ROCKET PROPULSION

Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles and Nozzle Theory

Prepared by: Aeronautical Engineering Faculty

Aeronautical Engineering Department

Institute of Engineering and Technology
Philippine State College of Aeronautics
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Table of Contents
Title Page
Gospel Reflection i
Learning Outcomes ii
Fundamental Principles 1
Total Impulse & Specific Impulse 1
Effective Exhaust Velocity 4
Mass Ratio & Propellant Mass Fraction 4
Impulse-to-Weight Ratio & Thrust-to-Weight Ratio 5
Thrust 8
Exhaust Velocity 10
Module Activity: Problem Solving 12
Nozzle theory 13
Thermodynamic Relations 14
Module Activity: Problem Solving 22
Nozzle Configuration 23
Module Activity: Short Research 27
Paper Assignment 27
Technical Report 28
Rubric 29
Honesty Clause 29
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Gospel Reflection

Rest is a gift that we too easily tend to push aside. But life without rest is not
sustainable. Rest refreshes our bodies, giving us the energy we need to honour God
and to love others.

i
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Course Learning Outcome Module Learning Outcome Topic Learning Outcome
CLO 2: Analyse the
fundamental principles of
Rocket Propulsion which are
MLO 1: Apply the
those of mechanics,
Fundamental Concepts and TLO 5: Understand the
thermodynamics, and
formulas in Physics, Fundamental Concepts and
chemistry.
Aerodynamics, Properties particular to Rocket
CLO 3: Distinguish the
Thermodynamics, etc. by Propulsion
Thermodynamic relations of
solving sample problems with TLO 6: Apply the equations
the processes inside a rocket
regard to Rocket Propulsion alongside the fundamental
nozzle and chamber furnish the
MLO 2: Discuss different concepts and Thermodynamic
mathematical tools needed to
concepts with regard to Nozzle Relations by derivation and
calculate the performance and
Theory in short to moderate through the use of Sample
determine several of the key
research formats. Problems
design parameters of rocket
MLO 3: Author a short paper TLO 7: Understand the Nozzle
propulsion systems.
that analyses and gives support Theory Concepts and analyse
CLO 4: Recognize several
concerning the future of different Nozzle configurations
theoretical approaches to
Annular Nozzles. TLO 8: Analyze the Design
determine these
MLO 4: Develop a Design Concept and Procedure of the
thermochemical properties for a
Concept for the Amateur Rocket Design Project.
given composition of
Rocket Design.
propellant, chamber pressure,
nozzle shape, and nozzle exit
pressure.

Learning Tool Requirement:  Gather and prepare Learning

Tools (Laptop, Smartphone,
5 minutes
Pens, Notebook, etc.)

Learning Module Duration: a. Fundamental Concepts 40 minutes

b. Thermodynamic Relations 50 minutes
c. Nozzle Configuration 25 minutes

Assessment Duration:  Problem Solving 1 10 minutes

 Problem solving 2 10 minutes
 Short Research 10 minutes
 Paper Assignment 45 minutes
 Formative Assessment 45 minutes
 Technical Report 240 minutes
TOTAL 420 minutes

ii
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Fundamental Principles
Propulsion is achieved by applying a force to a vehicle that is, accelerating the vehicle or,
alternatively, maintaining a given velocity against a resisting force. This propulsive force, as per
discussed in the previous module, is obtained by ejecting propellant at high velocity.

Total Impulse & Specific Impulse

It is quite straightforward to determine the rocket
motor Total Impulse and propellant Specific Impulse from a
thrust-time curve obtained from static testing. A typical curve
may look like that shown in the figure illustrated on the right.
The total impulse 𝐼𝑡 is defined as the thrust force F
over the operating duration, or the “burning time” t of the
motor/engine.
𝑡
𝐼𝑡 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑡
0

The integral is represented by the area under the thrust- A typical thrust-time curve with diamonds
time curve. The area under the curve maybe closely representing measured data points obtained
from motor/engine testing.
approximated by summing the areas of the individual strips of
width 𝑑𝑡 and of height equal to the average thrust F.
𝑡
𝐼𝑡 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑡
0

𝐹0 + 𝐹1 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 𝐹𝑚 + 𝐹𝑛
𝐼𝑡 = (𝑡1 − 𝑡0 ) + (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) + ⋯ (𝑡𝑛 − 𝑡𝑚 )
2 2 2
Where: values with subscript n 𝐹𝑛 are the stop values, and values with
subscript m 𝐹𝑚 preceding them.
As illustrated in the figure on the left, since (𝑡1 − 𝑡0 ) = (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝑑𝑡
(i.e. upon closer inspection, we could see that the time increments “recorded” are
equal), the equation may be simplified to:
𝐼𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡(𝐹3 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ 𝐹𝑛 )
Consequentially, for constant thrust and negligible start and stop transients
Closer inspection of the this reduces to:
thrust-time curve.
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐹𝑡
Therefore, to determine total impulse, it is simply a matter of summing up all the measured
thrust values and multiplying the sum by the time increment. Since Total Impulse is obtained by
multiplying thrust by time, the units are pound-seconds 𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠, when English units are used, or
Newton-seconds 𝑁 − 𝑠 when SI units are used.

1|Page
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Total Impulse 𝐼𝑡 is proportional to the total energy released by all the propellant in a propulsion
system.
The specific impulse 𝐼𝑠 is the total impulse per unit weight of the propellant. It is an important
figure of merit of the performance of a rocket propulsion system, similar in concept to the miles per
gallon parameter used with automobiles. A higher number means better performance.
If the total mass flow rate of the propellant is 𝑚̇ and the standard acceleration of gravity at
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
standard sea level g is 9.8066 𝑠2 or 32.147 𝑠2 , then
𝑡
∫0 𝐹 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑔 ∫ 𝑚̇ 𝑑𝑡
This equation will give a time-averaged specific impulse value for any rocket propulsion
system, particularly where the thrust varies with time. During transient conditions (during start or the
thrust build-up period, the shutdown period, or during a change of flow or thrust levels) values of 𝐼𝑠
can be obtained by integration or by determining average values for F and 𝑚̇ for short time intervals.
For constant thrust and propellant flow this equation can be simplified; below, 𝑚𝑝 is the total effective
propellant mass.
𝑡
∫0 𝐹 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑔 ∫ 𝑚̇ 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑡
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑚𝑝 𝑔

For constant propellant mass flow 𝑚̇, constant thrust F, and negligibly short start and stop
transients:
𝐼𝑡 𝐼𝑡 𝑁−𝑠
𝐼𝑠 = = = =𝑠
𝑚𝑝 𝑔 𝑤 𝑘𝑔 ( 𝑚 )
𝑠2
𝐹 𝐹 𝑁
𝐼𝑠 = = = =𝑠
𝑚̇𝑔 𝑤̇ 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑠 (𝑠 2 )
The delivered Specific Impulse 𝐼𝑠 of the propellant is simply the Total Impulse divided by the
𝑙𝑏𝑓−𝑠
propellant weight or mass. Thus, the units for Specific Impulse are pound-seconds per pound , or
𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑁−𝑠
simply "seconds". In the SI system, the units are Newton-seconds per kilogram . Dividing this value
𝑁
𝑚
by the gravitational constant, g, where 𝑔 = 9.8066 𝑠2 , gives the conventional units of "seconds".

In solid propellant rockets it is difficult to measure the propellant flow rate accurately.
Therefore, the specific impulse is often calculated from total impulse and the propellant weight In turn
the total impulse is obtained from the integral of the measured thrust with time, using the equation
below.
𝑡
𝐼𝑡 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑡
0

2|Page
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

In liquid propellant units it is possible to measure thrust and instantaneous propellant flow rate
𝑡
∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑡 𝐼
and thus to use 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑔 0 𝑚̇ 𝑑𝑡 for calculation of specific impulse. 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑚 𝑡 𝑔, allows another definition for
∫ 𝑝
specific impulse, namely, the amount of impulse imparted to a vehicle per unit sea-level weight of
propellant expended.
The term specific propellant consumption refers to the reciprocal of the specific impulse and is
not commonly used in rocket propulsion. It is used in automotive and duct propulsion systems.

Example:
Consider a rocket motor that has generated the following thrust-time curve from a static firing.
The propellant was weighed prior to the firing and found to be 1.61 lbs. What is the Total Impulse and
Specific Impulse of the propellant?

Solution:
Total Impulse
𝐼𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡(𝐹3 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ 𝐹𝑛 )
𝐼𝑡 = 0.1𝑠(2171 𝑙𝑏)
𝐼𝑡 = 217.1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠
Specific Impulse
𝐼𝑡
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑤

3|Page
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

217.1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠
𝐼𝑠 =
1.61 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠
𝐼𝑠 = 134.845
𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝐼𝑠 = 134.845 𝑠

Effective Exhaust Velocity

In a rocket nozzle the actual exhaust velocity is not uniform over the entire exit cross-section
and does not represent the entire thrust magnitude. The velocity profile is difficult to measure
accurately. For convenience a uniform axial velocity c is assumed which allows a one-dimensional
description of the problem. This effective exhaust velocity c is the average equivalent velocity at which
propellant is ejected from the vehicle. It is defined as
𝑐 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑔
Since:
𝐹
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑚̇𝑔
Then:
𝐹
𝑐 = ( )𝑔
𝑚̇𝑔
𝐹
𝑐=
𝑚̇
It is given either in meters per second or feet per second. Since c and 𝐼𝑠 differ only by an
arbitrary constant, either one can be used as a measure of rocket performance.

Mass Ratio & Propellant Mass Fraction

The mass ratio MR of a vehicle or a particular vehicle stage is defined to be the final mass 𝑚𝑓
(after rocket operation has consumed all usable propellant) divided by 𝑚0 (before rocket operation).
𝑚𝑓
𝑀𝑅 =
𝑚0
This applies to a single or a multi-stage vehicle; for the latter, the overall mass ratio is the
product of the individual vehicle stage mass ratios. The final mass 𝑚𝑓 is the mass of the vehicle after
the rocket has ceased to operate when all the useful propellant mass 𝑚𝑝 has been consumed and
ejected. The final vehicle mass 𝑚𝑓 includes all those components that are not useful propellant and
may include guidance devices, navigation gear, payload (e.g., scientific instruments or a military
warhead), flight control systems, communication devices, power supplies, tank structure, residual or
unusable propellant, and all the propulsion hardware. In some vehicles it can also include wings, fins,

4|Page
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

a crew, life support systems, re-entry shields, landing gears, etc. Typical values of MR can range from
60% for some tactical missiles to less than 10% for some unmanned launch vehicle stages. When MR
is applied to a single stage, then its upper stages become the "payload."
The propellant mass fraction 𝜁 indicates the fraction of propellant mass 𝑚𝑝 in an initial
mass 𝑚0 . It can be applied to a vehicle, a stage of a vehicle or to a rocket propulsion system.
𝑚𝑝
𝜁=
𝑚0

(𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑓 )
𝜁=
𝑚0
Since:
𝑚0 = 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑝
𝑚𝑝
𝜁=
(𝑚𝑝 − 𝑚𝑓 )

When applied to a rocket propulsion system, the mass ratio MR and propellant mass fraction 𝜁
are different from those that apply to a vehicle as described above. Here the initial or loaded mass 𝑚0
consists of the inert propulsion mass (the hardware necessary to burn and store the propellant) and the
effective propellant mass. It would exclude masses of non-propulsive components, such as payload or
guidance devices.
For example, in a liquid propellant rocket engine the final or inert propulsion mass 𝑚𝑓 would
include the propellant feed tanks, the pressurization system (with turbo pump and/or gas pressure
system), one or more thrust chambers, various piping, fittings and valves, an engine mount or engine
structure, filters and some sensors. The residual or unusable remaining propellant is usually considered
to be part of the final inert mass 𝑚𝑓 . When applied to a rocket propulsion system, the value of the
propellant mass fraction 𝜁 indicates the quality of the design; a value of, say, 0.91 means that only 9%
of the mass is inert rocket hardware and this small fraction contains, feeds, and burns a substantially
larger mass of propellant. A high value of propellant mass fraction ζ is desirable.

Impulse-to-Weight Ratio & Thrust-to-Weight Ratio

The impulse-to-weight ratio of a complete propulsion system is defined as the total impulse 𝐼𝑡
divided by the initial or propellant-loaded vehicle weight 𝑤0 . A high value indicates an efficient
design. Under our assumptions of constant thrust and negligible start and stop transients, it can be
expressed as
𝐼𝑡 𝐼𝑡
=
𝑤0 (𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑝 )𝑔

𝐼𝑡 𝐼𝑠
=𝑚
𝑤0 𝑓
𝑚𝑝 + 1

5|Page
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory
𝐹
The thrust to weight ratio 𝑤 expresses the acceleration (in multiples of the earth's surface
0
acceleration of gravity) that the engine is capable of giving to its own loaded propulsion system mass.
For constant thrust the maximum value of the thrust-to-weight ratio, or maximum acceleration, occurs
just before termination or burnout because the vehicle mass has been diminished by the mass of useful
propellant. The thrust-to-weight ratio is useful to compare different types of rocket systems.

Example:
A rocket projectile has the following characteristics:
Initial mass 200 kg
Mass after Rocket Operation 130 kg
Payload, non-propulsive structure etc. 110 kg
Rocket Operating duration 3.0 seconds
Average specific impulse of propellant 240 seconds

Determine the vehicle's mass ratio, propellant mass fraction, propellant flow rate, thrust, thrust-
to-weight ratio, acceleration of vehicle, effective exhaust velocity, total impulse, and the impulse-to-
weight ratio.
Solution:
Mass Ratio (vehicle)
𝑚𝑓
𝑀𝑅 =
𝑚0
130 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑅 =
200 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑅 = 0.65
Mass Ratio (rocket/propulsion system)
𝑚𝑓
𝑀𝑅 =
𝑚0
(130 𝑘𝑔 − 110 𝑘𝑔)
𝑀𝑅 =
(200 𝑘𝑔 − 110 𝑘𝑔)
20 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑅 =
90 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑅 = 0.222
Propellant mass fraction ζ

(𝑚0 − 𝑚𝑓 )
𝜁=
𝑚0

6|Page
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

(90 𝑘𝑔 − 20 𝑘𝑔)
𝜁=
90 𝑘𝑔
𝜁 = 0.778
Propellant mass m & propellant mass flow rate 𝑚̇
𝑚 = 200 𝑘𝑔 − 130 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 = 70 𝑘𝑔
70 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ =
3.0 𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 23.3
𝑠
Thrust
𝐹
𝐼𝑠 = ; 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑤̇
𝑤̇
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝐹 = 240 𝑠 (23.3 (9.81 2 ))
𝑠 𝑠

𝐹 = 54857 𝑁
Thrust-to-Weight Ratio
𝐹 54857 𝑁
=
𝑤0 200 𝑘𝑔 (9.81 𝑚 )
𝑠2
𝐹
= 28
𝑤0

Effective exhaust velocity

𝑐 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑔
𝑚
𝑐 = 240 𝑠 (9.81 )
𝑠2
𝑚
𝑐 = 2354
𝑠
Total Impulse
𝐼𝑡
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑤
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑤
𝑚
𝐼𝑡 = 240 𝑠 (70 𝑘𝑔 (9.81 ))
𝑠2

7|Page
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

𝐼𝑡 = 164808 𝑁 − 𝑠
Impulse-to-Weight Ratio (propulsion system)
𝐼𝑡 164808 𝑁 − 𝑠
=
𝑤0 ((200 𝑘𝑔 − 110 𝑘𝑔)9.81 𝑚 )
𝑠2
𝐼𝑡 164808 𝑁 − 𝑠
=
𝑤0 ((200 𝑘𝑔 − 110 𝑘𝑔)9.81 𝑚 )
𝑠2
𝐼𝑡
= 187 𝑠
𝑤0

Thrust
The thrust is the force produced
by a rocket propulsion system acting
upon a vehicle. In a simplified way, it
is the reaction experienced by its
structure due to the ejection of matter at
high velocity. It represents the same
phenomenon that pushes a garden hose
backwards or makes a gun recoil. In the
latter case, the forward momentum of
the bullet and the powder charge is
equal to the recoil or rearward
momentum of the gun barrel.
Pressure balance on chamber and nozzle interior walls is not uniform. The
Momentum is a vector quantity and is internal gas pressure is highest in the chamber 𝑝1 and decreases steadily in the
defined as the product of mass and nozzle until it reaches the nozzle exit pressure 𝑝2. The external pressure 𝑝3 is
uniform. At throat, the pressure is 𝑝𝑡 . The four subscripts, indicated by the
velocity. All ship propellers and oars circles, refer to the quantities A, v, T, and 𝜌 at specific locations.
generate their forward push at the
expense of the momentum of the water or air masses, which are accelerated towards the rear. Rocket
propulsion differs from these devices primarily in the relative magnitude of the accelerated masses and
velocities. In rocket propulsion relatively small masses are involved which are carried within the
vehicle and ejected at high velocities.
The thrust F, due to a change in momentum, is given below.
𝑑𝑚
𝐹= 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2
𝑤̇
𝐹= 𝑣
𝑔 2
This force represents the total propulsion force when the nozzle exit pressure equals the
ambient pressure.

8|Page
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

The pressure of the surrounding fluid (i.e. the local atmosphere) gives rise to the second
contribution that influences the thrust. The figure from the previous page shows schematically the
external pressure acting uniformly on the outer surface of a rocket chamber and the gas pressures on
the inside of a typical thermal rocket engine. The size of the arrows indicates the relative magnitude
of the pressure forces. The axial thrust can be determined by integrating all the pressures acting on
areas that can be projected on a plane normal to the nozzle axis. The forces acting radially outward are
appreciable, but do not contribute to the axial thrust because a rocket is typically an axially symmetric
chamber. The conditions prior to entering the nozzle are essentially stagnation conditions.
Because of a fixed nozzle geometry and changes in ambient pressure due to variations in
altitude, there can be an imbalance of the external environment or atmospheric pressure 𝑝3 and the
local pressure 𝑝2 of the hot gas jet at the exit plane of the nozzle. Thus, for a steadily operating rocket
propulsion system moving through a homogeneous atmosphere, the total thrust is equal to
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2 + (𝑝2 − 𝑝3 )𝐴2
The first term is the momentum thrust represented by the product of the propellant mass flow
rate and its exhaust velocity relative to the vehicle. The second term represents the pressure thrust
consisting of the product of the cross-sectional area at the nozzle exit 𝐴2 (where the exhaust jet leaves
the vehicle) and the difference between the exhaust gas pressure at the exit and the ambient fluid
pressure. If the exhaust pressure is less than the surrounding fluid pressure, the pressure thrust is
negative. Because this condition gives a low thrust and is undesirable, the rocket nozzle is usually so
designed that the exhaust pressure is equal or slightly higher than the ambient fluid pressure.
When the ambient atmosphere pressure is equal to the exhaust pressure (𝑝2 = 𝑝3 ), the pressure
term is zero and thus removed from the equation leaving the total thrust to be equal to its momentum
thrust.
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2 + (0)𝐴2
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2
In the vacuum of space 𝑝3 = 0 and the thrust becomes
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2 + (𝑝2 − 0)𝐴2
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2 + (𝑝2 )𝐴2
The pressure condition in which the exhaust pressure is exactly matched to the surrounding
fluid pressure (𝑝2 = 𝑝3 ) is referred to as the rocket nozzle with optimum expansion ratio.
The equation 𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2 + (𝑝2 − 𝑝3 )𝐴2 shows that the thrust of a rocket unit is independent of
the flight velocity. Because changes in ambient pressure affect the pressure thrust, there is a variation
of the rocket thrust with altitude. Because atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude, the
thrust and the specific impulse will increase as the vehicle is propelled to higher altitudes.

9|Page
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Exhaust Velocity
𝐹
The effective exhaust velocity as defined by the equation 𝑐 = 𝑚̇ applies to all rockets that
thermodynamically expand hot gas in a nozzle and, indeed, to all mass expulsion systems. From the
Thrust equation and for constant propellant mass flow, this can be modified to
𝐹
Substituting 𝑐 = 𝑚̇ in the thrust equation:

𝑐𝑚̇ = 𝑚̇𝑣2 + (𝑝2 − 𝑝3 )𝐴2

(𝑝2 − 𝑝3 )𝐴2
𝑐 = 𝑣2 +
𝑚̇
𝐹
The equation 𝑐 = 𝑚̇ shows that c can be determined from thrust and propellant flow
measurements. When 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 , the effective exhaust velocity c is equal to the average actual exhaust
velocity of the propellant gases 𝑣2 . When 𝑝2 ≠ 𝑝3 then 𝑐 ≠ 𝑣2 . However, the second term of the right-
hand side of the modified exhaust velocity c is usually small in relation to 𝑣2 ; thus the effective exhaust
velocity is usually close in value to the actual exhaust velocity.
When 𝑐 = 𝑣2 , the thrust equation can be rewritten as
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑐
The characteristic velocity has been used frequently in the rocket propulsion literature. Its
symbol c*, pronounced "cee-star," is defined as
𝑝1 𝐴1
𝑐∗ =
𝑚̇
The characteristic velocity c* is used in comparing the relative performance of different
chemical rocket propulsion system designs and propellants; it is easily determined from measured data
of 𝑚̇, 𝑝1, and 𝐴1 . It relates to the efficiency of the combustion and is essentially independent of nozzle
characteristics.

Example:
The following measurements were made in a sea level test of a solid propellant rocket motor:
Burn duration 40 sec
Initial mass before test 1210 kg
Mass of rocket motor after test 215 kg
Average thrust 62250 N
Camber pressure 7.00 MPa
Nozzle exit pressure 0.070 MPa
Nozzle throat diameter 0.0855 m
Nozzle exit diameter 0.2703 m

Determine 𝑚̇, 𝑣2 , 𝑐 ∗ , 𝑐, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑠 𝑎𝑡 1000 𝑎𝑛𝑑 25000 𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒.
Assume an invariant thrust and mass flow rate and negligible short start and stop transients.

10 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Solution:
Mass flow rate
𝑚𝑝
𝑚̇ =
𝑡
1215 𝑘𝑔 − 215 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ =
40 𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 24.9
𝑠
Actual average exhaust velocity (SSLC)
Calculate exhaust area 𝐴2 first
𝜋𝐷22
𝐴2 =
4
𝜋(0.2703 𝑚)2
𝐴2 =
4
𝐴2 = 0.0574 𝑚2
From:
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2 + (𝑝2 − 𝑝3 )𝐴2
𝑚̇𝑣2 = 𝐹 − (𝑝2 − 𝑝3 )𝐴2
𝐹 (𝑝2 − 𝑝3 )𝐴2
𝑣2 = −
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
62250 𝑁 (70000 𝑃𝑎 − 101325 𝑃𝑎)0.0574 𝑚2
𝑣2 = −
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
24.9 𝑠 24.9 𝑠

62250 𝑁 (70000 𝑃𝑎 − 101325 𝑃𝑎)0.0574 𝑚2

𝑣2 = −
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
24.9 𝑠 24.9 𝑠
𝑚
𝑣2 = 2572.211
𝑠
Characteristic velocity
Calculate exhaust area 𝐴2 first
𝜋(0.0855 𝑚)2
𝐴2 =
4
𝐴2 = 0.00574 𝑚2
Solve

11 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

𝑝1 𝐴1
𝑐∗ =
𝑚̇

∗
7000000 𝑃𝑎(0.00574 𝑚2 )
𝑐 =
𝑘𝑔
24.9 𝑠
𝑚
𝑐 ∗ = 1613.655
𝑠
Specific Impulse
𝐹
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑤̇
62250 𝑁
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
24.9 𝑠 (9.81 2 )
𝑠
𝐼𝑠 = 254.842 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Effective exhaust velocity (SSLC)
𝑐 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑔
𝑚
𝑐 = 254.842 𝑠 (9.81 )
𝑠2
𝑚
𝑐 = 2500
𝑠

Problem Solving:
Write the problem, given, and complete solution. Box your final answer only (only round off
on your final answers, minimum of three decimal places).
i. Solutions must be hand-written in a clean sheet of paper in accordance with our format
for written submissions.
ii. Use black or blue ink pen only.

1. Using the data from the sample problem at page 03, what do you think is the value of the
average thrust of the rocket motor? (SI and Imperial Units)
2. Using the given values of the motor from the sample problem at page 10. Kindly calculate for
the values of 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑠 𝑎𝑡 4500 𝑚, 15000 𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒. (SI)

12 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Nozzle Theory
The rocket nozzle can surely be described as
the epitome of elegant simplicity. The primary
function of a nozzle is to channel and accelerate the
combustion products produced by the burning
propellant in such a way as to maximize the velocity of
the exhaust at the exit, to supersonic velocity. The
familiar rocket nozzle, also known as a convergent-
divergent, or de Laval nozzle, accomplishes this
remarkable feat by simple geometry. In other words, it
does this by varying the cross-sectional area (or Image of an F-1 rocket Engine and Nozzle
diameter) in an exacting form.

Properties of a Rocket Nozzle

 Nozzle produces thrust
 Exhaust gases from combustion are pushed into throat region of nozzle
 Throat is smaller cross-sectional area than rest of engine, gases are compressed to high
pressure.
 Nozzle gradually increases in cross-sectional area allowing gases to expand and push against
walls creating thrust.
 Convert thermal energy of hot chamber gases into kinetic energy and direct that energy
along nozzle axis.

The analysis of a rocket nozzle involves the concept of "steady, one-dimensional compressible
fluid flow of an ideal gas". Briefly, this means that:
 The flow of the fluid (exhaust gases + condensed particles) is constant and does not change
over time during the burn
 One-dimensional flow means that the direction of the
flow is along a straight line. For a nozzle, the flow is
assumed to be along the axis of symmetry
 The flow is compressible. The concept of compressible fluid flow is usually employed for gases
moving at high (usually supersonic) velocity, unlike the concept of incompressible flow, which
is used for liquids and gases moving at a speeds well below sonic velocity. A compressible
fluid exhibits significant changes in density, an incompressible fluid does not.
 The concept of an ideal gas is a simplifying assumption, one that allows use of a direct
relationship between pressure, density and temperature, which are properties that are
particularly important in analysing flow through a nozzle.

13 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Fluid properties, such as velocity, density, pressure and temperature, in compressible fluid
flow, are affected by
1. Change in cross-sectional area
2. Friction
3. Heat loss to the surroundings
The goal of rocket nozzle design is to accelerate the combustion
products to as high an exit velocity as possible. This is achieved by
designing the necessary nozzle geometric profile with the condition that
isentropic flow is to be aimed for. Isentropic flow is considered to be
flow that is dependant only upon cross-sectional area, which
necessitates frictionless and adiabatic (no heat loss) flow. Therefore, in
the actual nozzle, it is necessary to minimize frictional effects, flow
disturbances and conditions that can lead to shock losses. In addition,
heat transfer losses are to be minimized. In this way, the properties of
the flow are near isentropic, and are simply affected only by the
changing cross-sectional area as the fluid moves through the nozzle. Typical nozzle (supersonic) geometry

The analysis of compressible fluid flow involves four equations of particular interest:
1. Energy
2. Continuity
3. Momentum
4. The equation of state
The principle of conservation of energy can be readily applied to the adiabatic, no shaft-work
process inside the nozzle. Furthermore, without shocks or friction, the flow entropy change is zero.
The concept of enthalpy is useful in flow systems; the enthalpy comprises the internal thermal energy
plus the flow work (or work performed by the gas at a velocity v in crossing a boundary). For ideal
gases the enthalpy can conveniently be expressed as the product of the specific heat 𝑐𝑝 times the
absolute temperature T (the specific heat at constant pressure is formally defined as the partial
derivative of the enthalpy with respect to temperature at constant pressure). Under the above
assumptions, the total or stagnation enthalpy per unit mass ℎ0 is constant.
𝑣2
ℎ0 = ℎ + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2𝐽
Where in the equation above, J is the mechanical equivalent of heat which is inserted only
when thermal units (i.e., the Btu and calorie) are mixed with mechanical units (i.e., the work
units 𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑓𝑡 and the joule).
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑓𝑡 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝐽 = 4.186 = 777.9 = 1055
𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝐵𝑇𝑈
However in SI units, the value of J is one.
The energy equation is a statement of the principle of conservation of energy. For adiabatic
flow between any two points, x and y, it is given by

14 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

𝑣𝑥2 𝑣𝑦2
ℎ𝑥 + = ℎ𝑦 +
2𝐽 2𝐽
1 2
ℎ𝑥 − ℎ𝑦 = (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑥2 )
2𝐽 𝑦
1 2
𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇𝑦 ) = (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑥2 )
2𝐽 𝑦
This equation provides valuable insight into how a rocket nozzle works. Looking at the second
equation above shows that the change (decrease) in enthalpy is equal to the change (increase) in kinetic
energy. In other words, heat of the fluid is being used to accelerate the flow to a greater velocity. The
equation represents the resulting change (decrease) in temperature of the flow. The heat capacity may
be approximated to be constant, and is a property determined by the composition of the combustion
products.
The principle of conservatism of mass in a steady flow with a single inlet and single outlet is
expressed by equating the mass flow rate 𝑚̇ at any section x to that at any other section y; this is known
in mathematical form as the continuity equation. Written in terms of the cross-sectional area A, the
velocity v, and the specific volume V,
𝐴𝑣
𝑚̇𝑥 = 𝑚̇𝑦 ≡ 𝑚̇ = = 𝜌𝐴𝑣
𝑉
The specific heat at constant pressure 𝐶𝑝 , the specific heat at constant volume 𝐶𝑣 , and their
ratio k are constant for perfect gases over a wide range of temperatures and are related.
𝑐𝑝
𝑘=
𝑐𝑣
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅
𝑘𝑅
𝑐𝑝 =
𝑘−1
For an isentropic flow process the following relations hold between any points x and y
𝑘−1
𝑘−1
𝑇𝑥 𝑝𝑥 𝑘 𝜌𝑥
=( ) =( )
𝑇𝑦 𝑝𝑦 𝜌𝑦

During an isentropic nozzle expansion the pressure drops substantially, the absolute
temperature drops somewhat less, and the specific volume increases. When a flow is stopped
isentropically the prevailing conditions are known as stagnation conditions and are designated by the
subscript "0". Sometimes the word "total" is used instead of stagnation.
The stagnation properties may be considered as the properties that would result if the fluid were
(isentropically) decelerated to zero velocity (i.e. stagnant flow). The stagnation temperature 𝑇0 , is
found from the energy equation to be
𝑣2
𝑇0 = 𝑇 +
2𝑐𝑝 𝐽

15 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

For an isentropic flow process, the following important relationship between stagnation
properties for Temperature, Pressure, and Fluid Density hold
𝑘−1
𝑇0 𝑝0 𝑘 𝜌0 𝑘−1
=( ) =( )
𝑇 𝑝 𝜌
When the local velocity comes close to zero, the local temperature and pressure will approach
the stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature. In a combustion chamber, where the gas velocity
is small, the local combustion pressure is essentially equal to the stagnation pressure. The local sonic
velocity a, and the Mach number M, (defined as the ratio of the flow velocity to the local sonic
velocity), is given by

𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑣
𝑀=
𝑎
The Mach number M is a dimensionless flow parameter and is used to define the ratio of the
flow velocity v to the local acoustic velocity a. A Mach number less than one corresponds to subsonic
flow and greater than one to supersonic flow. When the Mach number is equal to one then the flow is
moving at precisely the velocity of sound. It was discovered that at the throat of all supersonic nozzles
the Mach number must be equal to one. The relation between stagnation temperature and Mach number
can now be written as
𝑇0 𝑘−1 2
=1+ (𝑀 )
𝑇 2

2 𝑇0
𝑀=√ ( − 1)
𝑘−1 𝑇

Accordingly, the relationship between stagnation pressure; density and Mach number may be
expressed as given in the following two equations
𝑘
𝑝0 𝑘 − 1 2 𝑘−1
= (1 + (𝑀 ))
𝑝 2
𝑘
𝜌0 𝑘 − 1 2 𝑘−1
= (1 + (𝑀 ))
𝜌 2
The equations above are particularly useful, as these allow each property to be determined in a
flow if the Mach number and the stagnation properties are known. The stagnation (or total)
properties 𝑇0 , 𝑃0 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌0 are simply the properties that are present in the combustion chamber of the
rocket, since the flow velocity is (considered to be) zero at this location. In other words 𝑇0 , is the
combustion temperature of the propellant, 𝑃0 is the chamber pressure, and 𝜌0 is the density of the
combustion products under chamber conditions.
Now going back to the second of the four equations of interest regarding compressible fluid
flow, as discussed earlier, is the continuity (or conservation of mass) equation, which is given by
𝜌𝐴𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

16 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Where A is the nozzle cross-sectional area, v is the velocity of the flow. This equation simply
states that the mass flowing through the nozzle must be constant. We could therefore say that
𝜌𝐴𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝜌∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑣 ∗
The "star" (asterisk) signifies a so-called critical condition, where Mach number is unity, M=1
(flow velocity is equal to the speed of sound). The importance of the critical condition will soon be
made apparent. The area ratio for a nozzle with isentropic flow can be expressed in terms of Mach
numbers for any points x and y within the nozzle.

𝑘+1
𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝐴𝑦 𝑀𝑥 √ 1 + [ 2 ] 𝑀𝑦2
= { }
𝐴𝑥 𝑀𝑦 𝑘−1
1 + [ 2 ] 𝑀𝑥2

Expressing the area ratio between the cross-sectional area at any point (y) in the nozzle, to the
cross-sectional area where the critical condition exists (M=1) we get

𝑘+1
𝑘 − 1 2 𝑘−1
𝐴 1 √ 1 + [ 2 ]𝑀
= { }
𝐴∗ 𝑀 𝑘−1
1+[ 2 ]

𝐴
When a plot is made of 𝐴∗ versus Mach number,
using this equation, a very interesting result is obtained.
It clearly shows that a converging-diverging passage
with a section of minimum area is required to accelerate
the flow from subsonic to supersonic speed. The critical
𝐴
point where the flow is at sonic velocity (𝑀 = 1 at 𝐴∗ =
1) is seen to exist at the throat of the nozzle. This shows
the importance of the nozzle having a diverging section,
without it, the flow could never be greater than sonic
velocity. 𝐴
𝑣𝑠. 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 graph
𝐴∗

Example:
An ideal rocket chamber is to operate at sea level using propellants whose combustion products
have a specific heat ratio k of 1.30. Determine the required chamber pressure and nozzle area ratio
between throat and exit if the nozzle exit Mach number is 2.40. The nozzle inlet Mach number may be
considered to be negligibly small. Assume optimum expansion.
Solution:
Chamber Pressure
𝑘
𝑝0 𝑘 − 1 2 𝑘−1
= (1 + (𝑀 ))
𝑝 2

17 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory
1.3
1.3 − 1 1.3−1
𝑝0 = 101325 𝑃𝑎 (1 + (2.42 ))
2
𝑝0 = 1505389.493 𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 1.51 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Nozzle Area Ratio

𝑘+1
𝑘 − 1 2 𝑘−1
𝐴 1 √ 1 + [ 2 ]𝑀
= { }
𝐴∗ 𝑀 𝑘−1
1+[ 2 ]

1.3+1
1.3 − 1 2
1.3−1
𝐴 1 √ 1 + [ 2 ] 2.4
= { }
𝐴∗ 2.4 1.3 − 1
1+[ ]
2

𝐴
= 2.654
𝐴∗
Derived from the energy equation, the flow velocity at the nozzle exit can be expressed as

𝑣2 = √2𝐽(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) + 𝑣12

This equation applies to ideal and non-ideal rockets. For constant k this expression can be
rewritten as you can see below with subscripts 1 and 2 applied to the nozzle inlet and exit conditions
respectively:

𝑘−1
2𝑘𝑅𝑇1 𝑝2 𝑘
𝑣2 = √ [1 − ( ) ] + 𝑣12
𝑘−1 𝑝1

This equation also holds for any two points within the nozzle. When the chamber section is
large compared to the nozzle throat section, the chamber velocity or nozzle approach velocity is
comparatively small and the term 𝑣12 can be neglected. The chamber temperature 𝑇1 is at the nozzle
inlet and, under isentropic conditions, differs little from the stagnation temperature or (for a chemical
rocket) from the combustion temperature. This leads to an important simplified expression of the
exhaust velocity 𝑣2 , which is often used in the analysis.

𝑘−1
2𝑘𝑅𝑇1 𝑝2 𝑘
𝑣2 = √ [1 − ( ) ]+0
𝑘−1 𝑝1

18 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

𝑘−1
2𝑘𝑅𝑇0 𝑝2 𝑘
𝑣2 = √ [1 − ( ) ]
𝑘−1 𝑝1

For optimum expansion 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 and the effective exhaust velocity c and the ideal rocket
exhaust velocity are related, namely
𝑣2 = (𝑐2 )𝑜𝑝𝑡

For a fixed nozzle exit area ratio, and constant chamber pressure, this optimum condition
occurs only at a particular altitude where the ambient pressure 𝑝3 happens to be equal to the nozzle
exhaust pressure 𝑝2 . At all other altitudes 𝑐 ≠ 𝑣2 .
The maximum theoretical value of the nozzle outlet velocity is reached with an infinite
expansion (exhausting into a vacuum).

2𝑘𝑅𝑇0
(𝑣2 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
𝑘−1

This maximum theoretical exhaust velocity is finite, even though the pressure ratio is infinite,
because it represents the finite thermal energy content of the fluid. Such an expansion does not happen,
because, among other things, the temperature of many of the working medium species will fall below
their liquefaction or the freezing points; thus they cease to be a gas and no longer contribute to the gas
expansion.

Example:
A rocket operates at sea level with a chamber pressure of 𝑝1 = 2.068 𝑀𝑃𝑎, a chamber
̇ 𝑘𝑔
temperature of 𝑇1 = 2222 𝐾, and a propellant consumption of 𝑚 = 1 𝑠 . Let 𝑘 = 1.30, 𝑅 =
𝐽
345.7 𝑘𝑔−𝑘.

a. Calculate the variation of 𝐴𝑥 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑉𝑥̇ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑥 with respect to an intermediate

pressure 𝑝𝑥 = 1.379 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
b. Calculate the ideal thrust and ideal specific impulse. Optimum expansion

Solution:
Specific Volume 𝑉𝑥̇ & Temperature 𝑇𝑋
Calculate the initial specific volume first

𝑝1 𝑉1̇ = 𝑅𝑇1
𝑅𝑇1
𝑉1̇ =
𝑝1

19 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

𝐽
345.7 (2222 𝑘)
𝑘𝑔 − 𝑘
𝑉1̇ =
2.068 ∗ 106
𝑚3
𝑉1̇ = 0.371443617
𝑘𝑔
Applying isentropic relations
1
𝑉𝑥̇ 𝑝1 𝑘
=( )
𝑉1̇ 𝑝𝑥
1
𝑝1 𝑘
𝑉𝑥̇ = 𝑉1̇ ( )
𝑝𝑥
1
𝑚3 2.068 1.3
𝑉𝑥̇ = 0.3714 ( )
𝑘𝑔 1.379
𝑚3
𝑉𝑥̇ = 0.5073024412
𝑘𝑔
Temperature 𝑇𝑥
𝑘−1
𝑇𝑥 𝑃𝑥 𝑘
=( )
𝑇1 𝑃1
𝑘−1
𝑃𝑥 𝑘
𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇1 ( )
𝑃1
1.3−1
1.379 1.3
𝑇𝑥 = 2222 𝑘 ( )
2.068
𝑇𝑥 = 2023.6334 𝑘
Velocity 𝑉𝑥

𝑘−1
2𝑘𝑅𝑇0 𝑝𝑥 𝑘
𝑣𝑥 = √ [1 − ( ) ]
𝑘−1 𝑝1

𝐽 1.3−1
2(1.3)(345.7 )(2222 𝑘) 1.379 1.3
𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
𝑣𝑥 = √ [1 − ( ) ]
1.3 − 1 2.068

𝑚
𝑣𝑥 = 770.9212394
𝑠

20 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Cross-sectional area 𝐴𝑥
𝐴𝑥 𝑣𝑥
𝑚̇𝑥 =
𝑉𝑥
𝑚̇𝑥 𝑉𝑥
𝐴𝑥 =
𝑣𝑥
𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
1 𝑠 (0.5073024412 )
𝑘𝑔
𝐴𝑥 = 𝑚
770.9212394 𝑠

𝐴𝑥 = 6.58047042 ∗ 10−4 𝑚2
Mach number 𝑀𝑥
𝑣𝑥
𝑀=
√𝑘𝑅𝑇𝑥
𝑚
770.9212394 𝑠
𝑀=
𝐽
√1.3 (345.7 ) (2023.6334 𝑘)
𝑘𝑔 − 𝑘
𝑀 = 0.8083933376
Thrust F & Specific Impulse 𝐼𝑠
Calculate for 𝑣2 first.

𝑘−1
2𝑘𝑅𝑇0 𝑝2 𝑘
𝑣2 = √ [1 − ( ) ]
𝑘−1 𝑝1

𝐽 1.3−1
2(1.3)(345.7 )(2222 𝑘) . 101325 1.3
𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
𝑣2 = √ [1 − ( ) ]
1.3 − 1 2.068

𝑚
𝑣2 = 1827.051074
𝑠
Thrust F
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝐹=1 (1827.051074 )
𝑠 𝑠
𝐹 = 1827.051074 𝑁

21 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Specific Impulse. In optimum expansion 𝑣2 = 𝑐

𝑐
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑔
𝑚
1827.051074 𝑠
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑚
9.81 2
𝑠
𝐼𝑠 = 186.2437382 𝑠

Problem Solving
Write the problem, given, and complete solution. Box your final answer only (only round off on your
final answers, minimum of three decimal places).
i. Solutions must be hand-written in a clean sheet of paper in accordance with our format
for written submissions.
ii. Use black or blue ink pen only.
1. In an undisturbed airstream, the pressure is 14.7 psi, the density is 0.002378 slugs per cubic
feet, and the velocity is 500 feet per second. What is the velocity where the pressure is 13.5
psi? (Imperial)
2. Calculate the nozzle flow exit velocity for a rocket motor operating at 68 atmospheres chamber
pressure, expanding to ambient air. The propellant is sorbitol based KNSB. (SI Units)
The propellant KNSB has the following properties:
Specific heat ratio k 1.04
Total Temperature 𝑇0 1600 K
Gas constant R 𝐽
208.58 𝑘𝑔−𝑘
3. A jet transport is flying at a standard altitude of 30,000 feet with a velocity of 550 miles per
hour. What is the Mach number?

22 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Rocket Nozzle Configuration

The rocket nozzles can have many shapes configurations. On the bases of their shapes they can
be classified in three groups. The three primary groups of nozzle types are:
1. Cone (conical, linear)
2. Bell (contoured, shaped, classic converging-diverging)
3. Annular (spike, aero-spike, plug, expansion, expansion deflection)

Different classifications of nozzle configuration

Conical nozzles. The conical nozzle is the oldest and the simplest configuration among
different rocket engines because of its ease to fabricate. The cone gets its name from the fact that the
walls of it nozzle diverge at a constant angle.
A small angle produces greater thrust, because it maximizes the axial component of exit
velocity and produces a high specific impulse (a measure of rocket efficiency) and the small nozzle
divergence angle means long length and axial momentum and thus high specific impulse.
However, this produces a penalty in rocket propulsion system mass, vehicle mass due to its long length.
A large divergence angle reduces size and weight. But, results in performance loss at low altitude as
the high ambient pressure causes overexpansion and flow separation.

23 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Bell/Contoured nozzle. The configuration of bell nozzle designs

are similar to conical design but are more efficient and more compact
than its counterpart. The bell nozzle configuration is the most
commonly used nozzle shape today.
It’s contoured shape provides an advantage for it minimizes the
turning divergence losses. Reducing divergence requires more turning
flow (more axial) which can result in compressions which in turn could
lead to shock losses. This type of nozzles are designed such that all
waves are isentropic and produce a nearly axial flow at the nozzle exit.
As illustrate on the below, the bell nozzle configuration
consists of two sections.
Image of a Modern Bell Nozzle
1. Near the throat*, the nozzle diverges at a relatively large angle,
around 20 to 50 degrees, but the degree of divergence decreases downstream.
2. Near the nozzle exit, as per mentioned in the earlier statement, decreases around less than 10
degrees.

Basic sections of a bell nozzle configuration

The divergence loss at

the exit of a bell nozzle is
significantly less than that of a
conical nozzle of the same
design. As illustrated on the
image on the right, a conical
nozzle configuration with an
angle of 15 degrees from its
throat has an exit angle of 15
degrees, because of its
constant angle, while the exit
angle of a Bell nozzle with the Comparison conical (bottom) and bell (top) configuration
same exit diameter is only 8.5
degrees. Also seen in the figure, is that the length of a bell nozzle is shorter and is visibly more compact,
therefore having less mass than a conical nozzle.

24 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Annular Nozzle. The annular nozzle, also

known as the plug or altitude compensating nozzle, is
the least employed among the nozzle configuration due
to its greater complexity. The term “annular” refers to
the fact that its combustion occurs along a ring or
“annulus”, around the base of the nozzle.
The “plug” refers to the centerbody that blocks
the flow from what would be the center portion of a
traditional nozzle.
There are two major types of annular nozzles
developed to date. They are distinguished by the
Sample schematic of an annular nozzle configuration
method in which they expand exhaust: (1) outward or
(2) inward

Major Types of Annular Nozzles

1. Radial out flow nozzles. Examples of this type are the expansion-deflection (E-D), reverse-
flow (R-F), and horizontal-flow (H-F) nozzles
2. Radial in flow nozzles. Spike nozzles, linear-aero-spike nozzle.

Expansion-deflection nozzle works similar to a bell nozzle, since the exhaust gases are forced
into a converging throat region of low area before expanding in a bell-shaped nozzle. However, the
flow is deflected by a plug, or centerbody, that forces the gases away from the center of the nozzle.
Thus, the E-D is a radial out-flow nozzle.

Basic sketch of an Expansion-deflection nozzle and their wake in sea level (left) and vacuum (right)

The Expansion-deflection nozzle, has been one of the most studied forms of annular nozzles.
The most notable difference between these type and bell
nozzle is the addition of a centerbody. As shown on the right, this
"plug" may be located upstream of, downstream of, or in the throat,
with each location resulting in better performance for a given set of
operating conditions. The purpose of the centerbody is to force
flow to remain attached to, to stick to nozzle walls. This type of
nozzles are desirable at low altitudes because the atmospheric
pressure is high and may be greater than pressure of exhaust gases.
When this occurs, the exhaust is forced inward and no longer exerts Centre body upstream of the throat

force on the nozzle walls, so thrust is decreased and the rocket

25 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

becomes less efficient. The centerbody, however, increases the pressure of the exhaust gases by
squeezing the gases into a smaller area thereby virtually eliminating any loss in thrust at low altitude.
The reverse-flow nozzle gets its name because the fuel is
injected from underneath, but the exhaust gases are rotated 180°
thereby reversing their direction. Similarly, the fuel in the
horizontal-flow nozzle is injected sideways, but the exhaust is
rotated 90°.
Basic schematic of a reverse flow nozzle

Radial in flow nozzles, often referred as spike nozzles, is a s type of nozzle named for the
prominent spike centerbody. It can also be described as a bell turned inside out. Various different
configuration of this type of nozzle are possible. Some of these configuration are:
a. traditional curved spike with completely external supersonic expansion
b. similar shape in which part of the expansion occurs internally
c. design similar to E-D nozzle in which all expansion occurs internally

Truncated aerospike nozzles. Further by removing pointed spike

altogether and replace with a flat base. This configuration is known as a
truncated spike. It will have some internal supersonic waves and will show
a small but real loss in thrust compared to a nozzle with a full central spike.
The losses caused by the cut-off spike can be reduced by injecting a small
amount of the gas flow (about 1% of total flow) through this base plate into
the recirculating region.

Centre piece of a truncated

aero-spike nozzle

26 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Short Research
List and compare the advantages and disadvantages of each nozzle configuration mentioned in
this section of the module.
 Write your answers in bullet form with a minimum of 2 sentences per paragraph in each the
bulleted answer.
 Give at least 2 advantages/disadvantages for each nozzle configuration.
Kindly Use our format for module activities, in accomplishing this activity.

Paper Assignment:
Topic: “The Current State of Annular Nozzle Designs and its Future Potential of being a more
Commonly Utilized Nozzle Configuration”
Read carefully and follow the instructions listed below.
Format: APA
Contents:
1. This Research must be accomplished individually. Please avoid copying the work of your
classmates, anyone who does so shall be penalized of repeating this activity;
2. (At least) 6 double spaced typewritten pages. Excluding the title and table of reference
3. Should include four sections
A. Introduction
B. Summary of the articles
C. Opinion or reaction to the articles
 You may decide to do a combination of any of the following:
i. Compare the works to other related articles.
ii. You may hypothesize why and/or how is the current state of the
annular nozzle designs are as they are.
iii. You may expand on the points of the article or cover other domains
not covered in the said article; or
iv. You may argue against the works questioning its assumptions.
D. Conclusion
4. Students must use in-text citations as well as a bibliography section to cite every Source that is
used in this paper.
5. Correct Grammar, syntax, usage, spelling, and punctuation are absolutely required.

27 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Technical Report: Designing a Model Rocket II

Introduction
According to the National Association of Rocketry (NAR), Model rocketry was developed
during the “space race” era as an alternative to the amateur rocket activity — involving metallic
airframes and the mixing of dangerous propellants — that was responsible for injuring and even killing
numerous young scientific experimenters.
Model rockets are constructed of much safer materials — such as cardboard, plastic, and balsa
wood — and are fuelled by single-use rocket motors manufactured by professional businesses. These
rockets may be flown over and over simply by replacing the used motor with a fresh one. They
typically contain a parachute, streamer, or other recovery device that allows them to land gently for
later re-flight. The modeller need never mix, pack, or work with explosives or propellants.

Activity
Discuss the Design Concept derived from your project proposal according to Objective,
Proposed Type, and Fabrication for each part of your Amateur Rocket Design.
Draft a Procedure. This phase shall contain the steps that your group has to follow in order to
finish the construction of your Amateur Rocket. You can either make a new type or adapt a pre-existing
design whereby your section shall make modifications on.
The Basic Parts of a Rocket are:
a. Launching Pad
b. Exhaust Nozzle
c. Propulsion System
d. Ejection and Recovery
e. Rocket Tube and Stabilizer
Create a chart and/or manual containing the following:
Distribution of Work. Create a list/chart detailing the processes that your group has previously
discussed about and agreed on. Discuss each team’s specific task and assign a Project Manager that
shall oversee the Project’s overall progress and completion.
Work Schedule. Create a "functional" and "detailed" work schedule/time table of the project.
Any form of working schedule/matrix is allowed. However, I strongly suggest the use of Critical Path
Method

Documentation
1. Make use of the Journal.
2. Presentation. Create a well-thought out presentation (PowerPoint, Canvas, etc.)
3. Create a video with at least one member of your group as a representative to describe and
present your Design Concept, Procedure, and Work Schedule.

28 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

Note* | kindly read the Rubric for Written and Visual Presentation to assist you in accomplishing
the activities in this part of the module better.

Honesty Clause
Here is a copy of the Honesty Clause which you will attach to every submission you will carry
out in this learning module.
“As members of the Academic Community, students are expected to recognize and uphold standards
of intellectual and academic integrity. Philippine State College of Aeronautics assumes, as a basic
and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters, that students should be honest and that they
submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.”
________________________________________________
Signature over PRINTED name

29 | P a g e
ROCKET PROPULSION
Learning Module 02: Fundamental Principles & Nozzle Theory

References

Harinkumar, P. (n.d.). Different Types of Rocket Nozzles. Retrieved from

http://docshare01.docshare.tips/files/26389/263891559.pdf
Nakka, R. (2020, July 23). Amateur Experimental Solid Propellants. Retrieved from Richard Nakka's
Experimental Rocketry Web Site: https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/propel.html
Nakka, R. (2020). Richard Nakka's Experimental Rocketry Web Site. Retrieved from Richard
Nakka's Experimental Rocketry Web Site: https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/
National Association of Rocketry. (2021). MODEL ROCKET INFORMATION. Retrieved from
National Association of Rocketry: https://www.nar.org/model-rocket-info/
Space Exploration Beta. (2014, August). Retrieved from Space Stack Exchange:
https://space.stackexchange.com/questions/1171/efficient-types-of-nozzles-used-in-rockets
Sutton, G. P., & Biblarz, O. 9. (2017). Rocket Propulsion Elements 9th Edition. New Jersey: John
wiley and Sons Inc.

30 | P a g e