguing for the installation of line reactors in variable-speed motor control circuits, the only reason
15 As you may recall, any sufficiently long set of conductors will act as a transmission line for high-frequency pulse

signals. An unterminated (or poorly-terminated) transmission line will reflect pulse signals reaching its ends. In the
case of a motor drive circuit, these reflected pulses may constructively interfere to produce nodes of high voltage
or high current, causing premature wiring failure. Output line reactors help minimize these effects by filtering out
high-frequency pulse signals from reaching the long motor power conductors.
28 CHAPTER 3. TUTORIAL

for their non-installation is added expense, and/or insufficient space inside the enclosure with the
motor drive.
A photograph of a three-phase line reactor is shown below, conditioning power for multiple VFDs.
The large conductors on top connect to the incoming power feed, while multiple white, blue, and
red wires of smaller gauge route power to multiple VFD units:

In addition to line reactors, another method of reducing the amount of electrical noise coupled
from a VFD and its motor to surrounding electronic circuits is to use shielded cable for all16 power
conductors. A shielded cable contains a layer of either metal foil or metal wire braid wrapped
over the individually insulated internal conductors, and in the case of foil shielding a bare “drain”
conductor to attach the cable shield to Earth ground at one end of the cable.

16 Shielded cable for input power wiring to the VFD is less important than shielded cable for the VFD output power

wiring to the motor, because it is the VFD’s output that is richest in harmonic content.
Chapter 4

Derivations and Technical

References

This chapter is where you will find mathematical derivations too detailed to include in the tutorial,
and/or tables and other technical reference material.

29
30 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIONS AND TECHNICAL REFERENCES

4.1 Electrical safety

A subject of extreme importance to all electrical practitioners is electrical safety, with Ohm’s and
Joule’s Laws being excellent starting points for a discussion on that topic. Here we examine the
human body as an electrical load : electrical charge carriers passing through the resistance of the
body from an external source relinquish some of their energy in the same way charge carriers lose
energy passing through any other resistance. The rate of energy dissipation (i.e. power ) through the
body’s resistance is predicted by Joule’s Law, P = I 2 R. The total amount of energy delivered to a
body by an electric current is a function of that power dissipation rate multiplied by the amount of
time current flowed1 .
Electrical energy poses two distinctly different threats to any living body: the first threat is
forced activation of the body’s nervous system by electric current passing through nerve cells, and
the second threat is burning from the thermal power dissipated in flesh and bone. Both threats are
direct functions of the amount of energy delivered to the body, with the first effect (called electric
shock ) beginning at lower levels of current than the second effect.

Electric shock – not to be confused with the general condition of circulatory shock characterized
by reduced blood circulation in the body – first manifests as a tingling sensation, then as pain
with greater electric current intensity. At a certain threshold value, the current will be sufficient
to override voluntary muscle control. At higher levels of current, breathing will become difficult
or may cease due to paralysis of the diaphragm muscles within the chest. At even higher levels of
current, the heart (itself a muscle of the body) will either fall into an arrhythmic beat pattern or
cease beating altogether. All of these effects will occur at current levels significantly less than one
Ampere.

Some of the most detailed data we possess on the effects of electric shock come from the research
of University of California Berkeley Professor Charles Dalziel, who in the year 1961 published a
report entitled “Deleterious Effects of Electric Shock”. Dalziel performed electric shock experiments
on human volunteers, subjecting both males and females to varying degrees of electric current, both
direct (DC) and alternating (AC), for the purpose of determining thresholds of sensation, pain, and
loss of muscular control.

Table II of Dalziel’s’ report (shown on page 24) is partially2 reproduced in the following table.
The headings “M” and “F” refer to male and female subjects, respectively. Tests conducted using
direct current3 are labeled “DC” while tests conducted using alternating current4 are labeled with
1 Putting units of measurement to this concept, the amount of energy in Joules is equal to average power in Joules

per second multiplied by time in seconds, with the unit of “seconds” canceling out. For brief exposures to electricity,
such as lightning strikes, the most important measurement with regard to safety is the total energy delivered to the
body. The same is true for deliberate applications of electricity to the body, for example cardiac defibrillators, where
the machine’s setting is calibrated in Joules of energy delivered per impulse.
2 The original Table II contained a column of data representing thresholds for women at 10 kHz alternating current,

but these were estimations and not actual data. Extrapolating from the other data points where women tended to
exhibit the same effects as men at approximately 23 the current, Dalziel writes, “Tests on women were not made on
frequencies other than 60 cycles, but if it is assumed that the response for women would be similar, values for women
can be estimated at two-thirds of the corresponding value for men.” Readers should note that I have taken editorial
liberties with the description of bodily effects, for no reason other than formatting.
3 Direct current, or DC, refers to a continuous flow of electric charge carriers in one direction only.
4 Alternating current, or AC, refers to an electric current that periodically switches direction, the period of that
4.1. ELECTRICAL SAFETY 31

frequency values expressed in the unit of Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second. All data points are
1
expressed in milliAmperes (mA), one milliAmpere being 1000 of an Ampere:

Bodily effect DC, M DC, F 60 Hz, M 60 Hz, F 10 kHz, M

Slight sensation 1 mA 0.6 mA 0.4 mA 0.3 mA 7 mA
felt on hand
Median perception 5.2 mA 3.5 mA 1.1 mA 0.7 mA 12 mA
threshold
Shock, with no loss 9 mA 6 mA 1.8 mA 1.2 mA 17 mA
of muscular control
Pain, with 50%
of subjects losing 62 mA 41 mA 9 mA 6 mA 55 mA
muscular control
Pain, labored breathing,
99.5% of subjects losing 90 mA 60 mA 23 mA 15 mA 94 mA
muscular control

For rather obvious reasons no human tests were conducted to the point of cardiac fibrillation.
Dalziel’s report does, however, provide data collected on a variety of animals (pigs, sheep, calves,
dogs, cats, guinea pigs, rabbits) which were anesthetized and then administered large amounts
of electric current until their hearts malfunctioned. From this admittedly limited data, Dalziel
extrapolated the values to obtain 500 mA ( 12 Ampere) of direct current and 100 mA ( 10 1
Ampere)
of alternating current as thresholds for “possible” human heart fibrillation following a three-second
electric shock.
All gruesome details aside, the lesson to be learned here is very plain: very little electric current
is necessary to induce painful and even life-threatening effects on the human body! These danger
thresholds are all substantially less than the amount of current most power conductors are rated to
handle, and less than the ratings of fuses and circuit breakers designed to protect conductors from
overheating.

switching measured in cycles per second or Hertz. In North America, the standard AC grid power frequency is 60
cycles per second, or 60 Hz. The second AC frequency used in Dalziel’s experiments is 10 kHz, which is 10 kilo-Hertz,
or 10000 cycles per second.
32 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIONS AND TECHNICAL REFERENCES

The first line of defense against electrical shock is to place as much electrical resistance between
your body and the circuit’s conductors as is practical, as a means of impeding the flow of electric
current to and through your body. Turning “off” any disconnecting switches between the circuit and
its energy source is a simple means to do this, essentially inserting an air gap between the circuit and
its normal source of power. This allows all points within the circuit to achieve an equipotential state,
which may then be made equipotential to your body by connection to Earth ground (where you are
standing). If there is no voltage present (i.e. no difference in the potential energy levels of electric
charge carriers at different points), then there should be no possibility of dissipating electrical energy
into your body.
Once all electrical energy sources have been disconnected from the circuit you intend to work
on, an additional safety measure is to bond that circuit’s power conductors to Earth ground. This
step forces the power conductors to be electrically common with Earth, and therefore guarantees
a condition of equipotentiality with the Earth. Line workers who install and maintain electric
power line conductors do this as a standard part of their operating procedure: attaching temporary
grounding cables between the power conductors and Earth after opening all disconnect switches
normally connecting those lines to electrical sources. This extra step of bonding the power conductors
ensures no stray sources5 of electrical energy may pose a threat.
The following photograph shows a work site at a 230 kV (230,000 Volt!) electrical substation,
where electricians are busy performing maintenance work on a high-voltage component. In addition
to opening large switches (called disconnects) to isolate this new component from any source of
voltage, they have taken the additional step of bonding the high-voltage conductors to each other
and to Earth ground by means of temporary wire cables. The cables on this work site happen to be
yellow in color, and may be seen hanging down from C-shaped clamps attached to three horizontal
metal tubes called busbars which serve as conductors for electricity in this substation:

5 Examples include electrostatic or magnetic “coupling” with adjacent energized power lines, nearby lightning

strikes, etc.
4.1. ELECTRICAL SAFETY 33

Obviously, such measures are quite necessary on high-voltage systems such as substation busbars
– there simply is no safe way to work on energized conductors at this voltage level. However,
in lower-voltage circuits it is often necessary to take electrical measurements and make certain
adjustments while the circuit is in an energized state. If the circuit in question cannot be “killed” by
disconnection of its power source and therefore must be worked on “live”, the next best protective
measure is to layer insulating material on your body where contact might otherwise be made to
permit an electric current through it. This means wearing insulating gloves and shoes, at minimum.
The principle behind this technique is Ohm’s Law: for any given amount of voltage (V ), current (I)
will be inversely proportional to the total resistance (R) of the circuit pathway. Layering electrically
insulating material over your body’s possible points of contact (e.g. hands, feet) increases the total
resistance of the circuit pathway, and therefore minimizes the amount of current that may flow in
the event of physical contact between two points where a substantial voltage exists.
Lastly, in order to minimize the risk of electric current passing through one’s chest (where the
heart and diaphragm muscles are located), a wise habit when working on energized circuits is to
place one hand in a pocket so that only one hand is in use. This will not only prevent arm-to-arm
passage of electric current, but it also minimizes the number of potential points of contact with bare
skin. Electrical practitioners commonly refer to this as the One-Hand Rule. Ideally, the best hand
to place in a pocket is the left hand, because this is the side of the body where the heart is most
vulnerable.

It is worth noting that the danger from electric shock is best quantified in terms of current, not
voltage, since it is electric current that activates nerve cells. The amount of current passing through
a victim’s body from an applied voltage is a function of Ohm’s Law (I = VR ), and since resistance (R)
varies greatly with skin dryness and layering provided by shoes and clothing, it is difficult to predict
how much voltage poses a shock hazard. A generally accepted threshold of danger is 30 Volts, but
this assumes direct contact with dry skin. Moist skin, perspiration, cuts or punctures, and other
factors reducing body resistance may greatly reduce the voltage threshold for shock hazard! Another
factor is the general health of the victim prior to receiving the electric shock. A preexisting cardiac
condition will likely predispose that individual to harm resulting from an electric shock.

Burns produced by electricity passing through the body may manifest on the skin, at the point
of contact with an electrical conductor (such as a wire), or in severe cases may extend to internal
organs. Comparing internal flesh with skin, dry human skin tends to exhibit much greater levels
of electrical resistance than the internal organs which are wet. This is why electricity causes skin-
surface burns before causing internal organ burns: for any given amount of electric current passing
through different resistances, power dissipated by that current will be greatest at the area greatest
resistance. Mathematically stated, P is maximized where R is greatest, given any value of (I), in
accordance with Joule’s Law (I 2 R).
Another mechanism of electrically-caused burns is arc flash: the heating of air by the passage
of electric current through it (rather than through the body). Under normal conditions air is an
extremely good insulator of electricity, with no free charge carriers available to sustain an electric
current. However, when sufficient voltage causes the electrons in air molecules to separate from
their respective atoms, the negatively-charged electrons and positively-charged ions constitute charge
carriers, and will form an electric current called either a spark or an arc. This current heats the air
molecules by dissipating power as described by Joule’s Law (P = I 2 R), with I being the magnitude
of current traveling through the ionized air and R being the resistance of the arc path.
34 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIONS AND TECHNICAL REFERENCES

The amount of resistance exhibited by a high-temperature arc is surprisingly low, typically less
than one Ohm across the entire length of the arc. With such low resistance, Ohm’s Law predicts
relatively high current values for even modest voltages (I = VR ), resulting in high power levels. Even
if the amount of energy released by each charge carrier moving through the arc is small, the fact that
a great many charge carriers are moving through the arc each second means that the total amount
of energy dissipated may be phenomenally large. This is why arcs forming in high-voltage electric
power systems may reach temperatures of tens of thousands of degrees6 !

In the United States of America, a widely respected standard document for electrical hazards and
protection is the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standard 70E. This document rates
both electric shock and arc flash hazards for electric power circuits based on voltage and current
capabilities, as well as specifies best practices for protection against those hazards.
An example of NFPA 70E standards applied to an industrial installation is the following pair of
photographs showing warning labels affixed to metal-clad electrical switchgear (i.e. metal cabinets
housing large circuit breakers). Each label cites both arc flash and electric shock hazards, including
boundary distances within which greater hazards exist:

The first line of defense against arc flash is the same as for electric shock: de-energize the circuit
so there will be no electrical energy present to harm you. The procedure for de-energizing includes
placing a warning tag as well as a secure lock on any main disconnecting switches or circuit breakers
to ensure power does not get accidently applied to the circuit while people are in harm’s way. This
is referred to in industry as lock-out, tag-out, or LOTO.

6 The NFPA 70E electrical safety standard (Informative Annex K) cites temperatures as high as 35,000 degrees

Fahrenheit in arc flash events, and states that such events are lethal at distances up to 10 feet (3.05 meters). It is worth
noting that electric arc temperatures are limited only by the rate of power dissipated in the arc. Unlike chemically-
driven combustion events, where temperature is limited by the rate at which the various chemical reactants are able
to combine, no such limiting factor exists with electric arcs: the more power dissipated in the arc, the hotter it will
become. These temperatures involved with electric power faults can be so high that they vaporize the metal wires!
4.1. ELECTRICAL SAFETY 35

Generally accepted lock-out, tag-out procedures for electrical equipment include (but are not
limited to) the following steps:

1. Turn equipment off using regular on/off switch to interrupt load current

2. Open all disconnect switches and/or circuit breakers feeding electrical power to the equipment

3. Visually confirm (if possible) that all poles of the disconnecting switch(es) are open

4. Attempt to re-start equipment as your first confirmation that power is indeed shut off

5. Attach locks and tags to prevent disconnecting switches from being re-closed; if no lockable
disconnect means exists, you must open and tag two or more redundant disconnects!

6. Confirm proper operation of voltage meter against a known source

7. Test for dangerous voltage between all relevant conductors, especially those you could bodily
contact, including between pairs of phase conductors in a polyphase system as well as between
each phase conductor and earth ground

8. Confirm (again) proper operation of voltage meter against a known source

Such a lengthy procedure may seem paranoid, but there is good reason for all these steps.
Remember that all safety standards and procedures are written in blood: in other words, every one
of them exists because either someone got hurt or came close to getting hurt by not taking appropriate
precautions. One example of the latter is the following photograph generously shared by Jim Lyon7
who discovered a failed three-phase disconnect switch during a routine LOTO procedure:

As you can see in this photograph, one of the linkages between the disconnecting switch pole and
the actuating lever has broken, allowing one phase to remain closed while the other two opened as
they should. Such a failure would neither be apparent to the operator of that switch nor by anyone’s
external inspection of it, but would be revealed by proper voltage testing (phase-to-ground) on
that faulted phase conductor. Had Mr. Lyon simply trusted the switch handle’s “off” position as
proof of a zero-energy state, he could have been electrocuted touching the un-opened conductor
“downstream” of the switch.

7 Mr. Lyon granted me permission to include his safety-related photographs in my open-source writings during an

exchange on the professional social-media website LinkedIn.

36 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIONS AND TECHNICAL REFERENCES

Another important note with regard to electrical safety and LOTO is the proper function of your
test equipment. Multimeters and test leads are not just tools for precision measurement, but are
life-saving indicators of dangerous voltage. I have personally witnessed multiple instances of failed
multimeter test leads, where one or more leads failed open such that the meter could not reliably
register the presence of voltage. This is why good LOTO procedure always includes verification of
the meter both before and after checking for dangerous voltages at the system conductors.

In cases where de-energization is not possible or not practical, special “arc-flash rated” clothing
may be worn to protect your skin against the high temperatures of arc flash should an arc flash
occur. Arc flash suits cover all skin surfaces, and are rated according to the number of calories8 of
heat the fabric may sustain without disintegrating. The following photograph shows a pair of arc
flash suits hanging on a wall ready for electricians to use while working on circuit breakers at an
electric power generating station:

The blue-colored hood covers the worker’s head and neck, while the grey-colored jumpsuit covers
the rest of the worker’s body.

8 A calorie is simply another unit of energy measurement. The unit-conversion equivalence is 4.187 Joules per

calorie.
4.1. ELECTRICAL SAFETY 37

The hazards of electrical arcs are not limited to bodily burns. Given sufficient arc power, the
explosive expansion of hot air and the shrapnel created by disintegrating hardware represents its
own unique hazard, known as arc blast. As an electrically-driven explosion9 , arc blast is limited only
by the available power of the fault, and can in fact be more violent than a chemical explosion. No
suit can ensure safety against arc blast, and so the only reasonable precaution is maintaining a safe
distance beyond the blast radius.

9 The concussive effects of an arc blast originate from the rapid expansion of air and vaporized metal, producing

intense sound waves and blast pressures. Extremely bright light, as well as high temperatures caused by convection
of super-heated air and by radiation of infrared light from the arc are capable of creating third-degree burns on
unprotected skin.
38 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIONS AND TECHNICAL REFERENCES
Chapter 5

Animations

Some concepts are much easier to grasp when seen in action. A simple yet effective form of animation
suitable to an electronic document such as this is a “flip-book” animation where a set of pages in the
document show successive frames of a simple animation. Such “flip-book” animations are designed
to be viewed by paging forward (and/or back) with the document-reading software application,
watching it frame-by-frame. Unlike video which may be difficult to pause at certain moments,
“flip-book” animations lend themselves very well to individual frame viewing.

39
40 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

5.1 Rotating magnetic field animated

The following animation shows how the “rotating” magnetic field of a three-phase AC induction
motor is produced by the interaction of three stator winding sets energized with different phases
(A, B, and C) of a three-phase AC power source. A red arrow shows the direction of the resultant
magnetic field created by the interaction of the three winding sets.
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 41

B C
N S

N S

C B

A
42 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
N

N S

N S
S
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 43

B C
N
N

S
S
C B

A
44 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
N
N N

S S
S
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 45

B C
N
N

S
S
C B

A
46 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
N

S N

S N

S
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 47

B C
S N

S N

C B

A
48 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
S

S N

S N
N
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 49

B C
S
S

N
N
C B

A
50 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
S
S S

N N
N
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 51

B C
S
S

N
N
C B

A
52 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
S

N S

N S

N
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 53

B C
N S

N S

C B

A
54 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
N

N S

N S
S
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 55

B C
N
N

S
S
C B

A
56 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
N
N N

S S
S
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 57

B C
N
N

S
S
C B

A
58 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
N

S N

S N

S
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 59

B C
S N

S N

C B

A
60 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
S

S N

S N
N
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 61

B C
S
S

N
N
C B

A
62 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
S
S S

N N
N
C B

A
5.1. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD ANIMATED 63

B C
S
S

N
N
C B

A
64 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

B C
S

N S

N S

N
C B

A
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 65

5.2 VFD transistor switching sequence

The following animation shows how the “rotating” magnetic field of a three-phase AC induction
motor is produced by the interaction of three stator winding sets energized with different phases
(A, B, and C) of a three-phase AC power source. A red arrow shows the direction of the resultant
magnetic field created by the interaction of the three winding sets.

A VFD’s power circuitry consists of a rectifier section to convert AC into DC, a filter section to
“smooth” the DC so that it is more steady than it would be otherwise emerging from the rectifier,
and finally an inverter section where the filtered DC is converted into three-phase AC at the desired
voltage and frequency. In this animation we show the inverter stage’s six transistors turning on and
off as necessary to create the rotating magnetic field vector in the motor, but what we do not show is
the high-speed pulsing of those transistors within each of their “on” periods necessary to synthesize
a sinusoidal output current.
66 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power motor
source C
B

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 67

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
68 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 69

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
70 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 71

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
72 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 73

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
74 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 75

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
76 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 77

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
78 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 79

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
80 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 81

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
82 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 83

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
84 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 85

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
86 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 87

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
88 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 89

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
90 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
5.2. VFD TRANSISTOR SWITCHING SEQUENCE 91

From Positive (+) DC bus

three-phase AC
AC power ON ON motor
source C
B

ON

A
Negative (-) DC bus

A B C

Time
92 CHAPTER 5. ANIMATIONS
Chapter 6

Questions

This learning module, along with all others in the ModEL collection, is designed to be used in an
inverted instructional environment where students independently read1 the tutorials and attempt
to answer questions on their own prior to the instructor’s interaction with them. In place of
lecture2 , the instructor engages with students in Socratic-style dialogue, probing and challenging
their understanding of the subject matter through inquiry.
Answers are not provided for questions within this chapter, and this is by design. Solved problems
may be found in the Tutorial and Derivation chapters, instead. The goal here is independence, and
this requires students to be challenged in ways where others cannot think for them. Remember
that you always have the tools of experimentation and computer simulation (e.g. SPICE) to explore
concepts!

The following lists contain ideas for Socratic-style questions and challenges. Upon inspection,
one will notice a strong theme of metacognition within these statements: they are designed to foster
a regular habit of examining one’s own thoughts as a means toward clearer thinking. As such these
sample questions are useful both for instructor-led discussions as well as for self-study.

1 Technical reading is an essential academic skill for any technical practitioner to possess for the simple reason

that the most comprehensive, accurate, and useful information to be found for developing technical competence is in
textual form. Technical careers in general are characterized by the need for continuous learning to remain current
with standards and technology, and therefore any technical practitioner who cannot read well is handicapped in
their professional development. An excellent resource for educators on improving students’ reading prowess through
intentional effort and strategy is the book textitReading For Understanding – How Reading Apprenticeship Improves
Disciplinary Learning in Secondary and College Classrooms by Ruth Schoenbach, Cynthia Greenleaf, and Lynn
Murphy.
2 Lecture is popular as a teaching method because it is easy to implement: any reasonably articulate subject matter

expert can talk to students, even with little preparation. However, it is also quite problematic. A good lecture always
makes complicated concepts seem easier than they are, which is bad for students because it instills a false sense of
confidence in their own understanding; reading and re-articulation requires more cognitive effort and serves to verify
comprehension. A culture of teaching-by-lecture fosters a debilitating dependence upon direct personal instruction,
whereas the challenges of modern life demand independent and critical thought made possible only by gathering
information and perspectives from afar. Information presented in a lecture is ephemeral, easily lost to failures of
memory and dictation; text is forever, and may be referenced at any time.

93
94 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

General challenges following tutorial reading

• Summarize as much of the text as you can in one paragraph of your own words. A helpful
strategy is to explain ideas as you would for an intelligent child: as simple as you can without
compromising too much accuracy.

• Simplify a particular section of the text, for example a paragraph or even a single sentence, so
as to capture the same fundamental idea in fewer words.

• Where did the text make the most sense to you? What was it about the text’s presentation
that made it clear?

• Identify where it might be easy for someone to misunderstand the text, and explain why you
think it could be confusing.

• Identify any new concept(s) presented in the text, and explain in your own words.

• Identify any familiar concept(s) such as physical laws or principles applied or referenced in the
text.

• Devise a proof of concept experiment demonstrating an important principle, physical law, or

technical innovation represented in the text.

• Devise an experiment to disprove a plausible misconception.

• Did the text reveal any misconceptions you might have harbored? If so, describe the
misconception(s) and the reason(s) why you now know them to be incorrect.

• Describe any useful problem-solving strategies applied in the text.

• Devise a question of your own to challenge a reader’s comprehension of the text.

 95

General follow-up challenges for assigned problems

• Identify where any fundamental laws or principles apply to the solution of this problem,
especially before applying any mathematical techniques.

• Devise a thought experiment to explore the characteristics of the problem scenario, applying
known laws and principles to mentally model its behavior.
• Describe in detail your own strategy for solving this problem. How did you identify and
organized the given information? Did you sketch any diagrams to help frame the problem?

• Is there more than one way to solve this problem? Which method seems best to you?

• Show the work you did in solving this problem, even if the solution is incomplete or incorrect.

• What would you say was the most challenging part of this problem, and why was it so?

• Was any important information missing from the problem which you had to research or recall?
• Was there any extraneous information presented within this problem? If so, what was it and
why did it not matter?

• Examine someone else’s solution to identify where they applied fundamental laws or principles.

• Simplify the problem from its given form and show how to solve this simpler version of it.
Examples include eliminating certain variables or conditions, altering values to simpler (usually
whole) numbers, applying a limiting case (i.e. altering a variable to some extreme or ultimate
value).

• For quantitative problems, identify the real-world meaning of all intermediate calculations:
their units of measurement, where they fit into the scenario at hand. Annotate any diagrams
or illustrations with these calculated values.

• For quantitative problems, try approaching it qualitatively instead, thinking in terms of

“increase” and “decrease” rather than definite values.
• For qualitative problems, try approaching it quantitatively instead, proposing simple numerical
values for the variables.

• Were there any assumptions you made while solving this problem? Would your solution change
if one of those assumptions were altered?

• Identify where it would be easy for someone to go astray in attempting to solve this problem.

• Formulate your own problem based on what you learned solving this one.

General follow-up challenges for experiments or projects

• In what way(s) was this experiment or project easy to complete?

• Identify some of the challenges you faced in completing this experiment or project.
96 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

• Show how thorough documentation assisted in the completion of this experiment or project.

• Which fundamental laws or principles are key to this system’s function?

• Identify any way(s) in which one might obtain false or otherwise misleading measurements
from test equipment in this system.

• What will happen if (component X) fails (open/shorted/etc.)?

• What would have to occur to make this system unsafe?

6.1. CONCEPTUAL REASONING 97

6.1 Conceptual reasoning

These questions are designed to stimulate your analytic and synthetic thinking3 . In a Socratic
discussion with your instructor, the goal is for these questions to prompt an extended dialogue
where assumptions are revealed, conclusions are tested, and understanding is sharpened. Your
instructor may also pose additional questions based on those assigned, in order to further probe and
refine your conceptual understanding.
Questions that follow are presented to challenge and probe your understanding of various concepts
presented in the tutorial. These questions are intended to serve as a guide for the Socratic dialogue
between yourself and the instructor. Your instructor’s task is to ensure you have a sound grasp of
these concepts, and the questions contained in this document are merely a means to this end. Your
instructor may, at his or her discretion, alter or substitute questions for the benefit of tailoring the
discussion to each student’s needs. The only absolute requirement is that each student is challenged
and assessed at a level equal to or greater than that represented by the documented questions.

It is far more important that you convey your reasoning than it is to simply convey a correct
answer. For this reason, you should refrain from researching other information sources to answer
questions. What matters here is that you are doing the thinking. If the answer is incorrect, your
instructor will work with you to correct it through proper reasoning. A correct answer without an
adequate explanation of how you derived that answer is unacceptable, as it does not aid the learning
or assessment process.

You will note a conspicuous lack of answers given for these conceptual questions. Unlike standard
textbooks where answers to every other question are given somewhere toward the back of the book,
here in these learning modules students must rely on other means to check their work. The best way
by far is to debate the answers with fellow students and also with the instructor during the Socratic
dialogue sessions intended to be used with these learning modules. Reasoning through challenging
questions with other people is an excellent tool for developing strong reasoning skills.
Another means of checking your conceptual answers, where applicable, is to use circuit simulation
software to explore the effects of changes made to circuits. For example, if one of these conceptual
questions challenges you to predict the effects of altering some component parameter in a circuit,
you may check the validity of your work by simulating that same parameter change within software
and seeing if the results agree.

3 Analytical thinking involves the “disassembly” of an idea into its constituent parts, analogous to dissection.

Synthetic thinking involves the “assembly” of a new idea comprised of multiple concepts, analogous to construction.
Both activities are high-level cognitive skills, extremely important for effective problem-solving, necessitating frequent
challenge and regular practice to fully develop.
98 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

6.1.1 Reading outline and reflections

“Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man” – Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon’s advice is a blueprint for effective education: reading provides the learner with
knowledge, writing focuses the learner’s thoughts, and critical dialogue equips the learner to
confidently communicate and apply their learning. Independent acquisition and application of
knowledge is a powerful skill, well worth the effort to cultivate. To this end, students should
read these educational resources closely, write their own outline and reflections on the reading, and
discuss in detail their findings with classmates and instructor(s). You should be able to do all of the
following after reading any instructional text:
√
Briefly OUTLINE THE TEXT, as though you were writing a detailed Table of Contents. Feel
free to rearrange the order if it makes more sense that way. Prepare to articulate these points in
detail and to answer questions from your classmates and instructor. Outlining is a good self-test of
thorough reading because you cannot outline what you have not read or do not comprehend.
√
Demonstrate ACTIVE READING STRATEGIES, including verbalizing your impressions as
you read, simplifying long passages to convey the same ideas using fewer words, annotating text
and illustrations with your own interpretations, working through mathematical examples shown in
the text, cross-referencing passages with relevant illustrations and/or other passages, identifying
problem-solving strategies applied by the author, etc. Technical reading is a special case of problem-
solving, and so these strategies work precisely because they help solve any problem: paying attention
to your own thoughts (metacognition), eliminating unnecessary complexities, identifying what makes
sense, paying close attention to details, drawing connections between separated facts, and noting
the successful strategies of others.
√
Identify IMPORTANT THEMES, especially GENERAL LAWS and PRINCIPLES, expounded
in the text and express them in the simplest of terms as though you were teaching an intelligent
child. This emphasizes connections between related topics and develops your ability to communicate
complex ideas to anyone.
√
Form YOUR OWN QUESTIONS based on the reading, and then pose them to your instructor
and classmates for their consideration. Anticipate both correct and incorrect answers, the incorrect
answer(s) assuming one or more plausible misconceptions. This helps you view the subject from
different perspectives to grasp it more fully.
√
Devise EXPERIMENTS to test claims presented in the reading, or to disprove misconceptions.
Predict possible outcomes of these experiments, and evaluate their meanings: what result(s) would
confirm, and what would constitute disproof? Running mental simulations and evaluating results is
essential to scientific and diagnostic reasoning.
√
Specifically identify any points you found CONFUSING. The reason for doing this is to help
diagnose misconceptions and overcome barriers to learning.
6.1. CONCEPTUAL REASONING 99

6.1.2 Foundational concepts

Correct analysis and diagnosis of electric circuits begins with a proper understanding of some basic
concepts. The following is a list of some important concepts referenced in this module’s full tutorial.
Define each of them in your own words, and be prepared to illustrate each of these concepts with a
description of a practical example and/or a live demonstration.

Energy

Conservation of Energy

Rotating magnetic field

Synchronous operation

Induction motor

Slip speed

AC motor speed control

Rectifier

Filter

Inverter

Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)

100 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

Duty cycle

Inductive reactance

V/F ratio

Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)

DC injection braking

Dynamic braking

Regenerative braking

Plugging braking

Motor nameplate parameters

V/Hz profile

Start/stop source

Speed reference source

Harmonic
6.1. CONCEPTUAL REASONING 101

Triplen harmonic

Cable shield
102 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

6.1.3 Start-stop-speed-direction control

The most common type of electric motor for industrial applications is the three-phase AC induction
motor. Its basic principle of operation is rather simple: three AC voltage sources – each one 120o
phase-shifted from the other – are connected to energize sets of electromagnet coils inside the motor
(called stator windings because they are stationary), the result being that each of those coils reaches
its full “peak” magnetic force at different times. As these out-of-phase voltages cycle periodically,
the stator coils produce a rotating magnetic field prompting the motor’s rotor to rotate:

A A B C
B
3-phase 3-phase
AC power AC motor
source
C
Time

A helpful analogy is that of a string of chasing lights where electric lamps blink on and off in
sequence to create the appearance of motion. Instead of lamps being energized in sequence, a three-
phase AC induction motor’s electromagnet coils energize in sequence to create the “appearance” of
a rotating magnetic field.

• Modify the above schematic diagram so that we may start and stop the electric motor at will.
• Based on this understanding of a three-phase AC induction motor, identify what factor(s)
determining the motor’s rotational speed. Is the speed of a three-phase AC induction motor
something we may easily vary? Why or why not?
• Also, identify the factor(s) determining the motor’s direction of rotation. Is the direction of a
three-phase AC induction motor something we may easily alter? Why or why not?

Challenges

• Apply the same questions and reasoning to a set of chasing lights: how to vary the speed of
the lamps’ “motion” as well as the direction.
• How do you suppose we generate three-phase AC power? What sort of machine or system
might be able to do this?
6.1. CONCEPTUAL REASONING 103

6.1.4 VFD/pump configuration

In this system, a discrete (on/off) signal from a SPST switch commands the VFD to start and stop
an AC motor, while an analog 4-20 mA current signal commands the motor’s speed. A network cable
allows other data to be written or read by a computer, PLC, or other digital control device. The
ability to externally control a VFD makes it very useful as a final control element in an automation
system:

Analog speed
controller
To a source of PV SP

3-phase AC power
Start/Stop switch
Out

Motor

L1 L2 L3
VFD

T3 T2 T1
DIN Discrete (on/off) signal

AIN Analog 4-20 mA signal

T1 T2 T3

Network
cable
...

Before the VFD may be used for control purposes, though, it must be configured with the
correct parameter values necessary to match it to the electric motor, as well as specify its control
functionality. This is the task of the on-site technician or engineer tasked with commissioning the
motor control system.
104 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

Below is a photograph of a nameplate on the side of a large electric motor used to turn a pump
at a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Suppose we wished to control this pump using a VFD,
and needed to configure the VFD for this task. Our intent is to start and stop the motor using a
computer digitally communicating with the VFD via a Modbus digital network, with motor speed
set by a 4-20 mA analog current signal (with 4 mA being completely stopped and 20 mA being
full-speed). Assume we wish to limit the motor’s speed to a maximum of 500 RPM:

Identify, if possible, reasonable values for each of the following VFD parameters. If there is
insufficient information, identify what else you may need to know in order to determine a good
parameter value:

• Parameter 01 (Acceleration Time) =

• Parameter 02 (Deceleration Time) =

• Parameter 03 (Volts/Hz Curve) = 0 (Default), 1 (High Torque), or 2 (Fans/Pumps) =

• Parameter 04 (DC Boost) =

• Parameter 05 (Overload Current) =

• Parameter 06 (Line Voltage) =

• Parameter 07 (Base Frequency) =

• Parameter 08 (Base Speed) =

• Parameter 09 (Speed Reference) = 0 (Keypad ), 1 (4-20 mA), 2 (Modbus), or 3 (Fixed ) =

• Parameter 10 (Start Source) = 0 (Keypad ), 1 (2-wire switch), 3 (3-wire switch), or 4 (Modbus)

=

• Parameter 11 (Minimum Output Frequency) =

6.1. CONCEPTUAL REASONING 105

• Parameter 12 (Maximum Output Frequency) =

Challenges

• Identify some advantages of controlling an electric pump using a VFD, as opposed to having
the pump run at a constant speed.

• For an AC induction motor lacking a VFD, what factor(s) determine the motor’s shaft speed?

6.1.5 Rockwell PowerFlex 4 configuration

Suppose you were asked to configure a Rockwell Powerflex 4 VFD to a three-phase AC induction
motor rated at 208 VAC, 15 Amps, 1740 RPM at full load and 60 Hz. The VFD will be started and
stopped from its keypad, and the motor’s speed must be controlled by a 5 kΩ potentiometer over
its full range from 0 to 1740 RPM.

Sketch a simple diagram showing the necessary power conductors connected to the VFD and the
motor, and identify the important VFD parameter settings for this application.

Challenges

• Identify some of the other start-stop control options for this VFD.

• Identify some of the other speed control options for this VFD.
106 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

6.1.6 Currents within a VFD circuit

Determine the directions of electric current where you see question marks in the following schematic
diagram for a variable-speed AC motor drive, at the moment in time (t1 ) specific on the oscillograph:

? ? ? ? ? ?
L1 T1 ?
Three-phase AC
AC power L2 ? T2 ?
L3 ? T3 motor
source
(60 Hz) ?
? ? ? ? ? ? 1720 RPM
60 Hz

L1 L2 L3

Input current 0

T1 T2 T3

Output current 0

t1

Use conventional flow notation to show current direction (a “positive” current flowing from
power source to motor, and a “negative” current flowing from motor to power source). If there is
no current going through a labeled wire or component, just write NO instead of drawing an arrow
on the diagram.

Challenges
6.1. CONCEPTUAL REASONING 107

• What purpose is served by the capacitor within the VFD?

• What role, if any, does the frequency of the incoming three-phase line power play in determining
the frequency of the outgoing three-phase power to the motor?
108 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

6.1.7 Transistor states

This variable-frequency motor drive (VFD) circuit converts three-phase AC power at 60 Hz into
rectified and filtered DC, then switches that DC into three-phase AC of whatever frequency desired.
The control circuitry for triggering the MOSFETs is not shown in this diagram, for the sake of
simplicity:

L1 Q1 Q3 Q5 T1
Three-phase AC
AC power L2 T2
L3 T3 motor
source
(60 Hz)

Q2 Q4 Q6

Your task is to determine the states (ON or OFF) of those six transistors during each of the time
periods shown in the oscillograph:

T1 T2 T3

Output current 0
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7

• From time t1 to t2 :

• From time t2 to t3 :

• From time t3 to t4 :

• From time t4 to t5 :

• From time t5 to t6 :

• From time t6 to t7 :

Challenges
6.1. CONCEPTUAL REASONING 109

• What would be different, if anything, about the switching of these six power transistors to
make the motor spin faster?

• What would be different, if anything, about the switching of these six power transistors to
make the motor spin in reverse rather than forward?

6.1.8 Grinding machine braking

Suppose a large grinding machine used in a production machine shop is powered by an induction
motor, which in turn receives its electrical power from a VFD. The time for this machine to coast
to a stop after running at full speed is quite long, owing to the mass of the spinning griding wheel.
This “coast” time has a negative effect on production, because the operators must wait until the
wheel finally stops before they can take the freshly-ground parts off the machine and replace them
with new parts to be ground.
Your supervisor would like to shorten this “stopping” time by using the dynamic braking feature
of the VFD, which up to this point in time had never been configured for use. Explain where the
stored (kinetic) energy of the spinning grinding wheel goes when the VFD dynamically brakes it to
a quick stop.

Challenges

• What are some alternative braking techniques to dynamic braking? In each of these techniques,
where does the grinding wheel’s kinetic energy go during the braking process?
110 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

6.2 Quantitative reasoning

These questions are designed to stimulate your computational thinking. In a Socratic discussion with
your instructor, the goal is for these questions to reveal your mathematical approach(es) to problem-
solving so that good technique and sound reasoning may be reinforced. Your instructor may also pose
additional questions based on those assigned, in order to observe your problem-solving firsthand.

Mental arithmetic and estimations are strongly encouraged for all calculations, because without
these abilities you will be unable to readily detect errors caused by calculator misuse (e.g. keystroke
errors).

You will note a conspicuous lack of answers given for these quantitative questions. Unlike
standard textbooks where answers to every other question are given somewhere toward the back
of the book, here in these learning modules students must rely on other means to check their work.
My advice is to use circuit simulation software such as SPICE to check the correctness of quantitative
answers. Refer to those learning modules within this collection focusing on SPICE to see worked
examples which you may use directly as practice problems for your own study, and/or as templates
you may modify to run your own analyses and generate your own practice problems.
Completely worked example problems found in the Tutorial may also serve as “test cases4 ” for
gaining proficiency in the use of circuit simulation software, and then once that proficiency is gained
you will never need to rely5 on an answer key!

4 In other words, set up the circuit simulation software to analyze the same circuit examples found in the Tutorial.

If the simulated results match the answers shown in the Tutorial, it confirms the simulation has properly run. If
the simulated results disagree with the Tutorial’s answers, something has been set up incorrectly in the simulation
software. Using every Tutorial as practice in this way will quickly develop proficiency in the use of circuit simulation
software.
5 This approach is perfectly in keeping with the instructional philosophy of these learning modules: teaching students

to be self-sufficient thinkers. Answer keys can be useful, but it is even more useful to your long-term success to have
a set of tools on hand for checking your own work, because once you have left school and are on your own, there will
no longer be “answer keys” available for the problems you will have to solve.
6.2. QUANTITATIVE REASONING 111

6.2.1 Miscellaneous physical constants

Note: constants shown in bold type are exact, not approximations. Values inside of parentheses show
one standard deviation (σ) of uncertainty in the final digits: for example, the magnetic permeability
of free space value given as 1.25663706212(19) × 10−6 H/m represents a center value (i.e. the location
parameter) of 1.25663706212 × 10−6 Henrys per meter with one standard deviation of uncertainty
equal to 0.0000000000019 × 10−6 Henrys per meter.

Avogadro’s number (NA ) = 6.02214076 × 1023 per mole (mol−1 )

Boltzmann’s constant (k) = 1.380649 × 10−23 Joules per Kelvin (J/K)

Electronic charge (e) = 1.602176634 × 10−19 Coulomb (C)

Faraday constant (F ) = 96,485.33212... × 104 Coulombs per mole (C/mol)

Magnetic permeability of free space (µ0 ) = 1.25663706212(19) × 10−6 Henrys per meter (H/m)

Electric permittivity of free space (ǫ0 ) = 8.8541878128(13) × 10−12 Farads per meter (F/m)

Characteristic impedance of free space (Z0 ) = 376.730313668(57) Ohms (Ω)

Gravitational constant (G) = 6.67430(15) × 10−11 cubic meters per kilogram-seconds squared
(m3 /kg-s2 )

Molar gas constant (R) = 8.314462618... Joules per mole-Kelvin (J/mol-K) = 0.08205746(14)
liters-atmospheres per mole-Kelvin

Planck constant (h) = 6.62607015 × 10−34 joule-seconds (J-s)

Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ) = 5.670374419... × 10−8 Watts per square meter-Kelvin4

(W/m2 ·K4 )

Speed of light in a vacuum (c) = 299,792,458 meters per second (m/s) = 186282.4 miles per
second (mi/s)

Note: All constants taken from NIST data “Fundamental Physical Constants – Complete Listing”,
from http://physics.nist.gov/constants, National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST), 2018 CODATA Adjustment.
112 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

6.2.2 Introduction to spreadsheets

A powerful computational tool you are encouraged to use in your work is a spreadsheet. Available
on most personal computers (e.g. Microsoft Excel), spreadsheet software performs numerical
calculations based on number values and formulae entered into cells of a grid. This grid is
typically arranged as lettered columns and numbered rows, with each cell of the grid identified
by its column/row coordinates (e.g. cell B3, cell A8). Each cell may contain a string of text, a
number value, or a mathematical formula. The spreadsheet automatically updates the results of all
mathematical formulae whenever the entered number values are changed. This means it is possible
to set up a spreadsheet to perform a series of calculations on entered data, and those calculations
will be re-done by the computer any time the data points are edited in any way.
For example, the following spreadsheet calculates average speed based on entered values of
distance traveled and time elapsed:

A B C D
1 Distance traveled 46.9 Kilometers

2 Time elapsed 1.18 Hours

3 Average speed = B1 / B2 km/h

4
5

Text labels contained in cells A1 through A3 and cells C1 through C3 exist solely for readability
and are not involved in any calculations. Cell B1 contains a sample distance value while cell B2
contains a sample time value. The formula for computing speed is contained in cell B3. Note how
this formula begins with an “equals” symbol (=), references the values for distance and speed by
lettered column and numbered row coordinates (B1 and B2), and uses a forward slash symbol for
division (/). The coordinates B1 and B2 function as variables 6 would in an algebraic formula.
When this spreadsheet is executed, the numerical value 39.74576 will appear in cell B3 rather
than the formula = B1 / B2, because 39.74576 is the computed speed value given 46.9 kilometers
traveled over a period of 1.18 hours. If a different numerical value for distance is entered into cell
B1 or a different value for time is entered into cell B2, cell B3’s value will automatically update. All
you need to do is set up the given values and any formulae into the spreadsheet, and the computer
will do all the calculations for you.
Cell B3 may be referenced by other formulae in the spreadsheet if desired, since it is a variable
just like the given values contained in B1 and B2. This means it is possible to set up an entire chain
of calculations, one dependent on the result of another, in order to arrive at a final value. The
arrangement of the given data and formulae need not follow any pattern on the grid, which means
you may place them anywhere.

6 Spreadsheets may also provide means to attach text labels to cells for use as variable names (Microsoft Excel

simply calls these labels “names”), but for simple spreadsheets such as those shown here it’s usually easier just to use
the standard coordinate naming for each cell.
6.2. QUANTITATIVE REASONING 113

Common7 arithmetic operations available for your use in a spreadsheet include the following:

• Addition (+)

• Subtraction (-)

• Multiplication (*)

• Division (/)

• Powers (^)

• Square roots (sqrt())

• Logarithms (ln() , log10())

Parentheses may be used to ensure8 proper order of operations within a complex formula.
Consider this example of a spreadsheet implementing the quadratic formula, used to solve for roots
of a polynomial expression in the form of ax2 + bx + c:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a

A B
1 x_1 = (-B4 + sqrt((B4^2) - (4*B3*B5))) / (2*B3)

2 x_2 = (-B4 - sqrt((B4^2) - (4*B3*B5))) / (2*B3)

3 a = 9

4 b = 5

5 c = -2

This example is configured to compute roots9 of the polynomial 9x2 + 5x − 2 because the values
of 9, 5, and −2 have been inserted into cells B3, B4, and B5, respectively. Once this spreadsheet has
been built, though, it may be used to calculate the roots of any second-degree polynomial expression
simply by entering the new a, b, and c coefficients into cells B3 through B5. The numerical values
appearing in cells B1 and B2 will be automatically updated by the computer immediately following
any changes made to the coefficients.

7 Modern spreadsheet software offers a bewildering array of mathematical functions you may use in your

computations. I recommend you consult the documentation for your particular spreadsheet for information on
operations other than those listed here.
8 Spreadsheet programs, like text-based programming languages, are designed to follow standard order of operations

by default. However, my personal preference is to use parentheses even where strictly unnecessary just to make it
clear to any other person viewing the formula what the intended order of operations is.
9 Reviewing some algebra here, a root is a value for x that yields an overall value of zero for the polynomial. For

this polynomial (9x2 + 5x − 2) the two roots happen to be x = 0.269381 and x = −0.82494, with these values displayed
in cells B1 and B2, respectively upon execution of the spreadsheet.
114 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

Alternatively, one could break up the long quadratic formula into smaller pieces like this:
p
y = b2 − 4ac z = 2a

−b ± y
x=
z

A B C
1 x_1 = (-B4 + C1) / C2 = sqrt((B4^2) - (4*B3*B5))

2 x_2 = (-B4 - C1) / C2 = 2*B3

3 a = 9

4 b = 5

5 c = -2

Note how the square-root term (y) is calculated in cell C1, and the denominator term (z) in cell
C2. This makes the two final formulae (in cells B1 and B2) simpler to interpret. The positioning of
all these cells on the grid is completely arbitrary10 – all that matters is that they properly reference
each other in the formulae.

Spreadsheets are particularly useful for situations where the same set of calculations representing
a circuit or other system must be repeated for different initial conditions. The power of a spreadsheet
is that it automates what would otherwise be a tedious set of calculations. One specific application
of this is to simulate the effects of various components within a circuit failing with abnormal values
(e.g. a shorted resistor simulated by making its value nearly zero; an open resistor simulated by
making its value extremely large). Another application is analyzing the behavior of a circuit design
given new components that are out of specification, and/or aging components experiencing drift
over time.

10 My personal preference is to locate all the “given” data in the upper-left cells of the spreadsheet grid (each data

point flanked by a sensible name in the cell to the left and units of measurement in the cell to the right as illustrated
in the first distance/time spreadsheet example), sometimes coloring them in order to clearly distinguish which cells
contain entered data versus which cells contain computed results from formulae. I like to place all formulae in cells
below the given data, and try to arrange them in logical order so that anyone examining my spreadsheet will be able
to figure out how I constructed a solution. This is a general principle I believe all computer programmers should
follow: document and arrange your code to make it easy for other people to learn from it.
6.2. QUANTITATIVE REASONING 115

6.2.3 Three-phase simulation program

The following computer program written in the C language simulates AC waveforms in a three-phase
system:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

float sinecalc(float);

int main (void)

{
float angle;
int n;

printf("Angle , Phase A , Phase B , Phase C");

for (angle = 0 ; angle <= 720 ; angle = angle + 10.0)

{
printf("\n%f", angle);

for (n = 0 ; n <= 2 ; ++n)

{
printf(" , %f", sinecalc(angle + (n * 120)));
}
}

return 0;
}

float sinecalc (float input)

{
return sin(input * M_PI / 180);
}

This program outputs text in a comma-separated-variable (CSV) format suitable for plotting
with spreadsheet or other math visualization software, a plot shown on the following page.
116 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

’data.csv’ using 1:2

’data.csv’ using 1:3
1 ’data.csv’ using 1:4

0.5

-0.5

-1

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Answer the following questions about the program and its corresponding plotted output:

• What purpose is served by the sinecalc() function?

• Which waveform in the plot represents the “A” phase, the “B” phase, and the “C” phase?
• How are the three different phase angles of these waveforms implemented in the code?

• Are both for() loops strictly necessary in this program?

• What would happen if the 10.0 constant value were set to 30.0 instead?

• How could the code be modified to plot waveforms with RMS values of 277 Volts each?

Challenges

• Do these plotted waveforms have a specific frequency? Why or why not?

• If we were to use this code as part of a VFD control program running in a microcontroller IC,
how might its output interface with the real world of the electric motor being controlled?
6.2. QUANTITATIVE REASONING 117

6.2.4 Line reactor harmonic impedance

A common “accessory” device for a variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a line reactor, which is nothing
more than a large inductor connected in series with each of the motor drive’s power line conductors.
The purpose of a line reactor is to act as a low-pass filter, allowing 60 Hz power to the VFD
but blocking harmonic frequencies generated by the VFD from “corrupting” the AC power supply
system.

3-phase 480 VAC

Line reactor

L1 L2 L3

T1 T2 T3
VFD AC motor

T1 T2 T3

Suppose each winding of a line reactor for a 10 horsepower VFD has 0.119 Ω of resistance and
1.5 mH of inductance. Calculate the amount of impedance offered by each winding to the following
harmonics:

• 1st harmonic:
• 3rd harmonic:
• 5th harmonic:
• 7th harmonic:
• 9th harmonic:
118 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

Challenges

• Normally a low-pass inductive filter requires a resistor as well as an inductor to make the
filtering complete. Where is the resistor here?
6.2. QUANTITATIVE REASONING 119

6.2.5 Line reactor resonance

An AC electric power system has a bank of capacitors connected to correct for low power factor.
One day a new VFD is installed to provide variable-speed control for an existing AC motor. The
VFD has its own line reactors connected on the input side to help filter harmonics from the rest of
the AC power system. The problem is, the line reactors and the power factor correction capacitors
now form a resonant circuit that may produce high currents and/or voltages at a certain frequency:

3-phase 480 VAC

60 Hz

Fuses Fuses

Power factor
correction
capacitors
Line reactor (1700 µF each)
(0.46 mH each)

L1 L2 L3

T1 T2 T3
VFD AC motor

T1 T2 T3

Calculate the resonant frequency of the circuit formed by the reactor coils and power factor
correction capacitors, then determine whether or not resonance will be a problem in this system.
Explain why or why not, showing all your mathematical work. Note: for the sake of simplicity, you
may model each resonant circuit as simple pairs of one reactor coil and one capacitor in series with
each other.

Challenges
• Is it possible to avoid this resonance problem by programming the VFD with certain skip
frequency values? Why or why not?
120 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS

• What purpose do the capacitors serve in this system? Can we safely eliminate them from the
circuit?

6.2.6 Limited-adjustment speed potentiometer

The following variable-speed motor drive receives a variable DC voltage from a potentiometer as a
speed-command signal from a human operator. In this case, the potentiometer’s full range commands
the motor to spin from 0 RPM to 1800 RPM (the wiper here is drawn in a position nearer 100%
speed:

Motor

3 phase line power

L1 L2 L3

VFD

T1 T2 T3

10 kΩ

One day the operations manager approaches you to request you modify this speed-command
system so that the operators cannot call for a speed less than 100 RPM or greater than 1670 RPM.
You consult the manual for the motor drive, and are surprised to find it lacks this sort of capability:
a resistance input of 0 to 10 kΩ will only translate to a speed range of 0 to 1800 RPM. This means
you must figure out a way to set the adjustable speed range limits externally to the drive (i.e. by
limiting the range of the potentiometer’s resistance adjustment).
You know you cannot mechanically limit the turning of the potentiometer knob, but you can
connect fixed-value resistors to the potentiometer to electrically limit its range, so that full clockwise
will only command the drive to go as high as 1670 RPM, and full-counterclockwise will only command
the drive to go as low as 100 RPM.

Modify this diagram to include any necessary fixed-value resistors, and also calculate their
necessary values.
6.3. DIAGNOSTIC REASONING 121

6.3 Diagnostic reasoning

These questions are designed to stimulate your deductive and inductive thinking, where you must
apply general principles to specific scenarios (deductive) and also derive conclusions about the failed
circuit from specific details (inductive). In a Socratic discussion with your instructor, the goal is for
these questions to reinforce your recall and use of general circuit principles and also challenge your
ability to integrate multiple symptoms into a sensible explanation of what’s wrong in a circuit. Your
instructor may also pose additional questions based on those assigned, in order to further challenge
and sharpen your diagnostic abilities.

As always, your goal is to fully explain your analysis of each problem. Simply obtaining a
correct answer is not good enough – you must also demonstrate sound reasoning in order to
successfully complete the assignment. Your instructor’s responsibility is to probe and challenge
your understanding of the relevant principles and analytical processes in order to ensure you have a
strong foundation upon which to build further understanding.

You will note a conspicuous lack of answers given for these diagnostic questions. Unlike standard
textbooks where answers to every other question are given somewhere toward the back of the book,
here in these learning modules students must rely on other means to check their work. The best way
by far is to debate the answers with fellow students and also with the instructor during the Socratic
dialogue sessions intended to be used with these learning modules. Reasoning through challenging
questions with other people is an excellent tool for developing strong reasoning skills.
Another means of checking your diagnostic answers, where applicable, is to use circuit simulation
software to explore the effects of faults placed in circuits. For example, if one of these diagnostic
questions requires that you predict the effect of an open or a short in a circuit, you may check the
validity of your work by simulating that same fault (substituting a very high resistance in place of
that component for an open, and substituting a very low resistance for a short) within software and
seeing if the results agree.

6.3.1 Predicting effects of VFD component faults

Predict the effects of each of these problems, considered one at a time:
• Dynamic braking resistor failed open
• Input line reactor failed open on three-phase source
• One diode inside VFD’s rectifier section failed open
• Improper V/Hz profile configuration

Challenges

• For each of these problems, is there a temporary work-around that might suffice before repairs
can be made?
122 CHAPTER 6. QUESTIONS
Chapter 7

Projects and Experiments

The following project and experiment descriptions outline things you can build to help you
understand circuits. With any real-world project or experiment there exists the potential for physical
harm. Electricity can be very dangerous in certain circumstances, and you should follow proper safety
precautions at all times!

7.1 Recommended practices

This section outlines some recommended practices for all circuits you design and construct.

123
124 CHAPTER 7. PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS

7.1.1 Safety first!

Electricity, when passed through the human body, causes uncomfortable sensations and in large
enough measures1 will cause muscles to involuntarily contract. The overriding of your nervous
system by the passage of electrical current through your body is particularly dangerous in regard
to your heart, which is a vital muscle. Very large amounts of current can produce serious internal
burns in addition to all the other effects.
Cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is the standard first-aid for any victim of electrical shock.
This is a very good skill to acquire if you intend to work with others on dangerous electrical circuits.
You should never perform tests or work on such circuits unless someone else is present who is
proficient in CPR.

As a general rule, any voltage in excess of 30 Volts poses a definitive electric shock hazard, because
beyond this level human skin does not have enough resistance to safely limit current through the
body. “Live” work of any kind with circuits over 30 volts should be avoided, and if unavoidable
should only be done using electrically insulated tools and other protective equipment (e.g. insulating
shoes and gloves). If you are unsure of the hazards, or feel unsafe at any time, stop all work and
distance yourself from the circuit!
A policy I strongly recommend for students learning about electricity is to never come into
electrical contact2 with an energized conductor, no matter what the circuit’s voltage3 level! Enforcing
this policy may seem ridiculous when the circuit in question is powered by a single battery smaller
than the palm of your hand, but it is precisely this instilled habit which will save a person from
bodily harm when working with more dangerous circuits. Experience has taught me that students
who learn early on to be careless with safe circuits have a tendency to be careless later with dangerous
circuits!

In addition to the electrical hazards of shock and burns, the construction of projects and running
of experiments often poses other hazards such as working with hand and power tools, potential
1 Professor Charles Dalziel published a research paper in 1961 called “The Deleterious Effects of Electric Shock”

detailing the results of electric shock experiments with both human and animal subjects. The threshold of perception
for human subjects holding a conductor in their hand was in the range of 1 milliampere of current (less than this
for alternating current, and generally less for female subjects than for male). Loss of muscular control was exhibited
by half of Dalziel’s subjects at less than 10 milliamperes alternating current. Extreme pain, difficulty breathing,
and loss of all muscular control occurred for over 99% of his subjects at direct currents less than 100 milliamperes
and alternating currents less than 30 milliamperes. In summary, it doesn’t require much electric current to induce
painful and even life-threatening effects in the human body! Your first and best protection against electric shock is
maintaining an insulating barrier between your body and the circuit in question, such that current from that circuit
will be unable to flow through your body.
2 By “electrical contact” I mean either directly touching an energized conductor with any part of your body, or

indirectly touching it through a conductive tool. The only physical contact you should ever make with an energized
conductor is via an electrically insulated tool, for example a screwdriver with an electrically insulated handle, or an
insulated test probe for some instrument.
3 Another reason for consistently enforcing this policy, even on low-voltage circuits, is due to the dangers that even

some low-voltage circuits harbor. A single 12 Volt automobile battery, for example, can cause a surprising amount of
damage if short-circuited simply due to the high current levels (i.e. very low internal resistance) it is capable of, even
though the voltage level is too low to cause a shock through the skin. Mechanics wearing metal rings, for example,
are at risk from severe burns if their rings happen to short-circuit such a battery! Furthermore, even when working on
circuits that are simply too low-power (low voltage and low current) to cause any bodily harm, touching them while
energized can pose a threat to the circuit components themselves. In summary, it generally wise (and always a good
habit to build) to “power down” any circuit before making contact between it and your body.
7.1. RECOMMENDED PRACTICES 125

contact with high temperatures, potential chemical exposure, etc. You should never proceed with a
project or experiment if you are unaware of proper tool use or lack basic protective measures (e.g.
personal protective equipment such as safety glasses) against such hazards.

Some other safety-related practices should be followed as well:

• All power conductors extending outward from the project must be firmly strain-relieved (e.g.
“cord grips” used on line power cords), so that an accidental tug or drop will not compromise
circuit integrity.

• All electrical connections must be sound and appropriately made (e.g. soldered wire joints
rather than twisted-and-taped; terminal blocks rather than solderless breadboards for high-
current or high-voltage circuits). Use “touch-safe” terminal connections with recessed metal
parts to minimize risk of accidental contact.

• Always provide overcurrent protection in any circuit you build. Always. This may be in the
form of a fuse, a circuit breaker, and/or an electronically current-limited power supply.

• Always ensure circuit conductors are rated for more current than the overcurrent protection
limit. Always. A fuse does no good if the wire or printed circuit board trace will “blow” before
it does!

• Always bond metal enclosures to Earth ground for any line-powered circuit. Always. Ensuring
an equipotential state between the enclosure and Earth by making the enclosure electrically
common with Earth ground ensures no electric shock can occur simply by one’s body bridging
between the Earth and the enclosure.

• Avoid building a high-energy circuit when a low-energy circuit will suffice. For example,
I always recommend beginning students power their first DC resistor circuits using small
batteries rather than with line-powered DC power supplies. The intrinsic energy limitations
of a dry-cell battery make accidents highly unlikely.

• Use line power receptacles that are GFCI (Ground Fault Current Interrupting) to help avoid
electric shock from making accidental contact with a “hot” line conductor.

• Always wear eye protection when working with tools or live systems having the potential to
eject material into the air. Examples of such activities include soldering, drilling, grinding,
cutting, wire stripping, working on or near energized circuits, etc.

• Always use a step-stool or stepladder to reach high places. Never stand on something not
designed to support a human load.

• When in doubt, ask an expert. If anything even seems remotely unsafe to you, do not proceed
without consulting a trusted person fully knowledgeable in electrical safety.
126 CHAPTER 7. PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS

7.1.2 Other helpful tips

Experience has shown the following practices to be very helpful, especially when students make their
own component selections, to ensure the circuits will be well-behaved:

• Avoid resistor values less than 1 kΩ or greater than 100 kΩ, unless such values are definitely
necessary4 . Resistances below 1 kΩ may draw excessive current if directly connected to
a voltage source of significant magnitude, and may also complicate the task of accurately
measuring current since any ammeter’s non-zero resistance inserted in series with a low-value
circuit resistor will significantly alter the total resistance and thereby skew the measurement.
Resistances above 100 kΩ may complicate the task of measuring voltage since any voltmeter’s
finite resistance connected in parallel with a high-value circuit resistor will significantly alter
the total resistance and thereby skew the measurement. Similarly, AC circuit impedance values
should be between 1 kΩ and 100 kΩ, and for all the same reasons.

• Ensure all electrical connections are low-resistance and physically rugged. For this reason, one
should avoid compression splices (e.g. “butt” connectors), solderless breadboards5 , and wires
that are simply twisted together.

• Build your circuit with testing in mind. For example, provide convenient connection points
for test equipment (e.g. multimeters, oscilloscopes, signal generators, logic probes).

• Design permanent projects with maintenance in mind. The more convenient you make
maintenance tasks, the more likely they will get done.

• Always document and save your work. Circuits lacking schematic diagrams are more
difficult to troubleshoot than documented circuits. Similarly, circuit construction is simpler
when a schematic diagram precedes construction. Experimental results are easier to interpret
when comprehensively recorded. Consider modern videorecording technology for this purpose
where appropriate.

• Record your steps when troubleshooting. Talk to yourself when solving problems. These
simple steps clarify thought and simplify identification of errors.

4 An example of a necessary resistor value much less than 1 kΩ is a shunt resistor used to produce a small voltage

drop for the purpose of sensing current in a circuit. Such shunt resistors must be low-value in order not to impose
an undue load on the rest of the circuit. An example of a necessary resistor value much greater than 100 kΩ is an
electrostatic drain resistor used to dissipate stored electric charges from body capacitance for the sake of preventing
damage to sensitive semiconductor components, while also preventing a path for current that could be dangerous to
the person (i.e. shock).
5 Admittedly, solderless breadboards are very useful for constructing complex electronic circuits with many

components, especially DIP-style integrated circuits (ICs), but they tend to give trouble with connection integrity after
frequent use. An alternative for projects using low counts of ICs is to solder IC sockets into prototype printed circuit
boards (PCBs) and run wires from the soldered pins of the IC sockets to terminal blocks where reliable temporary
connections may be made.
7.1. RECOMMENDED PRACTICES 127

7.1.3 Terminal blocks for circuit construction

Terminal blocks are the standard means for making electric circuit connections in industrial systems.
They are also quite useful as a learning tool, and so I highly recommend their use in lieu of
solderless breadboards6 . Terminal blocks provide highly reliable connections capable of withstanding
significant voltage and current magnitudes, and they force the builder to think very carefully about
component layout which is an important mental practice. Terminal blocks that mount on standard
35 mm DIN rail7 are made in a wide range of types and sizes, some with built-in disconnecting
switches, some with built-in components such as rectifying diodes and fuseholders, all of which
facilitate practical circuit construction.
I recommend every student of electricity build their own terminal block array for use in
constructing experimental circuits, consisting of several terminal blocks where each block has at
least 4 connection points all electrically common to each other8 and at least one terminal block
that is a fuse holder for overcurrent protection. A pair of anchoring blocks hold all terminal blocks
securely on the DIN rail, preventing them from sliding off the rail. Each of the terminals should
bear a number, starting from 0. An example is shown in the following photograph and illustration:

Electrically common DIN rail end

points shown in blue
(typical for all terminal blocks)
Anchor block
0 4-terminal block
1 Fuse Fuseholder block
2 4-terminal block
3 4-terminal block
4 4-terminal block
5 4-terminal block
6 4-terminal block
7 4-terminal block
8 4-terminal block
9 4-terminal block
10 4-terminal block
11 4-terminal block
12 4-terminal block
Anchor block

DIN rail end

Screwless terminal blocks (using internal spring clips to clamp wire and component lead ends) are
preferred over screw-based terminal blocks, as they reduce assembly and disassembly time, and also
minimize repetitive wrist stress from twisting screwdrivers. Some screwless terminal blocks require
the use of a special tool to release the spring clip, while others provide buttons9 for this task which
may be pressed using the tip of any suitable tool.
6 Solderless breadboard are preferable for complicated electronic circuits with multiple integrated “chip”

components, but for simpler circuits I find terminal blocks much more practical. An alternative to solderless
breadboards for “chip” circuits is to solder chip sockets onto a PCB and then use wires to connect the socket pins to
terminal blocks. This also accommodates surface-mount components, which solderless breadboards do not.
7 DIN rail is a metal rail designed to serve as a mounting point for a wide range of electrical and electronic devices

such as terminal blocks, fuses, circuit breakers, relay sockets, power supplies, data acquisition hardware, etc.
8 Sometimes referred to as equipotential, same-potential, or potential distribution terminal blocks.
9 The small orange-colored squares seen in the above photograph are buttons for this purpose, and may be actuated

by pressing with any tool of suitable size.

128 CHAPTER 7. PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS

The following example shows how such a terminal block array might be used to construct a
series-parallel resistor circuit consisting of four resistors and a battery:

Schematic diagram Pictorial diagram

Fuse

0
1 Fuse

R1 7.1 kΩ 2 -
R1 3 R3 +
4 3.3 kΩ
R3 3.3 kΩ 7.1 kΩ 5
6V 6
R2
R2 2.2 kΩ 7
2.2 kΩ
8
9
R4 10
6V
4.7 kΩ 11
R4 4.7 kΩ 12

Numbering on the terminal blocks provides a very natural translation to SPICE10 netlists, where
component connections are identified by terminal number:

* Series-parallel resistor circuit

v1 1 0 dc 6
r1 2 5 7100
r2 5 8 2200
r3 2 8 3300
r4 8 11 4700
rjmp1 1 2 0.01
rjmp2 0 11 0.01
.op
.end

Note the use of “jumper” resistances rjmp1 and rjmp2 to describe the wire connections between
terminals 1 and 2 and between terminals 0 and 11, respectively. Being resistances, SPICE requires
a resistance value for each, and here we see they have both been set to an arbitrarily low value of
0.01 Ohm realistic for short pieces of wire.
Listing all components and wires along with their numbered terminals happens to be a useful
documentation method for any circuit built on terminal blocks, independent of SPICE. Such a
“wiring sequence” may be thought of as a non-graphical description of an electric circuit, and is
exceptionally easy to follow.

10 SPICE is computer software designed to analyze electrical and electronic circuits. Circuits are described for the

computer in the form of netlists which are text files listing each component type, connection node numbers, and
component values.
7.1. RECOMMENDED PRACTICES 129

An example of a more elaborate terminal block array is shown in the following photograph,
with terminal blocks and “ice-cube” style electromechanical relays mounted to DIN rail, which is
turn mounted to a perforated subpanel11 . This “terminal block board” hosts an array of thirty five
undedicated terminal block sections, four SPDT toggle switches, four DPDT “ice-cube” relays, a
step-down control power transformer, bridge rectifier and filtering capacitor, and several fuses for
overcurrent protection:

Four plastic-bottomed “feet” support the subpanel above the benchtop surface, and an unused
section of DIN rail stands ready to accept other components. Safety features include electrical
bonding of the AC line power cord’s ground to the metal subpanel (and all metal DIN rails),
mechanical strain relief for the power cord to isolate any cord tension from wire connections,
clear plastic finger guards covering the transformer’s screw terminals, as well as fused overcurrent
protection for the 120 Volt AC line power and the transformer’s 12 Volt AC output. The perforated
holes happen to be on 14 inch centers with a diameter suitable for tapping with 6-32 machine screw
threads, their presence making it very easy to attach other sections of DIN rail, printed circuit boards,
or specialized electrical components directly to the grounded metal subpanel. Such a “terminal block
board” is an inexpensive12 yet highly flexible means to construct physically robust circuits using
industrial wiring practices.
11 An electrical subpanel is a thin metal plate intended for mounting inside an electrical enclosure. Components are

attached to the subpanel, and the subpanel in turn bolts inside the enclosure. Subpanels allow circuit construction
outside the confines of the enclosure, which speeds assembly. In this particular usage there is no enclosure, as the
subpanel is intended to be used as an open platform for the convenient construction of circuits on a benchtop by
students. In essence, this is a modern version of the traditional breadboard which was literally a wooden board such
as might be used for cutting loaves of bread, but which early electrical and electronic hobbyists used as platforms for
the construction of circuits.
12 At the time of this writing (2019) the cost to build this board is approximately $250 US dollars.
130 CHAPTER 7. PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS

7.1.4 Conducting experiments

An experiment is an exploratory act, a test performed for the purpose of assessing some proposition
or principle. Experiments are the foundation of the scientific method, a process by which careful
observation helps guard against errors of speculation. All good experiments begin with an hypothesis,
defined by the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language as:

An assertion subject to verification or proof, as (a) A proposition stated as a basis for

argument or reasoning. (b) A premise from which a conclusion is drawn. (c) A conjecture
that accounts, within a theory or ideational framework, for a set of facts and that can
be used as a basis for further investigation.

Stated plainly, an hypothesis is an educated guess about cause and effect. The correctness of this
initial guess matters little, because any well-designed experiment will reveal the truth of the matter.
In fact, incorrect hypotheses are often the most valuable because the experiments they engender
lead us to surprising discoveries. One of the beautiful aspects of science is that it is more focused
on the process of learning than about the status of being correct 13 . In order for an hypothesis to be
valid, it must be testable14 , which means it must be a claim possible to refute given the right data.
Hypotheses impossible to critique are useless.

Once an hypothesis has been formulated, an experiment must be designed to test that hypothesis.
A well-designed experiment requires careful regulation of all relevant variables, both for personal
safety and for prompting the hypothesized results. If the effects of one particular variable are to
be tested, the experiment must be run multiple times with different values of (only) that particular
variable. The experiment set up with the “baseline” variable set is called the control, while the
experiment set up with different value(s) is called the test or experimental.

For some hypotheses a viable alternative to a physical experiment is a computer-simulated

experiment or even a thought experiment. Simulations performed on a computer test the hypothesis
against the physical laws encoded within the computer simulation software, and are particularly
useful for students learning new principles for which simulation software is readily available15 .
13 Science is more about clarifying our view of the universe through a systematic process of error detection than it is

about proving oneself to be right. Some scientists may happen to have large egos – and this may have more to do with
the ways in which large-scale scientific research is funded than anything else – but scientific method itself is devoid
of ego, and if embraced as a practical philosophy is quite an effective stimulant for humility. Within the education
system, scientific method is particularly valuable for helping students break free of the crippling fear of being wrong.
So much emphasis is placed in formal education on assessing correct retention of facts that many students are fearful
of saying or doing anything that might be perceived as a mistake, and of course making mistakes (i.e. having one’s
hypotheses disproven by experiment) is an indispensable tool for learning. Introducing science in the classroom – real
science characterized by individuals forming actual hypotheses and testing those hypotheses by experiment – helps
students become self-directed learners.
14 This is the principle of falsifiability: that a scientific statement has value only insofar as it is liable to disproof

given the requisite experimental evidence. Any claim that is unfalsifiable – that is, a claim which can never be
disproven by any evidence whatsoever – could be completely wrong and we could never know it.
15 A very pertinent example of this is learning how to analyze electric circuits using simulation software such as

SPICE. A typical experimental cycle would proceed as follows: (1) Find or invent a circuit to analyze; (2) Apply
your analytical knowledge to that circuit, predicting all voltages, currents, powers, etc. relevant to the concepts you
are striving to master; (3) Run a simulation on that circuit, collecting “data” from the computer when complete; (4)
Evaluate whether or not your hypotheses (i.e. predicted voltages, currents, etc.) agree with the computer-generated
results; (5) If so, your analyses are (provisionally) correct – if not, examine your analyses and the computer simulation
again to determine the source of error; (6) Repeat this process as many times as necessary until you achieve mastery.
7.1. RECOMMENDED PRACTICES 131

Thought experiments are useful for detecting inconsistencies within your own understanding of
some subject, rather than testing your understanding against physical reality.

Here are some general guidelines for conducting experiments:

• The clearer and more specific the hypothesis, the better. Vague or unfalsifiable hypotheses
are useless because they will fit any experimental results, and therefore the experiment cannot
teach you anything about the hypothesis.

• Collect as much data (i.e. information, measurements, sensory experiences) generated by an

experiment as is practical. This includes the time and date of the experiment, too!
• Never discard or modify data gathered from an experiment. If you have reason to believe the
data is unreliable, write notes to that effect, but never throw away data just because you think
it is untrustworthy. It is quite possible that even “bad” data holds useful information, and
that someone else may be able to uncover its value even if you do not.
• Prioritize quantitative data over qualitative data wherever practical. Quantitative data is more
specific than qualitative, less prone to subjective interpretation on the part of the experimenter,
and amenable to an arsenal of analytical methods (e.g. statistics).

• Guard against your own bias(es) by making your experimental results available to others. This
allows other people to scrutinize your experimental design and collected data, for the purpose
of detecting and correcting errors you may have missed. Document your experiment such that
others may independently replicate it.

• Always be looking for sources of error. No physical measurement is perfect, and so it is

impossible to achieve exact values for any variable. Quantify the amount of uncertainty (i.e.
the “tolerance” of errors) whenever possible, and be sure your hypothesis does not depend on
precision better than this!

• Always remember that scientific confirmation is provisional – no number of “successful”

experiments will prove an hypothesis true for all time, but a single experiment can disprove
it. Put into simpler terms, truth is elusive but error is within reach.

• Remember that scientific method is about learning, first and foremost. An unfortunate
consequence of scientific triumph in modern society is that science is often viewed by non-
practitioners as an unerring source of truth, when in fact science is an ongoing process of
challenging existing ideas to probe for errors and oversights. This is why it is perfectly
acceptable to have a failed hypothesis, and why the only truly failed experiment is one where
nothing was learned.
132 CHAPTER 7. PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS

The following is an example of a well-planned and executed experiment, in this case a physical
experiment demonstrating Ohm’s Law.

Planning Time/Date = 09:30 on 12 February 2019

HYPOTHESIS: the current through any resistor should be exactly proportional

to the voltage impressed across it.

PROCEDURE: connect a resistor rated 1 k Ohm and 1/4 Watt to a variable-voltage

DC power supply. Use an ammeter in series to measure resistor current and
a voltmeter in parallel to measure resistor voltage.

RISKS AND MITIGATION: excessive power dissipation may harm the resistor and/
or pose a burn hazard, while excessive voltage poses an electric shock hazard.
30 Volts is a safe maximum voltage for laboratory practices, and according to
Joule’s Law a 1000 Ohm resistor will dissipate 0.25 Watts at 15.81 Volts
(P = V^2 / R), so I will remain below 15 Volts just to be safe.

Experiment Time/Date = 10:15 on 12 February 2019

DATA COLLECTED:
(Voltage) (Current) (Voltage) (Current)
0.000 V = 0.000 mA 8.100 = 7.812 mA
2.700 V = 2.603 mA 10.00 V = 9.643 mA
5.400 V = 5.206 mA 14.00 V = 13.49 mA

Analysis Time/Date = 10:57 on 12 February 2019

ANALYSIS: current definitely increases with voltage, and although I expected

exactly one milliAmpere per Volt the actual current was usually less than
that. The voltage/current ratios ranged from a low of 1036.87 (at 8.1 Volts)
to a high of 1037.81 (at 14 Volts), but this represents a variance of only
-0.0365% to +0.0541% from the average, indicating a very consistent
proportionality -- results consistent with Ohm’s Law.

ERROR SOURCES: one major source of error is the resistor’s value itself. I
did not measure it, but simply assumed color bands of brown-black-red meant
exactly 1000 Ohms. Based on the data I think the true resistance is closer
to 1037 Ohms. Another possible explanation is multimeter calibration error.
However, neither explains the small positive and negative variances from the
average. This might be due to electrical noise, a good test being to repeat
the same experiment to see if the variances are the same or different. Noise
should generate slightly different results every time.
7.1. RECOMMENDED PRACTICES 133

The following is an example of a well-planned and executed virtual experiment, in this case
demonstrating Ohm’s Law using a computer (SPICE) simulation.

Planning Time/Date = 12:32 on 14 February 2019

HYPOTHESIS: for any given resistor, the current through that resistor should be
exactly proportional to the voltage impressed across it.

PROCEDURE: write a SPICE netlist with a single DC voltage source and single
1000 Ohm resistor, then use NGSPICE version 26 to perform a "sweep" analysis
from 0 Volts to 25 Volts in 5 Volt increments.

* SPICE circuit
v1 1 0 dc
r1 1 0 1000
.dc v1 0 25 5
.print dc v(1) i(v1)
.end

RISKS AND MITIGATION: none.

DATA COLLECTED:
DC transfer characteristic Thu Feb 14 13:05:08 2019
-----------------------------------------------------------
Index v-sweep v(1) v1#branch
-----------------------------------------------------------
0 0.000000e+00 0.000000e+00 0.000000e+00
1 5.000000e+00 5.000000e+00 -5.00000e-03
2 1.000000e+01 1.000000e+01 -1.00000e-02
3 1.500000e+01 1.500000e+01 -1.50000e-02
4 2.000000e+01 2.000000e+01 -2.00000e-02
5 2.500000e+01 2.500000e+01 -2.50000e-02

Analysis Time/Date = 13:06 on 14 February 2019

ANALYSIS: perfect agreement between data and hypothesis -- current is precisely

1/1000 of the applied voltage for all values. Anything other than perfect
agreement would have probably meant my netlist was incorrect. The negative
current values surprised me, but it seems this is just how SPICE interprets
normal current through a DC voltage source.

ERROR SOURCES: none.

134 CHAPTER 7. PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS

As gratuitous as it may seem to perform experiments on a physical law as well-established as

Ohm’s Law, even the examples listed previously demonstrate opportunity for real learning. In
the physical experiment example, the student should identify and explain why their data does not
perfectly agree with the hypothesis, and this leads them naturally to consider sources of error. In
the computer-simulated experiment, the student is struck by SPICE’s convention of denoting regular
current through a DC voltage source as being negative in sign, and this is also useful knowledge for
future simulations. Scientific experiments are most interesting when things do not go as planned!

Aside from verifying well-established physical laws, simple experiments are extremely useful as
educational tools for a wide range of purposes, including:
• Component familiarization (e.g. Which terminals of this switch connect to the NO versus NC
contacts? )
• System testing (e.g. How heavy of a load can my AC-DC power supply source before the
semiconductor components reach their thermal limits? )
• Learning programming languages (e.g. Let’s try to set up an “up” counter function in this
PLC! )
Above all, the priority here is to inculcate the habit of hypothesizing, running experiments, and
analyzing the results. This experimental cycle not only serves as an excellent method for self-directed
learning, but it also works exceptionally well for troubleshooting faults in complex systems, and for
these reasons should be a part of every technician’s and every engineer’s education.

7.1.5 Constructing projects

Designing, constructing, and testing projects is a very effective means of practical education. Within
a formal educational setting, projects are generally chosen (or at least vetted) by an instructor
to ensure they may be reasonably completed within the allotted time of a course or program of
study, and that they sufficiently challenge the student to learn certain important principles. In a
self-directed environment, projects are just as useful as a learning tool but there is some risk of
unwittingly choosing a project beyond one’s abilities, which can lead to frustration.

Here are some general guidelines for managing projects:

• Define your goal(s) before beginning a project: what do you wish to achieve in building it?
What, exactly, should the completed project do?
• Analyze your project prior to construction. Document it in appropriate forms (e.g. schematic
diagrams), predict its functionality, anticipate all associated risks. In other words, plan ahead.
• Set a reasonable budget for your project, and stay within it.
• Identify any deadlines, and set reasonable goals to meet those deadlines.
• Beware of scope creep: the tendency to modify the project’s goals before it is complete.
• Document your progress! An easy way to do this is to use photography or videography: take
photos and/or videos of your project as it progresses. Document failures as well as successes,
because both are equally valuable from the perspective of learning.
7.2. EXPERIMENT: DC INJECTION BRAKING 135

7.2 Experiment: DC injection braking

Devise and execute an experiment demonstrating the principle of DC injection braking on a small
AC induction motor, showing how the motor acts as a brake when its shaft is turned by hand and
DC is “injected” into its stator winding. There is no need to equip this motor to run as an AC
motor – this experiment merely demonstrates braking, not running and braking.

EXPERIMENT CHECKLIST:
• Prior to experimentation:
√
Write an hypothesis (i.e. a detailed description of what you expect will happen)
unambiguous enough that it could be disproven given the right data.
√
Write a procedure to test the hypothesis, complete with adequate controls and
documentation (e.g. schematic diagrams, programming code).
√
Identify any risks (e.g. shock hazard, component damage) and write a mitigation
plan based on best practices and component ratings.

• During experimentation:
√
Safe practices followed at all times (e.g. no contact with energized circuit).
√
Correct equipment usage according to manufacturer’s recommendations.
√
All data collected, ideally quantitative with full precision (i.e. no rounding).

• After each experimental run:

√
If the results fail to match the hypothesis, identify the error(s), correct the hypothesis
and/or revise the procedure, and re-run the experiment.
√
Identify any uncontrolled sources of error in the experiment.

• After all experimental re-runs:

√
Save all data for future reference.
√
Write an analysis of experimental results and lessons learned.

Challenges

• Science is an iterative process, and for this reason is never complete. Following the results of
your experiment, what would you propose for your next hypothesis and next experimental
procedure? Hint: if your experiment produced any unexpected results, exploring those
unexpected results is often a very good basis for the next experiment!
136 CHAPTER 7. PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS

7.3 Experiment: AC motor starter with DC injection

braking
Devise and execute an experiment demonstrating a small AC motor being started, run, and “braking”
applied to bring it to a swift halt using the DC injection method.

EXPERIMENT CHECKLIST:

• Prior to experimentation:
√
Write an hypothesis (i.e. a detailed description of what you expect will happen)
unambiguous enough that it could be disproven given the right data.
√
Write a procedure to test the hypothesis, complete with adequate controls and
documentation (e.g. schematic diagrams, programming code).
√
Identify any risks (e.g. shock hazard, component damage) and write a mitigation
plan based on best practices and component ratings.

• During experimentation:
√
Safe practices followed at all times (e.g. no contact with energized circuit).
√
Correct equipment usage according to manufacturer’s recommendations.
√
All data collected, ideally quantitative with full precision (i.e. no rounding).

• After each experimental run:

√
If the results fail to match the hypothesis, identify the error(s), correct the hypothesis
and/or revise the procedure, and re-run the experiment.
√
Identify any uncontrolled sources of error in the experiment.

• After all experimental re-runs:

√
Save all data for future reference.
√
Write an analysis of experimental results and lessons learned.

Challenges

• Science is an iterative process, and for this reason is never complete. Following the results of
your experiment, what would you propose for your next hypothesis and next experimental
procedure? Hint: if your experiment produced any unexpected results, exploring those
unexpected results is often a very good basis for the next experiment!
7.4. PROJECT: VFD-CONTROLLED AC INDUCTION MOTOR 137

7.4 Project: VFD-controlled AC induction motor

Wire and configure a variable-frequency motor drive (VFD) to control the speed of a fractional
horsepower AC induction motor. VFDs provide provision for starting and stopping the motor,
varying its speed, reversing direction, and limiting acceleration and deceleration rates, among other
things. A large selection of VFDs suitable for powering with 120 VAC single-phase line power
are readily available at low cost, as are fractional-horsepower three-phase “inverter-duty” induction
motors.

Common control options for VFDs include the following:

• Start/stop control from the VFD’s front panel
• Start/stop control using remote switches
• Start/stop control via digital network
• Speed control from the VFD’s front panel
• Speed control using remote potentiometer
• Speed control using remote analog voltage or current signal
• Speed control via digital network

PROJECT CHECKLIST:
• Prior to construction:
√
Prototype diagram(s) and description of project scope.
√
Risk assessment/mitigation plan.
√
Timeline and action plan.
• During construction:
√
Safe work habits (e.g. no contact made with energized circuit at any time).
√
Correct equipment usage according to manufacturer’s recommendations.
√
Timeline and action plan amended as necessary.
√
Maintain the originally-planned project scope (i.e. avoid adding features!).
• After completion:
√
All functions tested against original plan.
√
Full, accurate, and appropriate documentation of all project details.
√
Complete bill of materials.
√
Written summary of lessons learned.
138 CHAPTER 7. PROJECTS AND EXPERIMENTS

Challenges

• ???.

• ???.

• ???.
Appendix A

Problem-Solving Strategies

The ability to solve complex problems is arguably one of the most valuable skills one can possess,
and this skill is particularly important in any science-based discipline.

• Study principles, not procedures. Don’t be satisfied with merely knowing how to compute
solutions – learn why those solutions work.

• Identify what it is you need to solve, identify all relevant data, identify all units of measurement,
identify any general principles or formulae linking the given information to the solution, and
then identify any “missing pieces” to a solution. Annotate all diagrams with this data.

• Sketch a diagram to help visualize the problem. When building a real system, always devise
a plan for that system and analyze its function before constructing it.

• Follow the units of measurement and meaning of every calculation. If you are ever performing
mathematical calculations as part of a problem-solving procedure, and you find yourself unable
to apply each and every intermediate result to some aspect of the problem, it means you
don’t understand what you are doing. Properly done, every mathematical result should have
practical meaning for the problem, and not just be an abstract number. You should be able to
identify the proper units of measurement for each and every calculated result, and show where
that result fits into the problem.

• Perform “thought experiments” to explore the effects of different conditions for theoretical
problems. When troubleshooting real systems, perform diagnostic tests rather than visually
inspecting for faults, the best diagnostic test being the one giving you the most information
about the nature and/or location of the fault with the fewest steps.

• Simplify the problem until the solution becomes obvious, and then use that obvious case as a
model to follow in solving the more complex version of the problem.

• Check for exceptions to see if your solution is incorrect or incomplete. A good solution will
work for all known conditions and criteria. A good example of this is the process of testing
scientific hypotheses: the task of a scientist is not to find support for a new idea, but rather
to challenge that new idea to see if it holds up under a battery of tests. The philosophical

139
140 APPENDIX A. PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

principle of reductio ad absurdum (i.e. disproving a general idea by finding a specific case
where it fails) is useful here.

• Work “backward” from a hypothetical solution to a new set of given conditions.

• Add quantities to problems that are qualitative in nature, because sometimes a little math
helps illuminate the scenario.

• Sketch graphs illustrating how variables relate to each other. These may be quantitative (i.e.
with realistic number values) or qualitative (i.e. simply showing increases and decreases).

• Treat quantitative problems as qualitative in order to discern the relative magnitudes and/or
directions of change of the relevant variables. For example, try determining what happens if a
certain variable were to increase or decrease before attempting to precisely calculate quantities:
how will each of the dependent variables respond, by increasing, decreasing, or remaining the
same as before?

• Consider limiting cases. This works especially well for qualitative problems where you need to
determine which direction a variable will change. Take the given condition and magnify that
condition to an extreme degree as a way of simplifying the direction of the system’s response.

• Check your work. This means regularly testing your conclusions to see if they make sense.
This does not mean repeating the same steps originally used to obtain the conclusion(s), but
rather to use some other means to check validity. Simply repeating procedures often leads to
repeating the same errors if any were made, which is why alternative paths are better.
Appendix B

Instructional philosophy

“The unexamined circuit is not worth energizing” – Socrates (if he had taught electricity)

These learning modules, although useful for self-study, were designed to be used in a formal
learning environment where a subject-matter expert challenges students to digest the content and
exercise their critical thinking abilities in the answering of questions and in the construction and
testing of working circuits.

The following principles inform the instructional and assessment philosophies embodied in these
learning modules:

• The first goal of education is to enhance clear and independent thought, in order that
every student reach their fullest potential in a highly complex and inter-dependent world.
Robust reasoning is always more important than particulars of any subject matter, because
its application is universal.

• Literacy is fundamental to independent learning and thought because text continues to be the
most efficient way to communicate complex ideas over space and time. Those who cannot read
with ease are limited in their ability to acquire knowledge and perspective.

• Articulate communication is fundamental to work that is complex and interdisciplinary.

• Faulty assumptions and poor reasoning are best corrected through challenge, not presentation.
The rhetorical technique of reductio ad absurdum (disproving an assertion by exposing an
absurdity) works well to discipline student’s minds, not only to correct the problem at hand
but also to learn how to detect and correct future errors.

• Important principles should be repeatedly explored and widely applied throughout a course
of study, not only to reinforce their importance and help ensure their mastery, but also to
showcase the interconnectedness and utility of knowledge.

141
142 APPENDIX B. INSTRUCTIONAL PHILOSOPHY

These learning modules were expressly designed to be used in an “inverted” teaching

environment1 where students first read the introductory and tutorial chapters on their own, then
individually attempt to answer the questions and construct working circuits according to the
experiment and project guidelines. The instructor never lectures, but instead meets regularly
with each individual student to review their progress, answer questions, identify misconceptions,
and challenge the student to new depths of understanding through further questioning. Regular
meetings between instructor and student should resemble a Socratic2 dialogue, where questions
serve as scalpels to dissect topics and expose assumptions. The student passes each module only
after consistently demonstrating their ability to logically analyze and correctly apply all major
concepts in each question or project/experiment. The instructor must be vigilant in probing each
student’s understanding to ensure they are truly reasoning and not just memorizing. This is why
“Challenge” points appear throughout, as prompts for students to think deeper about topics and as
starting points for instructor queries. Sometimes these challenge points require additional knowledge
that hasn’t been covered in the series to answer in full. This is okay, as the major purpose of the
Challenges is to stimulate analysis and synthesis on the part of each student.
The instructor must possess enough mastery of the subject matter and awareness of students’
reasoning to generate their own follow-up questions to practically any student response. Even
completely correct answers given by the student should be challenged by the instructor for the
purpose of having students practice articulating their thoughts and defending their reasoning.
Conceptual errors committed by the student should be exposed and corrected not by direct
instruction, but rather by reducing the errors to an absurdity3 through well-chosen questions and
thought experiments posed by the instructor. Becoming proficient at this style of instruction requires
time and dedication, but the positive effects on critical thinking for both student and instructor are
spectacular.

An inspection of these learning modules reveals certain unique characteristics. One of these is
a bias toward thorough explanations in the tutorial chapters. Without a live instructor to explain
concepts and applications to students, the text itself must fulfill this role. This philosophy results in
lengthier explanations than what you might typically find in a textbook, each step of the reasoning
process fully explained, including footnotes addressing common questions and concerns students
raise while learning these concepts. Each tutorial seeks to not only explain each major concept
in sufficient detail, but also to explain the logic of each concept and how each may be developed
1 In a traditional teaching environment, students first encounter new information via lecture from an expert, and

then independently apply that information via homework. In an “inverted” course of study, students first encounter
new information via homework, and then independently apply that information under the scrutiny of an expert. The
expert’s role in lecture is to simply explain, but the expert’s role in an inverted session is to challenge, critique, and
if necessary explain where gaps in understanding still exist.
2 Socrates is a figure in ancient Greek philosophy famous for his unflinching style of questioning. Although he

authored no texts, he appears as a character in Plato’s many writings. The essence of Socratic philosophy is to
leave no question unexamined and no point of view unchallenged. While purists may argue a topic such as electric
circuits is too narrow for a true Socratic-style dialogue, I would argue that the essential thought processes involved
with scientific reasoning on any topic are not far removed from the Socratic ideal, and that students of electricity and
electronics would do very well to challenge assumptions, pose thought experiments, identify fallacies, and otherwise
employ the arsenal of critical thinking skills modeled by Socrates.
3 This rhetorical technique is known by the Latin phrase reductio ad absurdum. The concept is to expose errors by

counter-example, since only one solid counter-example is necessary to disprove a universal claim. As an example of
this, consider the common misconception among beginning students of electricity that voltage cannot exist without
current. One way to apply reductio ad absurdum to this statement is to ask how much current passes through a
fully-charged battery connected to nothing (i.e. a clear example of voltage existing without current).
 143

from “first principles”. Again, this reflects the goal of developing clear and independent thought in
students’ minds, by showing how clear and logical thought was used to forge each concept. Students
benefit from witnessing a model of clear thinking in action, and these tutorials strive to be just that.
Another characteristic of these learning modules is a lack of step-by-step instructions in the
Project and Experiment chapters. Unlike many modern workbooks and laboratory guides where
step-by-step instructions are prescribed for each experiment, these modules take the approach that
students must learn to closely read the tutorials and apply their own reasoning to identify the
appropriate experimental steps. Sometimes these steps are plainly declared in the text, just not as
a set of enumerated points. At other times certain steps are implied, an example being assumed
competence in test equipment use where the student should not need to be told again how to use
their multimeter because that was thoroughly explained in previous lessons. In some circumstances
no steps are given at all, leaving the entire procedure up to the student.
This lack of prescription is not a flaw, but rather a feature. Close reading and clear thinking are
foundational principles of this learning series, and in keeping with this philosophy all activities are
designed to require those behaviors. Some students may find the lack of prescription frustrating,
because it demands more from them than what their previous educational experiences required. This
frustration should be interpreted as an unfamiliarity with autonomous thinking, a problem which
must be corrected if the student is ever to become a self-directed learner and effective problem-solver.
Ultimately, the need for students to read closely and think clearly is more important both in the
near-term and far-term than any specific facet of the subject matter at hand. If a student takes
longer than expected to complete a module because they are forced to outline, digest, and reason
on their own, so be it. The future gains enjoyed by developing this mental discipline will be well
worth the additional effort and delay.

Another feature of these learning modules is that they do not treat topics in isolation. Rather,
important concepts are introduced early in the series, and appear repeatedly as stepping-stones
toward other concepts in subsequent modules. This helps to avoid the “compartmentalization”
of knowledge, demonstrating the inter-connectedness of concepts and simultaneously reinforcing
them. Each module is fairly complete in itself, reserving the beginning of its tutorial to a review of
foundational concepts.

This methodology of assigning text-based modules to students for digestion and then using
Socratic dialogue to assess progress and hone students’ thinking was developed over a period of
several years by the author with his Electronics and Instrumentation students at the two-year college
level. While decidedly unconventional and sometimes even unsettling for students accustomed to
a more passive lecture environment, this instructional philosophy has proven its ability to convey
conceptual mastery, foster careful analysis, and enhance employability so much better than lecture
that the author refuses to ever teach by lecture again.
Problems which often go undiagnosed in a lecture environment are laid bare in this “inverted”
format where students must articulate and logically defend their reasoning. This, too, may be
unsettling for students accustomed to lecture sessions where the instructor cannot tell for sure who
comprehends and who does not, and this vulnerability necessitates sensitivity on the part of the
“inverted” session instructor in order that students never feel discouraged by having their errors
exposed. Everyone makes mistakes from time to time, and learning is a lifelong process! Part of
the instructor’s job is to build a culture of learning among the students where errors are not seen as
shameful, but rather as opportunities for progress.
144 APPENDIX B. INSTRUCTIONAL PHILOSOPHY

To this end, instructors managing courses based on these modules should adhere to the following
principles:

• Student questions are always welcome and demand thorough, honest answers. The only type
of question an instructor should refuse to answer is one the student should be able to easily
answer on their own. Remember, the fundamental goal of education is for each student to learn
to think clearly and independently. This requires hard work on the part of the student, which
no instructor should ever circumvent. Anything done to bypass the student’s responsibility to
do that hard work ultimately limits that student’s potential and thereby does real harm.

• It is not only permissible, but encouraged, to answer a student’s question by asking questions
in return, these follow-up questions designed to guide the student to reach a correct answer
through their own reasoning.

• All student answers demand to be challenged by the instructor and/or by other students.
This includes both correct and incorrect answers – the goal is to practice the articulation and
defense of one’s own reasoning.

• No reading assignment is deemed complete unless and until the student demonstrates their
ability to accurately summarize the major points in their own terms. Recitation of the original
text is unacceptable. This is why every module contains an “Outline and reflections” question
as well as a “Foundational concepts” question in the Conceptual reasoning section, to prompt
reflective reading.

• No assigned question is deemed answered unless and until the student demonstrates their
ability to consistently and correctly apply the concepts to variations of that question. This is
why module questions typically contain multiple “Challenges” suggesting different applications
of the concept(s) as well as variations on the same theme(s). Instructors are encouraged to
devise as many of their own “Challenges” as they are able, in order to have a multitude of
ways ready to probe students’ understanding.

• No assigned experiment or project is deemed complete unless and until the student
demonstrates the task in action. If this cannot be done “live” before the instructor, video-
recordings showing the demonstration are acceptable. All relevant safety precautions must be
followed, all test equipment must be used correctly, and the student must be able to properly
explain all results. The student must also successfully answer all Challenges presented by the
instructor for that experiment or project.
 145

Students learning from these modules would do well to abide by the following principles:

• No text should be considered fully and adequately read unless and until you can express every
idea in your own words, using your own examples.

• You should always articulate your thoughts as you read the text, noting points of agreement,
confusion, and epiphanies. Feel free to print the text on paper and then write your notes in
the margins. Alternatively, keep a journal for your own reflections as you read. This is truly
a helpful tool when digesting complicated concepts.

• Never take the easy path of highlighting or underlining important text. Instead, summarize
and/or comment on the text using your own words. This actively engages your mind, allowing
you to more clearly perceive points of confusion or misunderstanding on your own.

• A very helpful strategy when learning new concepts is to place yourself in the role of a teacher,
if only as a mental exercise. Either explain what you have recently learned to someone else,
or at least imagine yourself explaining what you have learned to someone else. The simple act
of having to articulate new knowledge and skill forces you to take on a different perspective,
and will help reveal weaknesses in your understanding.

• Perform each and every mathematical calculation and thought experiment shown in the text
on your own, referring back to the text to see that your results agree. This may seem trivial
and unnecessary, but it is critically important to ensuring you actually understand what is
presented, especially when the concepts at hand are complicated and easy to misunderstand.
Apply this same strategy to become proficient in the use of circuit simulation software, checking
to see if your simulated results agree with the results shown in the text.

• Above all, recognize that learning is hard work, and that a certain level of frustration is
unavoidable. There are times when you will struggle to grasp some of these concepts, and that
struggle is a natural thing. Take heart that it will yield with persistent and varied4 effort, and
never give up!

Students interested in using these modules for self-study will also find them beneficial, although
the onus of responsibility for thoroughly reading and answering questions will of course lie with
that individual alone. If a qualified instructor is not available to challenge students, a workable
alternative is for students to form study groups where they challenge5 one another.

To high standards of education,

Tony R. Kuphaldt

4 As the old saying goes, “Insanity is trying the same thing over and over again, expecting different results.” If

you find yourself stumped by something in the text, you should attempt a different approach. Alter the thought
experiment, change the mathematical parameters, do whatever you can to see the problem in a slightly different light,
and then the solution will often present itself more readily.
5 Avoid the temptation to simply share answers with study partners, as this is really counter-productive to learning.

Always bear in mind that the answer to any question is far less important in the long run than the method(s) used to
obtain that answer. The goal of education is to empower one’s life through the improvement of clear and independent
thought, literacy, expression, and various practical skills.
146 APPENDIX B. INSTRUCTIONAL PHILOSOPHY
Appendix C

Tools used

I am indebted to the developers of many open-source software applications in the creation of these
learning modules. The following is a list of these applications with some commentary on each.
You will notice a theme common to many of these applications: a bias toward code. Although
I am by no means an expert programmer in any computer language, I understand and appreciate
the flexibility offered by code-based applications where the user (you) enters commands into a plain
ASCII text file, which the software then reads and processes to create the final output. Code-based
computer applications are by their very nature extensible, while WYSIWYG (What You See Is What
You Get) applications are generally limited to whatever user interface the developer makes for you.

The GNU/Linux computer operating system

There is so much to be said about Linus Torvalds’ Linux and Richard Stallman’s GNU
project. First, to credit just these two individuals is to fail to do justice to the mob of
passionate volunteers who contributed to make this amazing software a reality. I first
learned of Linux back in 1996, and have been using this operating system on my personal
computers almost exclusively since then. It is free, it is completely configurable, and it
permits the continued use of highly efficient Unix applications and scripting languages
(e.g. shell scripts, Makefiles, sed, awk) developed over many decades. Linux not only
provided me with a powerful computing platform, but its open design served to inspire
my life’s work of creating open-source educational resources.

Bram Moolenaar’s Vim text editor

Writing code for any code-based computer application requires a text editor, which may
be thought of as a word processor strictly limited to outputting plain-ASCII text files.
Many good text editors exist, and one’s choice of text editor seems to be a deeply personal
matter within the programming world. I prefer Vim because it operates very similarly to
vi which is ubiquitous on Unix/Linux operating systems, and because it may be entirely
operated via keyboard (i.e. no mouse required) which makes it fast to use.

147
148 APPENDIX C. TOOLS USED

Donald Knuth’s TEX typesetting system

Developed in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s by computer scientist extraordinaire Donald
Knuth to typeset his multi-volume magnum opus The Art of Computer Programming,
this software allows the production of formatted text for screen-viewing or paper printing,
all by writing plain-text code to describe how the formatted text is supposed to appear.
TEX is not just a markup language for documents, but it is also a Turing-complete
programming language in and of itself, allowing useful algorithms to be created to control
the production of documents. Simply put, TEX is a programmer’s approach to word
processing. Since TEX is controlled by code written in a plain-text file, this means
anyone may read that plain-text file to see exactly how the document was created. This
openness afforded by the code-based nature of TEX makes it relatively easy to learn how
other people have created their own TEX documents. By contrast, examining a beautiful
document created in a conventional WYSIWYG word processor such as Microsoft Word
suggests nothing to the reader about how that document was created, or what the user
might do to create something similar. As Mr. Knuth himself once quipped, conventional
word processing applications should be called WYSIAYG (What You See Is All You
Get).

Leslie Lamport’s LATEX extensions to TEX

Like all true programming languages, TEX is inherently extensible. So, years after the
release of TEX to the public, Leslie Lamport decided to create a massive extension
allowing easier compilation of book-length documents. The result was LATEX, which
is the markup language used to create all ModEL module documents. You could say
that TEX is to LATEX as C is to C++. This means it is permissible to use any and all TEX
commands within LATEX source code, and it all still works. Some of the features offered
by LATEX that would be challenging to implement in TEX include automatic index and
table-of-content creation.

Tim Edwards’ Xcircuit drafting program

This wonderful program is what I use to create all the schematic diagrams and
illustrations (but not photographic images or mathematical plots) throughout the ModEL
project. It natively outputs PostScript format which is a true vector graphic format (this
is why the images do not pixellate when you zoom in for a closer view), and it is so simple
to use that I have never had to read the manual! Object libraries are easy to create for
Xcircuit, being plain-text files using PostScript programming conventions. Over the
years I have collected a large set of object libraries useful for drawing electrical and
electronic schematics, pictorial diagrams, and other technical illustrations.
 149

Gimp graphic image manipulation program

Essentially an open-source clone of Adobe’s PhotoShop, I use Gimp to resize, crop, and
convert file formats for all of the photographic images appearing in the ModEL modules.
Although Gimp does offer its own scripting language (called Script-Fu), I have never
had occasion to use it. Thus, my utilization of Gimp to merely crop, resize, and convert
graphic images is akin to using a sword to slice bread.

SPICE circuit simulation program

SPICE is to circuit analysis as TEX is to document creation: it is a form of markup

language designed to describe a certain object to be processed in plain-ASCII text.
When the plain-text “source file” is compiled by the software, it outputs the final result.
More modern circuit analysis tools certainly exist, but I prefer SPICE for the following
reasons: it is free, it is fast, it is reliable, and it is a fantastic tool for teaching students of
electricity and electronics how to write simple code. I happen to use rather old versions of
SPICE, version 2g6 being my “go to” application when I only require text-based output.
NGSPICE (version 26), which is based on Berkeley SPICE version 3f5, is used when I
require graphical output for such things as time-domain waveforms and Bode plots. In
all SPICE example netlists I strive to use coding conventions compatible with all SPICE
versions.

Andrew D. Hwang’s ePiX mathematical visualization programming library

This amazing project is a C++ library you may link to any C/C++ code for the purpose
of generating PostScript graphic images of mathematical functions. As a completely
free and open-source project, it does all the plotting I would otherwise use a Computer
Algebra System (CAS) such as Mathematica or Maple to do. It should be said that
ePiX is not a Computer Algebra System like Mathematica or Maple, but merely a
mathematical visualization tool. In other words, it won’t determine integrals for you
(you’ll have to implement that in your own C/C++ code!), but it can graph the results, and
it does so beautifully. What I really admire about ePiX is that it is a C++ programming
library, which means it builds on the existing power and toolset available with that
programming language. Mr. Hwang could have probably developed his own stand-alone
application for mathematical plotting, but by creating a C++ library to do the same thing
he accomplished something much greater.
150 APPENDIX C. TOOLS USED

gnuplot mathematical visualization software

Another open-source tool for mathematical visualization is gnuplot. Interestingly, this

tool is not part of Richard Stallman’s GNU project, its name being a coincidence. For
this reason the authors prefer “gnu” not be capitalized at all to avoid confusion. This is
a much “lighter-weight” alternative to a spreadsheet for plotting tabular data, and the
fact that it easily outputs directly to an X11 console or a file in a number of different
graphical formats (including PostScript) is very helpful. I typically set my gnuplot
output format to default (X11 on my Linux PC) for quick viewing while I’m developing
a visualization, then switch to PostScript file export once the visual is ready to include in
the document(s) I’m writing. As with my use of Gimp to do rudimentary image editing,
my use of gnuplot only scratches the surface of its capabilities, but the important points
are that it’s free and that it works well.

Python programming language

Both Python and C++ find extensive use in these modules as instructional aids and
exercises, but I’m listing Python here as a tool for myself because I use it almost daily
as a calculator. If you open a Python interpreter console and type from math import
* you can type mathematical expressions and have it return results just as you would
on a hand calculator. Complex-number (i.e. phasor ) arithmetic is similarly supported
if you include the complex-math library (from cmath import *). Examples of this are
shown in the Programming References chapter (if included) in each module. Of course,
being a fully-featured programming language, Python also supports conditionals, loops,
and other structures useful for calculation of quantities. Also, running in a console
environment where all entries and returned values show as text in a chronologically-
ordered list makes it easy to copy-and-paste those calculations to document exactly how
they were performed.
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Appendix E

References

“Bulletin 1333 3/4-20 HP (.55-15 kW) Adjustable Frequency AC Drive” series D User Manual,
Rockwell Automation publication 1333-5.2, Rockwell Automation, Inc., Milwaukee, WI, July 1994.
Dalziel, Charles F., Deleterious Effects of Electric Shock, University of California, Berkeley, CA,
October 1961.

“GS1 Series Drives” User Manual, Automationdirect.com, 2002.

NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, 2015 Edition, NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2016.

“PowerFlex 4 Adjustable Frequency AC Drive” User Manual, Rockwell Automation publication

22A-UM001G-EN-E, Rockwell Automation, Inc., Milwaukee, WI, April 2007.

“Wiring and Grounding Guidelines for Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) AC Drives” Installation
Instructions, Rockwell Automation publication DRIVES-IN001J-EN-P, Rockwell Automation, Inc.,
Milwaukee, WI, April 2009.

159
160 APPENDIX E. REFERENCES
Appendix F

Version history

This is a list showing all significant additions, corrections, and other edits made to this learning
module. Each entry is referenced by calendar date in reverse chronological order (newest version
first), which appears on the front cover of every learning module for easy reference. Any contributors
to this open-source document are listed here as well.

29 November 2023 – added field and armature winding labels and connections to image 0900,
and also edited/added some Introduction chapter questions.

21 June 2023 – added Quantitative Reasoning questions related to computer programming

(simulating three-phase circuits).

28 November 2022 – placed questions at the top of the itemized list in the Introduction chapter
prompting students to devise experiments related to the tutorial content.

9 July 2021 – added a Case Tutorial chapter with a section on demonstrating DC injection braking.
Also made minor edits to the index listings for this same topic.

19-21 April 2021 – minor edits to the Tutorial, including the addition of “clean” and “dirty” sine
waves to the illustrations showing line reactor usage.

15 April 2021 – significantly edited the Introduction chapter to make it more suitable as a pre-
study guide and to provide cues useful to instructors leading “inverted” teaching sessions. Also
made some minor edits to the Tutorial.

18 March 2021 – corrected multiple instances of “volts” that should have been capitalized “Volts”.

15 March 2021 – added questions.

12 March 2021 – added photograph of a three-phase line reactor to the Tutorial.

7 July 2020 – moved the VFD transistor animation into its own LATEX file.

25 May 2020 – corrected an omission in the “VFD configuration example” Conceptual Reasoning

161
162 APPENDIX F. VERSION HISTORY

problem where I had failed to provide numerical option number values for some of the parameters.
Credit goes to Ron Felix for identifying this omission.

29 January 2020 – added more Foundational Concepts to the list in the Conceptual Reasoning
section.

6 May 2019 – improved question on VFD configuration example.

3 May 2019 – corrected minor typographical error. Also added an Experiment, on DC injection
braking for a small AC motor.

30 March 2019 – added questions and a project.

10 March 2019 – completed the Foundational Concepts list.

2 February 2019 – added Tutorial section on setting motor nameplate parameters.

1 January 2019 – added a Technical Reference section on electrical safety.

12 November 2018 – title changed to include “AC”.

July 2018 – document first created.

Index

Acceleration, 20 DIN rail, 127

Adding quantities to a qualitative problem, 140 DIP, 126
Alternating current, 31 Direct current, 31
Angular acceleration, 20 Disconnect switch, 32
Annotating diagrams, 139 Dynamic braking, AC motor, 12, 14
Arc, 33
Arc blast, 37 Eddy current, 22
Arc flash, 33 Edwards, Tim, 148
Arc flash boundary, 34 Electric shock, 30, 124
Arc flash suit, 36 Electrically common points, 32, 125
Enclosure, electrical, 129
Base parameters, 19 Equipotential, 32
Bonding, 32 Equipotential points, 125, 127
Boundary, arc flash, 34 Experiment, 130
Boundary, limited approach, 34 Experimental guidelines, 131
Boundary, restricted approach, 34
Filter, 9, 12, 26
Breadboard, solderless, 126, 127
Fourier series, 12
Breadboard, traditional, 129
Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 12, 25
Bridge network, 9
Frequency, 31
Busbar, 32
Frequency, skip, 24
Calorie, 36 Fuse, 31
Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation, 124 Graph values to solve a problem, 140
Carrier frequency, 22 Greenleaf, Cynthia, 93
Checking for exceptions, 140
Checking your work, 140 Harmonic filtering, 26
Circuit breaker, 31 Harmonic frequency, 25
Code, computer, 147 Hertz, 31
Conservation of Energy, 13 How to teach with these modules, 142
CPR, 124 Hwang, Andrew D., 149
Current, eddy, 22
IC, 126
Dalziel, Charles, 30, 124 Identify given data, 139
DC boost, 21, 22 Identify relevant principles, 139
DC injection braking, AC motor, 6, 12, 13 Incremental inductance, 21
De-rating, 22 Inductance, incremental, 21
Dimensional analysis, 139 Induction motor, 7

163
164 INDEX

Instructions for projects and experiments, 143 Problem-solving: limiting cases, 140
Intermediate results, 139 Problem-solving: qualitative to quantitative, 140
Inverted instruction, 142 Problem-solving: quantitative to qualitative, 140
Inverter, 9 Problem-solving: reductio ad absurdum, 140
Ionized air, 33 Problem-solving: simplify the system, 139
Problem-solving: thought experiment, 131, 139
Kinetic energy, 12 Problem-solving: track units of measurement,
Knuth, Donald, 148 139
Problem-solving: visually represent the system,
Lamport, Leslie, 148 139
Lenz’s Law, 13 Problem-solving: work in reverse, 140
Limited approach boundary, 34 Project management guidelines, 134
Limiting cases, 140 Pulse-width modulation, 10, 22
Line reactor, 26 PWM, 10, 22
Load, 30 PWM frequency, 22
Lock-out, tag-out, 34
LOTO, 34 Qualitatively approaching a quantitative
problem, 140
Metacognition, 98
Moment of inertia, 20
Radio frequency interference from motor drive
Moolenaar, Bram, 147
circuits, 12
Motor base parameters, 19
Reactor, power line, 26
Motor de-rating, 22
Reading Apprenticeship, 93
Motor nameplate parameters, 19
Rectifier, 9
Murphy, Lynn, 93
Reductio ad absurdum, 140–142
Nameplate parameters, 19 Regenerative braking, AC motor, 12, 16
National Fire Protection Association, 34 Restricted approach boundary, 34
Nervous system, 30 RFI, 12
Newton’s Second Law of Motion, 20 Rotating magnetic field, 7, 10
NFPA, 34
Safety disconnect switch, 32
NFPA 70E, 34
Safety, electrical, 124
One-Hand Rule, 33 Saturation, magnetic, 11, 21
Open-source, 147 Schoenbach, Ruth, 93
Scientific method, 98, 130
Plugging, AC motor, 12, 18 Scope creep, 134
Potential distribution, 127 Shock, electric, 30
Problem-solving: annotate diagrams, 139 Shunt resistor, 126
Problem-solving: check for exceptions, 140 Simplifying a system, 139
Problem-solving: checking work, 140 Skip frequency, 24
Problem-solving: dimensional analysis, 139 Slip, 11
Problem-solving: graph values, 140 Slip speed, 7, 8
Problem-solving: identify given data, 139 Socrates, 141
Problem-solving: identify relevant principles, 139 Socratic dialogue, 142
Problem-solving: interpret intermediate results, Solderless breadboard, 126, 127
139 Spark, 33
INDEX 165

SPICE, 93, 131

SPICE netlist, 128
Stallman, Richard, 147
Stator, 7, 10
Subpanel, 129
Surface mount, 127
Switch, disconnect, 32
Synchronous motor, 7
Synchronous speed, 7

Terminal block, 125–129

Thought experiment, 131, 139
Torque, 7, 11, 20
Torque, constant, 21
Torque, variable, 21
Torvalds, Linus, 147

Units of measurement, 139

V/F ratio, 11, 21

V/Hz ratio, 11, 21
Variable-frequency drive, 8
VFD, 8
Visualizing a system, 139
Volt-second product, 21
Voltage-to-frequency ratio, 11, 21

Wiring sequence, 128

Work in reverse to solve a problem, 140
WYSIWYG, 147, 148