1

What is literature? What is its

origin dating to the earliest sources
and how it evolved to be what it is
in its contemporary form?
Literature is a broad term that refers
to written and sometimes spoken
works of creative, artistic, or
intellectual value. Literature can take
various forms, such as poetry, drama,
fiction, nonfiction, and more.
Literature can also be classified by
language, culture, period, genre, and
subject.
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The origin of literature is not easy to

trace, as different cultures and
languages have different traditions
and histories of writing. However,
some of the earliest known examples
of literature are the Epic of
Gilgamesh from ancient
Mesopotamia, the Vedas and the
Mahabharata from ancient India, the
Iliad and the Odyssey from ancient
Greece, and the Aeneid from ancient
Rome. These works are often
considered as epic poems, which are
long narrative poems that tell the
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stories of heroes, gods, and historical

events.
Literature has evolved over time,
influenced by social, political,
religious, and cultural factors, as well
as by the development of writing
systems, printing technologies, and
literary movements. Some of the
major periods and movements in the
history of literature are:
 The Middle Ages (5th-15th
centuries): This period saw the rise
of Christianity and Islam, the
emergence of vernacular languages,
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and the development of genres such

as romance, allegory, and satire.
Some of the notable works from this
period are Beowulf, The Divine
Comedy, The Canterbury Tales, and
The Thousand and One Nights.
 The Renaissance (14th-17th
centuries): This period witnessed
the revival of classical learning and
art, the exploration of new lands,
and the invention of the printing
press. Some of the notable works
from this period are The
Decameron, The Prince, Don
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Quixote, and the plays of

Shakespeare.
 The Enlightenment (17th-18th
centuries): This period marked a
shift towards reason, rationality, and
the questioning of established
beliefs and systems. Some of the
notable works from this period are
Paradise Lost, Candide, Gulliver’s
Travels, and the essays of
Montaigne and Voltaire.
 The Romanticism (18th-19th
centuries): This period emphasized
emotion, imagination,
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individualism, and nature. Some of

the notable works from this period
are The Sorrows of Young Werther,
Frankenstein, Pride and Prejudice,
and the poems of Wordsworth and
Keats.
 The Realism (19th century): This
period focused on depicting the
reality of everyday life, often with a
critical or social perspective. Some
of the notable works from this
period are Madame Bovary, Crime
and Punishment, War and Peace,
and the novels of Dickens and
Twain.
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 The Modernism (20th century): This

period experimented with new
forms, techniques, and themes, often
challenging the conventions and
traditions of literature. Some of the
notable works from this period are
Ulysses, The Waste Land, The
Metamorphosis, and the works of
Kafka and Woolf.
 The Postmodernism (late 20th-21st
centuries): This period questioned
the validity and authority of
literature, often using irony, parody,
and metafiction. Some of the
notable works from this period are
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The Catcher in the Rye, One

Hundred Years of Solitude, The
Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy,
and the works of Borges and Eco.

FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE:
Some of the main functions of
literature are:
1. Entertainment: One of the most
obvious and common functions of
literature is to entertain the
audience. Literature can provide
enjoyment, amusement, laughter,
suspense, thrill, horror, or any other
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emotion that the writer wants to

evoke. Literature can also transport
the readers to different places,
times, and realities, allowing them
to escape from their mundane or
stressful lives. For example, fantasy
literature, such as Harry Potter or
Lord of the Rings, can entertain the
readers by immersing them in a
magical world full of adventure and
wonder.
2. Education: Another function of

literature is to educate the audience.

Literature can impart knowledge,
information, facts, skills, values,
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morals, or perspectives to the

readers. Literature can also
stimulate critical thinking, analytical
reasoning, and creative problem-
solving skills. Literature can expose
the readers to different cultures,
histories, languages, and
experiences, broadening their
horizons and perspectives. For
example, historical literature, such
as The Diary of Anne Frank or The
Kite Runner, can educate the readers
about the events, people, and issues
of a certain period or place.
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3. Cultural Preservation: A third

function of literature is to preserve
the culture of a group of people.
Literature can reflect, record, and
transmit the traditions, customs,
beliefs, values, stories, myths,
legends, and folklore of a culture.
Literature can also celebrate,
critique, or challenge the aspects of
a culture, such as its identity,
diversity, unity, or conflicts.
Literature can help the readers to
understand, appreciate, and respect
the culture of the writer or the
characters. For example, indigenous
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literature, such as Things Fall Apart

or Ceremony, can preserve the
culture of the native people and
their struggles against colonization
and oppression.
4. Empathy and Understanding: A

fourth function of literature is to

foster empathy and understanding
among the audience. Literature can
portray the emotions, thoughts,
motivations, and experiences of the
writer or the characters, allowing
the readers to relate to them and feel
what they feel. Literature can also
explore the themes, issues, and
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problems that affect the human

condition, such as love, death, war,
justice, freedom, or identity.
Literature can help the readers to
empathize with the situations and
perspectives of others, especially
those who are different from them.
For example, social justice
literature, such as To Kill a
Mockingbird or The Hate U Give,
can foster empathy and
understanding for the victims of
racism, discrimination, and
injustice.
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5. Social Commentary: A fifth

function of literature is to provide
social commentary on the society
and the world. Literature can
express the opinions, views,
attitudes, and values of the writer or
the characters, regarding the social,
political, economic, or
environmental issues and events of
their time. Literature can also
influence, persuade, or challenge the
opinions, views, attitudes, and
values of the readers, regarding the
same issues and events. Literature
can help the readers to become
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aware, informed, and engaged with

the society and the world. For
example, dystopian literature, such
as 1984 or The Hunger Games, can
provide social commentary on the
dangers of totalitarianism,
oppression, and inequality.
6. Personal Development: A sixth

function of literature is to facilitate

personal development for the
audience. Literature can inspire,
motivate, or empower the readers to
achieve their goals, overcome their
challenges, or improve their lives.
Literature can also help the readers
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to discover, explore, or express their

own emotions, thoughts, identities,
or values. Literature can also help
the readers to cope with their stress,
trauma, or grief, by providing
comfort, support, or healing. For
example, self-help literature, such as
The Power of Now or The
Alchemist, can facilitate personal
development for the readers by
offering guidance, advice, or
wisdom.
7. Communication and Expression:

A seventh function of literature is to

enable communication and
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expression for the writer and the

audience. Literature can
communicate the message, purpose,
or intention of the writer to the
readers, using various literary
devices, such as language, style,
tone, imagery, symbolism, or
metaphor. Literature can also
express the creativity, originality, or
artistry of the writer, using various
literary forms, such as poetry,
fiction, or drama. Literature can also
allow the readers to communicate
and express their own responses,
reactions, or interpretations of the
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work, using various modes, such as

speech, writing, or performance. For
example, lyrical literature, such as
Songs of Innocence and Experience
or Leaves of Grass, can enable
communication and expression for
the writer and the audience by using
musical, rhythmic, and figurative
language.
8. Aesthetic Appreciation: An eighth

function of literature is to cultivate

aesthetic appreciation for the
audience. Literature can appeal to
the senses, emotions, or intellect of
the readers, by creating beauty,
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harmony, or pleasure through the

use of language and form. Literature
can also challenge the expectations,
conventions, or norms of the
readers, by creating novelty,
complexity, or surprise through the
use of innovation and
experimentation. Literature can help
the readers to appreciate the artistic
value, quality, or merit of the work,
by applying various criteria, such as
originality, coherence, relevance, or
impact. For example, classical
literature, such as The Odyssey or
Hamlet, can cultivate aesthetic
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appreciation for the audience by

creating masterpieces of language
and form that have endured the test
of time and culture.
9. Catharsis: A ninth function of

literature is to induce catharsis for

the audience. Literature can elicit
strong emotions, such as pity, fear,
anger, or joy, from the readers, by
making them identify with the fate,
actions, or choices of the writer or
the characters. Literature can also
release or purge these emotions, by
providing a resolution, closure, or
relief for the readers, by making
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them accept, understand, or learn

from the outcome, consequences, or
lessons of the work. Literature can
help the readers to experience a
sense of emotional cleansing,
healing, or transformation, by
making them feel better, lighter, or
wiser after reading the work. For
example, tragic literature, such as
Oedipus Rex or Macbeth, can
induce catharsis for the audience by
making them feel pity and fear for
the tragic heroes who suffer from
their flaws and fates.
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10. Inspiration: A
tenth function of literature is to
spark inspiration for the audience.
Literature can stimulate the
imagination, curiosity, or creativity
of the readers, by presenting them
with new ideas, possibilities, or
perspectives. Literature can also
encourage the readers to take action,
make a change, or pursue a passion,
by showing them examples, models,
or mentors of success, excellence, or
greatness. Literature can help the
readers to find their own inspiration,
motivation, or purpose, by
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connecting them with their interests,

values, or goals. For example,
biographical literature, such as The
Autobiography of Malcolm X or I
Am Malala, can spark inspiration
for the audience by presenting them
with the life stories of influential
and inspirational figures.
11. Historical
Insight: An eleventh function of
literature is to provide historical
insight for the audience. Literature
can depict, reconstruct, or interpret
the past, by presenting the facts,
events, or people of a certain era or
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place. Literature can also analyze,

evaluate, or criticize the past, by
presenting the causes, effects, or
implications of the historical facts,
events, or people. Literature can
help the readers to gain historical
insight, understanding, or
awareness, by connecting the past
with the present or the future. For
example, historical fiction literature,
such as War and Peace or The Book
Thief, can provide historical insight
for the audience by blending
historical facts with fictional
elements.
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12. Imagination
and Creativity: A twelfth function
of literature is to enhance
imagination and creativity for the
audience. Literature can challenge,
expand, or enrich the imagination of
the readers, by presenting them with
unfamiliar, extraordinary, or
fantastical scenarios, characters, or
settings. Literature can also
stimulate, develop, or express the
creativity of the readers, by
presenting them with various forms,
genres, or styles of writing, such as
poetry, fiction, or drama. Literature
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can help the readers to enhance their

own imagination and creativity, by
inviting them to create their own
works, responses, or interpretations
of the literature. For example,
children’s literature, such as Alice in
Wonderland or The Chronicles of
Narnia, can enhance imagination
and creativity for the audience by
presenting them with whimsical,
magical, or adventurous stories.
POINT OF VIEW
Point of view is a term that refers to
the perspective from which a story is
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told. It determines who the narrator

is, what information they can reveal,
and how they relate to the characters
and events in the story. Point of view
can be classified into three main
positions, each with its own subtypes
and effects:
Omniscient Point of View
Omniscient point of view is when the
narrator knows everything about the
story, including the thoughts,
feelings, actions, and motives of all
the characters. The narrator can move
freely in time and space, and
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comment on the events and

characters from an objective or
subjective standpoint. Omniscient
point of view can be further divided
into two subtypes:
 Third-person omniscient: The
narrator uses third-person pronouns
(he, she, they) to refer to the
characters, and can switch between
different characters’ perspectives
within the same scene or chapter.
For example, in Leo Tolstoy’s War
and Peace, the narrator is a third-
person omniscient narrator who can
reveal the inner thoughts and
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feelings of various characters, such

as Pierre, Natasha, or Andrei, as
well as provide historical and
philosophical insights on the events
of the Napoleonic wars.
 Second-person omniscient: The
narrator uses second-person
pronouns (you) to address the reader
directly, and can also access the
thoughts and feelings of other
characters. This is a rare and
unconventional point of view, as it
creates a sense of intimacy and
involvement for the reader, but also
challenges their expectations and
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assumptions. For example, in Italo

Calvino’s If on a Winter’s Night a
Traveler, the narrator is a second-
person omniscient narrator who
guides the reader through a series of
stories within stories, while also
revealing the thoughts and feelings
of other characters, such as
Ludmilla, the reader’s love interest,
or Silas Flannery, the writer.
First-Person Narration
First-person narration is when the
narrator is a character in the story,
and uses first-person pronouns (I, me,
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we) to tell the story from their own

perspective. The narrator can only
reveal what they see, hear, think, feel,
or experience, and cannot access the
thoughts or feelings of other
characters. First-person narration can
be further divided into two subtypes:
 First-person central: The narrator
is the protagonist or the main
character of the story, and the story
revolves around their actions,
conflicts, and development. The
narrator can be reliable or
unreliable, depending on how
truthful, objective, or biased they
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are in telling their story. For

example, in Mark Twain’s The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,
the narrator is a first-person central
narrator who is the protagonist of
the story, and tells his adventures
along the Mississippi river with his
friend Jim, a runaway slave. The
narrator is an unreliable narrator, as
he often exaggerates, lies, or omits
important details, and reflects the
prejudices and ignorance of his time
and society.
 First-person peripheral: The
narrator is a secondary or minor
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character in the story, and the story

focuses on another character or
characters, who are more central to
the plot. The narrator can be a
witness, a friend, a relative, or a
stranger to the main character or
characters, and can provide a
different or limited perspective on
the events and characters of the
story. For example, in F. Scott
Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, the
narrator is a first-person peripheral
narrator who is a secondary
character in the story, and tells the
story of Jay Gatsby, a mysterious
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and wealthy man who is obsessed

with his former lover Daisy
Buchanan. The narrator is a reliable
narrator, as he is honest, objective,
and detached in telling the story, and
serves as a contrast to the corruption
and decadence of the other
characters.
Figural Narrative Situation
Figural narrative situation is when the
narrator is not a character in the story,
but rather an external observer who
uses third-person pronouns (he, she,
they) to refer to the characters.
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However, unlike the omniscient point

of view, the narrator does not know
everything about the story, but rather
follows the perspective of one or
more characters, and can only reveal
what they see, hear, think, feel, or
experience. Figural narrative
situation can be further divided into
two subtypes:
 Third-person limited: The narrator
follows the perspective of one
character, usually the protagonist or
the main character, and can only
reveal what they see, hear, think,
feel, or experience. The narrator
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cannot access the thoughts or

feelings of other characters, unless
they are expressed through dialogue
or action. For example, in J.D.
Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye,
the narrator is a third-person limited
narrator who follows the perspective
of Holden Caulfield, a rebellious
and cynical teenager who wanders
around New York City after being
expelled from his school. The
narrator can only reveal Holden’s
thoughts and feelings, and cannot
access the thoughts or feelings of
other characters, such as his sister
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Phoebe, his teacher Mr. Antolini, or

his date Sally.
 Third-person multiple: The
narrator follows the perspective of
more than one character, and can
switch between different characters’
perspectives within the same scene,
chapter, or story. The narrator can
only reveal what each character
sees, hears, thinks, feels, or
experiences, and cannot access the
thoughts or feelings of other
characters, unless they are expressed
through dialogue or action. For
example, in George R.R. Martin’s A
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Song of Ice and Fire, the narrator is

a third-person multiple narrator who
follows the perspective of various
characters, such as Jon Snow,
Daenerys Targaryen, Tyrion
Lannister, or Arya Stark, and
switches between their perspectives
in different chapters. The narrator
can only reveal what each character
sees, hears, thinks, feels, or
experiences, and cannot access the
thoughts or feelings of other
characters, unless they are expressed
through dialogue or action.
NOVEL AND ITS ELEMENTS
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A novel is a type of fiction that tells a

story through a series of events
involving a group of characters in a
specific setting. There are different
elements that make up a novel, such
as:
 Plot: The plot is the sequence of
events that happen in the novel, and
how they are connected and
organized. The plot usually involves
a conflict or a problem that the main
character has to face and
resolve. The plot can be divided into
different stages, such as exposition,
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rising action, climax, falling action,

and resolution .
 Characters: The characters are the
people or beings who take part in
the story. They have different
personalities, motivations, goals,
and relationships. The main
character, or the protagonist, is the
one who drives the story forward
and faces the main conflict. The
antagonist is the one who opposes
or challenges the protagonist. There
can also be secondary or minor
characters who support or interact
with the main ones .
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 Narrative: The narrative is the way

the story is told. It includes the point
of view, or the perspective from
which the story is narrated, and the
style, or the choice of words, tone,
and techniques that the author uses.
The point of view can be first-
person, where the narrator is a
character in the story and uses “I”
and “me”, or third-person, where the
narrator is outside the story and uses
“he”, “she”, or “they”. The style can
be descriptive, humorous, poetic,
realistic, or any other way that suits
the author’s purpose and voice .
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 Setting: The setting is the time and

place where the story happens. It
can include the historical period, the
geographical location, the social and
cultural context, the weather, the
mood, and the atmosphere. The
setting can affect the plot, the
characters, and the theme of the
story. It can also create a sense of
realism, fantasy, or symbolism .

PLOT
Definition of Plot
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Plot is the logical interaction of the

various thematic elements of a text
which lead to a change of the original
situation as presented at the outset of
the narrative. An ideal traditional plot
line encompasses the following four
sequential levels:
 Exposition: This is the introduction
of the main characters, the setting,
and the background information that
is necessary to understand the story.
The exposition also establishes the
initial situation or the status quo of
the story, which is usually stable and
balanced.
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 Complication: This is the

introduction of a conflict or a
problem that disturbs the initial
situation and creates tension and
suspense. The complication can be
internal (within a character) or
external (between characters, or
between a character and a force
such as nature, society, or fate). The
complication usually involves the
protagonist, who is the main
character that drives the story
forward and faces the main
challenge. The complication also
involves the antagonist, who is the
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character or force that opposes or

challenges the protagonist. The
complication can be divided into
sub-stages, such as inciting incident,
rising action, and crisis.
 Climax or Turning Point: This is
the peak of the action and the
suspense, where the conflict reaches
its highest intensity and the outcome
is decided. The climax is usually the
most dramatic and exciting part of
the story, where the protagonist
faces the antagonist in a final
confrontation. The climax also
involves a turning point, where the
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protagonist undergoes a change or a

realization that affects the resolution
of the story.
 Resolution: This is the outcome of
the climax and the solution of the
conflict. The resolution shows how
the situation has changed from the
exposition and how the characters
have been affected by the events.
The resolution can be positive
(happy ending), negative (tragic
ending), or mixed (bittersweet
ending). The resolution can also be
open-ended (leaving some questions
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unanswered) or closed-ended (tying

up all the loose ends).
Types of Plots
Plots can be classified into different
types based on the structure and the
sequence of the events. Some of the
common types of plots are:
 Linear Plot: This is a plot where
the events follow a chronological
order, from the beginning to the end.
A linear plot is easy to follow and
understand, as it shows a clear
cause-and-effect relationship
between the events. Most traditional
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fiction, drama, and film employ this

basic plot structure.
 Non-linear Plot: This is a plot
where the events do not follow a
chronological order, but are
arranged in a different way, such as
backwards, forwards, or randomly.
A non-linear plot can create a sense
of confusion, mystery, or surprise,
as it challenges the reader or the
viewer to piece together the story.
The drama of the absurd and the
experimental novel deliberately
break with linear narrative
structures while at the same time
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maintaining traditional elements of

plot in modified ways. Many
contemporary novels alter linear
narrative structures by introducing
elements of plot in an unorthodox
sequence. Kurt Vonnegut’s (1922–)
postmodern novel Slaughterhouse-
Five (1969) is a striking example of
experimental plot structure which
mixes various levels of action and
time, such as the experiences of a
young soldier in World War II, his
life in America after the war, and a
science-fiction-like dream-world in
which the protagonist is kidnapped
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by an extraterrestrial force. All three

levels are juxtaposed as fragments
by rendering the different settings as
well as their internal sequences of
action in a non-chronological way.
 Flashback and Foreshadowing:
These are techniques that interrupt
the chronological order of the plot
by introducing information
concerning the past or the future in
the narrative. Flashback is a
technique that shows an event or a
scene that happened before the
present time of the story, usually to
provide background information,
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motivation, or insight into a

character or a situation.
Foreshadowing is a technique that
gives hints or clues about what will
happen later in the story, usually to
create suspense, anticipation, or
irony. These techniques are more
frequent in non-chronological plots
but they are also used in traditional
plots. The opening scene in Billy
Wilder’s (*1906) Sunset Boulevard
(1950) is a famous example of the
foreshadowing effect in film: the
first person narrator posthumously
relates the events that led to his
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death while drifting dead in a

swimming pool. The only break
with a linear plot or chronological
narrative is the anticipation of the
film’s ending— the death of its
protagonist—thus eliminating
suspense as an important element of
plot. This technique directs the
audience’s attention to aspects of
the film other than the outcome of
the action.
 Complex and Simple Plots: These
are terms that describe the degree of
intricacy and difficulty of the plot. A
complex plot will have several story
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lines that intermingle and go back

and forth in time, not moving in a
straight line toward resolution.
There are probably many obstacles
to overcome and it may not be clear
that solving them is an unmitigated
good. The ending may be
ambiguous. A simple plot will have
one story line that usually moves in
a straightforward manner toward
resolution. In a simple plot, there
are usually not too many obstacles
to overcome. There may be some
big and fearsome ones but the need
to surmount them is unambiguous.
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Obstacles must be overcome. Then

victory is clear.
CHARACTER
While formalist approaches to the
study of literature traditionally focus
on plot and narrative structure,
interest in psychoanalysis has shifted
the center of attention to the text’s
characters. Characters in a text can be
rendered either as types or as
individuals.
Types of Characters
1. Flat (Typified) Character: A flat
character in literature is dominated
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by one specific trait and is referred

to as a typified character. Typified
characters often represent the
general traits of a group of persons
or abstract ideas. Medieval
allegorical depictions of characters
preferred typification in order to
personify vices, virtues, or
philosophical and religious
positions. The Everyman figure, a
symbol of the sinful Christian, is a
major example of this general
pattern in the representation of man
in medieval literature. In today’s
advertisements, typified character
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presentations reemerge in
magazines, posters, film, and TV.
2. Round (Individualized)
Character: The term round
character usually denotes a persona
with more complex and
differentiated features. The
individualization of a character has
evolved into a main feature of the
genre of the novel. The main
characters of a novel, especially a
modern novel, are multidimensional
and possess individual character
traits.
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Combination of Flat and Round

Characters
Many modern fictional texts reflect a
tension between these modes of
representation by introducing both
elements simultaneously. Herman
Melville’s (1819–91) novel Moby
Dick (1851), for instance, combines
allegorical and individualistic
elements in the depiction of its main
character, Captain Ahab, in order to
lend a universal dimension to the
action which, despite being grounded
in the particularities of a round
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figure, nevertheless points beyond the

specific individual.
Methods of Presentation
Both flat and round characters can be
rendered in a text through showing
and telling as two different methods
of presentation.
1. Explanatory Characterization
(Telling): This method describes a
person through a narrator. For
example, the depiction of Mr.
Rochester by the protagonist in
Charlotte Bronte’s (1816–55) novel
Jane Eyre (1847). This technique
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deliberately places the narrator in

the foreground, inserting him or her
as a judgmental mediator between
the action and the reader.
2. Dramatic Characterization
(Showing): This method does away
with the position of an obvious
narrator, thus avoiding any overt
influence on the reader by a
narrative mediator. This method of
presentation creates the impression
on the reader that he or she is able to
perceive the acting figures without
any intervening agency, as if
witnessing a dramatic performance.
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The image of a person is “shown”

solely through his or her actions and
utterances without interfering
commentary, suggesting an
“objective” perception which leaves
interpretation and evaluation solely
to the judgment of the reader.

POETRY
Definition of Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art that
uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities
of language to evoke meanings in
addition to, or in place of, prosaic
 61

ostensible meaning. It is one of the

oldest genres in literary history, with
its earliest examples dating back to
ancient Greek literature. The term
“poetry” originates from the Greek
word “poieo” which means “to
make” or “to produce”, indicating
that the poet is the person who
“makes” verse. Poetry is closely
related to the term “lyric”, which
derives from the Greek musical
instrument “lyra” (“lyre” or “harp”),
pointing to an origin in the sphere of
music. In classical antiquity as well
as in the Middle Ages, minstrels
 62

recited poetry, accompanied by the

lyre or other musical instruments.
Structure of Poetry
Though poetry’s origins lie in the
spoken word, it does take a very
recognizable shape when put down
on the page. This is largely due to the
overall organization of the lines on
the page, often in the form of stanzas.
The Stanza
Stanzas are basically the poetic
equivalent of a prose paragraph. They
are a series of lines that are grouped
together and separated from other
 63

groups of lines or stanzas by a

skipped line. Stanzas come in a
variety of lengths, dependent either
on the whim of the poet or the
conventions of a particular poetic
form. Here are the most common of
these:
 2 lines are called a couplet
 3 lines are called a tercet
 4 lines are called a quatrain
 5 lines are called a cinquain
 6 lines are called a sestet, or
occasionally a sexain
 7 lines are called a septet
 64

 8 lines are called an octave

Types of Poetry
There are many different types of
poetry, but, regardless of the specific
type of poetry in question, most
likely a poem will fit into one of
these three overarching types of
poetry: lyric, narrative, and
descriptive.
Lyric Poetry
Lyric poetry concerns itself largely
with the emotional life of the poet,
that is, it’s written in their voice and
expresses strong thoughts and
 65

emotions. There is only one voice in

a lyric poem and we see the world
from that single perspective. Most
modern poetry is lyric poetry in that
it is personal and introspective.
Narrative Poetry
As its name implies, narrative poetry
is concerned with storytelling. Just as
in a prose story, a narrative poem will
most likely follow the conventions of
plot including elements such as
conflict, rising action, climax,
resolution etc. Again, as in prose
stories, narrative poems will most
 66

likely be peopled with characters to

perform the actions of the tale.
Descriptive Poetry
Descriptive poetry usually employs
lots of rich imagery to describe the
world around the poet. While it most
often has a single poetic voice and a
strong emotional content, descriptive
poetry differs from lyric poetry in
that its focus is more on the
externalities of the world, rather than
the interior life of the poet.
Examples of these types of poetry
include “I wandered lonely as a
 67

cloud” by William Wordsworth

(Lyric), “The Raven” by Edgar Allan
Poe (Narrative), and “Daffodils”
(Descriptive).
Subtypes of Poetry
There are several subtypes of poetry,
each with its own unique
characteristics and structures. These
include the sonnet, haiku, elegy,
limerick, ballad, ode, and epic.
Sonnet
Sonnets are predominantly concerned
with matters of the heart. If you see a
sonnet’s recognizably blocky form on
 68

a page, there’s a good chance the

theme will be love. There are two
common forms of sonnet:
Shakespearean and Petrarchan. They
differ slightly in their internal
structure, but both have 14 lines.
Petrarchan
 Comprises 2 stanzas
 First 8 lines pose a question
 2nd stanza answers the question
posed
 Rhyme scheme is: ABBA, ABBA,
CDECDE
Shakespearean
 69

 Comprises 3 quatrains of 4 lines

each
 Ends with a rhyming couplet which
forms a conclusion
 Rhyme scheme is: ABAB, CDCD,
EFEF, GG
Haiku
The Haiku is a disciplined form of
poetry that has its origins in 17th
century Japanese poetry. Usually it is
concerned with nature and natural
phenomenon such as the seasons,
weather etc. They are often quite
meditative in tone. However, there
 70

are no real rules regarding themes,

the only real demands here relate to
structure:
 They are written in three line
stanzas
 1st line contains 5 syllables
 2nd line contains 7 syllables
 3rd line contains 5 syllables
Elegy
Elegies are a type of poem that don’t
really come with specific structural
requirements, but still constitute a
recognizable form of poetry. What
makes an elegy an elegy is its
 71

subject, that is, death. Elegies are

poems of lamentation - the word
elegy itself comes from the Greek
word elegeia which means to
‘lament’.
 A poem of reflection on death, or on
someone who has died
 Usually comes in three parts
expressing loss:
o grief
o praise for the deceased
o and, finally, consolation.
Limerick
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Favorites of school children

everywhere, the most defining
characteristic of limericks are their
renowned humor. Given their well-
deserved reputation for being funny
and, on occasion, crude, it’s easy to
overlook the fact that beneath the
laughs lie quite a tightly structured
verse form.
 5 lines in total
 Distinct verbal rhythm
 2 longer lines of usually between 7
to 10 syllables
 73

 2 shorter lines of usually between 5

to 7 syllables
 1 closing line containing the
‘punchline’
 Rhyme scheme is AABBA
Ballad
Ballads are a type of narrative poetry
that has close ties to musical forms.
Ballads written as poetry can often
easily be adapted as song lyrics.
While ballads don’t have tight formal
constrictions like some other forms of
poetry, there are enough in the way of
 74

distinguishable features to identify it

as a form.
 Tells a story, often using simple
language
 Often romantic, adventurous, or
humorous
 Arranged in groups of 4 lines or
quatrains
 Often uses alternating 4 and 3 beat
lines
 Rhyme scheme is usually ABAB or
ABCB
Ode
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Another poetry form that traces its

origins to Ancient Greece, odes were
originally intended to be sung.
Nowadays, though no longer sung,
the term ode still refers to a type of
lyrical poem that addresses and often
praises a certain person, thing, or
event.
 The author addresses a person,
thing, or event
 Usually has a solemn, serious tone
 Explores universal elements of the
theme
 76

 Powerful emotional element, often

involving catharsis
Odes written in the classical vein can
follow very strict metrical patterns
and rhyme schemes, however, many
modern odes are written in free verse
involving irregular rhythm and
without adherence to a rhyme
scheme.
Epic
These are long narrative poems that
recount heroic tales, usually focused
on a legendary or mythical figure.
Think of works of literature on a
 77

grand scale such as The Odyssey, The

Cattle Raid of Cooley, or Beowulf.
 Employs an objective and
omniscient narrator
 Written in an elevated style
 Recounts heroic events
 Grand in scale
Importance of Imagery in Poetry
The word imagery can be traced back
to the Latin “imago” (“picture”) and
refers to a predominantly visual
component of a text which can,
however, also include other sensory
impressions. Imagery is often
 78

regarded as the most common

manifestation of the “concrete”
character of poetry. Even if an
abstract theme is at the center of the
poem, the poet still uses concrete
imagery in order to make it more
accessible. The concrete character of
poetic language can be achieved on
three levels which reflect the most
important elements in poetry:
Lexical-thematic, Visual, and
Rhythmic acoustic.
Lexical-thematic
 79

 Diction: vocabulary/word choice,

visual imagery and symbols
 Rhetorical figures: Rhetorical
devices are used as tools to evoke
responses on the reader’s part. It
provides them an opportunity to
understand the emotions, feelings,
and ideas of the poet or the writer at
a deeper level. Also, using rhetorical
devices help writers to sketch a
vivid experience for the audience.
They also persuade the audiences
about the writers’ perspectives.
They make the texts to be loaded
with messages to be conveyed to the
 80

reader. Use of different rhetorical

devices make the objectives of the
writers clear to the readers.
Examples include simile, metaphor,
paradox, hyperbole, anaphora,
personification etc.
 Theme: the ideas, emotions, feelings
expressed in the poems
Rhythmic-Acoustic Dimension
The acoustic element, like a poem’s
visual appearance in concrete poetry,
can enhance the meaning of a poem.
There should be harmony between
the sounds and the meaning.
 81

Alexander Pope’s (1688–1744)

“Essay on Criticism” (1711) is a self-
reflexive example of this technique:
True ease in writing comes from art,
not chance,
As those move easiest who have
learned to dance.
‘Tis not enough no harshness gives
offense,
The sound must seem an echo to the
sense:
Soft is the strain when Zephyr gently
blows,
 82

and the smooth stream in smoother

numbers flows
But when loud surges lash the
sounding shore,
The hoarse, rough verse should like
the torrent roar.
Rhyme and Meter
Meter and rhyme (less often, rime)
are further devices in the acoustic
dimension of poetry which hold a
dominant position in the analysis of
poems, partly because they are
relatively easy to objectify and
measure. The smallest elements of
 83

meter are syllables, which can be

either stressed or unstressed.
According to the sequence of stressed
and unstressed syllables, it is possible
to distinguish between various
metrical feet, whose number
consequently indicates the meter. In
the analysis of the meter (scansion), a
line is first divided into syllables. For
example: “The woods are lovely,
dark and deep” from Robert Frost’s
(1874–1963) poem “Stopping by the
Woods on a Snowy Evening” (1923):
The—woods—are—love—ly,—dark
—and—deep
 84

After the division into syllables,

stressed syllables (´) and unstressed
syllables (˘) are identified. The
technical term for this process is
scansion:
Thě—woóds—ăre—lóve—lў,—dárk
—ǎnd—deép
According to the sequence of stressed
and unstressed syllables, the line can
be divided into feet:
Thě—woóds |—ăre—lóve |—ly,—
dárk |—ănd—deép.
Types of metrical feet:
The four most important feet are:
 85

1. Iambus, or iambic foot: an

unstressed syllable followed by a
stressed syllable (˘´) Thě cúr | fěw
tólls | thě knéll | ǒf pár | tĭng dáy.
2. Anapest, or anapestic foot: two
unstressed syllables followed by one
stressed syllable(˘˘´) Ănd thě sheén |
ǒf thěir spéars | wǎs lǐke stárs | ŏn
thě seá.
3. Trochee, or trochaic foot: a
stressed syllable followed by an
unstressed syllable(´˘) Thére thěy |
áre, mў | fíftў | mén ănd | wóměn.
 86

4. Dactyl, or dactylic foot: one

stressed syllable followed by two
unstressed syllables(´˘˘) Júst fŏr ă |
hándfǔl ǒf | sílvěr hĕ | left ǔs.
According to the number of feet, it is
possible to distinguish monometer
(1), dimeter (2), trimeter (3),
tetrameter (4), pentameter (5), and
hexameter (6). In the description of
the meter of a line, the name of the
foot and the number of feet are
mentioned. The first line of Thomas
Gray’s (1716–71) “Elegy Written in a
Country Church Yard” (1751) (“Thě
cúr | fěw tólls | thě knéll | ǒf pár | tĭng
 87

dáy”), consists of five iambic feet,

and is termed iambic pentameter.
This meter, which is close to the
rhythm of natural speech and
therefore popular in poetry and
drama, is also referred to as blank
verse. Another popular meter in
English is iambic hexameter, which
is also called Alexandrine.
Rhyme
Alongside meter, rhyme adds to the
dimension of sound and rhythm in a
poem. It is possible to distinguish
internal, end and eye rhymes. Internal
 88

rhymes are alliteration and

assonance. Alliteration is the
repetition of the same consonant at
the beginning of words in a single
line (“round and round the rugged
rock the ragged rascal ran”). If a
vowel is repeated instead (either at
the beginning or in the middle of
words) it is called assonance (“Thou
foster child of silence and slow
time”).
The most common rhyming scheme
in modern poems is end rhyme,
which is based on identical syllables
at the end of certain lines. To describe
 89

rhyme schemes, letters of the

alphabet are used to represent
identical syllables at the ends of a
line, as in the following poem by
Emily Brontë (1818–48),
“Remembrance” (1846):
Cold in the earth—and in the deep
snow piled above thee, a
Far, far removed, cold in the dreary
grave! b
Have I forgot, my only Love, to love
thee, a
Served at last by Time’s all-severing
wave? b
 90

This system of identification helps to

highlight the rhyme structure of
complex poems by reducing them to
their basic patterns.
Eye Rhymes
Eye rhymes stand between the visual
and the acoustic dimension of a
poem, playing with the spelling and
the pronunciation of words, as in
these lines from Samuel Taylor
Coleridge’s (1772– 1834) “Kubla
Khan” (1816):
Then reached the caverns
measureless to man,
 91

And sank in tumult to a lifeless

ocean:
And ‘mid this tumult Kubla heard
from far
Ancestral voices prophesying war!
Eye rhymes play with the reader’s
expectations. When reading the two
lines in Coleridge’s poem, one is
tempted to pronounce the syllable
“an” in “man” and “ocean” in such a
way that the two words rhyme. By
the time one gets to the word
“ocean”, however, it has become
clear that they only rhyme visually
 92

and have to be pronounced

differently. Eye rhymes permit
authors to highlight certain words by
creating a tension between visual and
acoustic levels and thus to direct the
reader’s attention to specific elements
of the poem.

FICTION
Definition of Fiction
Fiction is a type of literature that uses
the written word to create imaginary
events and characters. Fiction can be
contrasted with non-fiction, which is
 93

based on factual information and real

people. Fiction can also be
distinguished from poetry, which is a
form of literature that uses rhythmic
and aesthetic language to express
emotions and ideas.
Fiction can take various forms, such
as novels, short stories, novellas,
fables, fairy tales, myths, legends,
and more. Fiction can also be
classified into different genres, such
as fantasy, science fiction, horror,
romance, mystery, historical fiction,
and more. Fiction can have various
purposes, such as entertaining,
 94

educating, inspiring, or challenging

the reader.
1. Novel
Definition of Novel
A novel is a specific form of fiction
that is written in prose and has a
considerable length, usually more
than 50,000 words. A novel typically
follows a character-driven plot,
which means that the actions and
motivations of the characters are the
main focus of the story. A novel can
also have multiple subplots, which
 95

are secondary stories that are related

to the main plot.
A novel usually has a complex
structure, which consists of elements
such as exposition, rising action,
climax, falling action, and resolution.
A novel also has a setting, which is
the time and place where the story
takes place. A novel can have various
themes, which are the main ideas or
messages that the author wants to
convey to the reader.
Origin of Novel
 96

The origin of the novel can be traced

back to ancient Greek and Roman
literature, as well as to the tradition
of the Italian Renaissance novella.
The novel as we know it today,
however, is largely a product of the
18th and 19th centuries, when it
became a popular and influential
form of literature in Europe and the
Americas.
The term novel comes from the
Italian word novella, which means “a
new story” or “a short story of
something new”. The word novella
itself comes from the Latin word
 97

novellus, which means “new” or

“young”. The word novel was first
used in English in the 16th century to
refer to a short story or a news item.
Later, in the 18th century, the word
novel was used to refer to a long and
complex work of fiction.
Influence of Epics and Romance
The novel was influenced by two
major literary traditions: the epic and
the romance. The epic is a long
narrative poem that tells the story of
heroic deeds and adventures, often
featuring gods and supernatural
 98

beings. Examples of epics include the

Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer, the
Aeneid by Virgil, and Beowulf. The
romance is a prose or verse narrative
that tells the story of love and
chivalry, often featuring knights and
damsels in distress. Examples of
romances include the Arthurian
legends, the Song of Roland, and the
Decameron by Boccaccio.
The novel borrowed some elements
from the epic, such as the grand
scope, the historical setting, the
heroic characters, and the poetic
language. The novel also borrowed
 99

some elements from the romance,

such as the focus on individual
psychology, the emotional appeal, the
fantastic elements, and the episodic
structure. The novel, however, also
introduced some innovations, such as
the realism, the social criticism, the
humor, and the diversity of genres.
Rise of the Novel
The novel rose to prominence in the
18th century, especially in England
and France, where it became the
dominant literary form of the age.
 100

The rise of the novel was influenced

by several factors, such as:
Concept of Relativism
Relativism is a philosophical stance
that views truth, knowledge, and
morality as relative to the individual
or the culture, rather than as absolute
and universal. Relativism challenged
the traditional notions of truth and
morality that were based on religion,
authority, and reason. Relativism also
encouraged the exploration of
different perspectives and realities, as
 101

well as the questioning of established

definitions and values.
Relativism influenced the novel by
allowing the writers to create diverse
and complex characters, who had
their own views, beliefs, and
motivations. Relativism also
influenced the novel by allowing the
writers to depict various aspects of
human experience, such as love,
passion, conflict, suffering, and
happiness. Relativism also influenced
the novel by allowing the writers to
experiment with different styles,
genres, and forms of expression.
 102

Early Novels
Some of the earliest novels in English
literature include:
 The Unfortunate Traveller, or The
Life of Jack Wilton (1594) by
Thomas Nashe, which is considered
to be the first picaresque novel, a
genre that features a rogue or an
adventurer as the protagonist.
 A Tale of a Tub (1704) by Jonathan
Swift, which is a satirical novel that
mocks the religious and political
controversies of the time.
 103

 The Consolidator (1705) by Daniel

Defoe, which is a political and
social allegory that uses the device
of a flying machine to transport the
narrator to a fictional country.
 Gulliver’s Travels (1726) by
Jonathan Swift, which is a fantasy
and adventure novel that parodies
the travel narratives and criticizes
the human society and culture.
 Robinson Crusoe (1719) by Daniel
Defoe, which is a realistic and
autobiographical novel that tells the
 104

story of a shipwrecked sailor who

survives on a deserted island.
 Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740)
by Samuel Richardson, which is a
sentimental and epistolary novel
that tells the story of a young maid
who resists the advances of her
master and eventually marries him.
 Joseph Andrews (1742) by Henry
Fielding, which is a comic and
picaresque novel that tells the story
of a virtuous and naive young man
who travels with his friend Parson
 105

Adams and encounters various

adventures and misfortunes.
 Tom Jones (1749) by Henry
Fielding, which is a comic and
realistic novel that tells the story of
a foundling who grows up to be a
generous and amorous young man
and faces various obstacles and
temptations before finding his true
identity and love.
 Tristram Shandy (1759-1767) by
Laurence Sterne, which is an
experimental and digressive novel
that tells the story of the narrator’s
 106

life and opinions in a nonlinear and

unconventional way.
Difference Between Novel and
Epics
The novel and the epic are two
different forms of literature, with
different characteristics and purposes.
Some of the main differences
between them are:
 The novel is a work of fiction that is
written in prose, while the epic is a
work of poetry that is written in
verse.
 107

 The novel typically has a character-

driven plot, while the epic typically
has an action-driven plot.
 The novel usually focuses on the
individual psychology and
experience of the characters, while
the epic usually focuses on the
collective destiny and history of a
people or a nation.
 The novel usually depicts a realistic
and contemporary setting, while the
epic usually depicts a mythical and
ancient setting.
 108

 The novel usually explores various

themes and genres, while the epic
usually explores a single theme and
genre.
Main Reasons for Novel’s
Popularity
The novel became a popular and
influential form of literature in the
18th and 19th centuries, for several
reasons, such as:
 The novel appealed to the rising
middle class, who had the leisure
time, the literacy, and the interest to
 109

read long and complex works of

fiction.
 The novel reflected the social and
cultural changes that were taking
place in the modern world, such as
the industrial revolution, the
urbanization, the democracy, and
the individualism.
 The novel satisfied the human
curiosity and imagination, by
offering a variety of stories,
characters, and settings that
entertained, educated, inspired, or
challenged the reader.
 110

 The novel expressed the human

emotions and values, by creating a
bond between the reader and the
characters, and by conveying a
moral or a message that resonated
with the reader.
 Subgenres of Novel
o Types of Novel
Some of the most common subgenres
of novel are:
 Picaresque Novel: A novel that
depicts the adventures of a roguish,
low-born protagonist who travels
from place to place and encounters
 111

various social classes and situations.

The picaresque novel often uses
humor, satire, and realistic details to
criticize the hypocrisy and
corruption of society. Examples of
picaresque novels are Don Quixote
by Miguel de Cervantes, Moll
Flanders by Daniel Defoe, and The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by
Mark Twain
 Bildungsroman (Novel of
Education): A novel that focuses on
the psychological and moral
development of the main character
from childhood to adulthood. The
 112

bildungsroman typically shows the

protagonist’s struggles with identity,
values, and relationships as they
face the challenges of growing up.
Examples of bildungsroman novels
are Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë,
David Copperfield by Charles
Dickens, and The Catcher in the Rye
by J.D. Salinger
 Epistolary Novel: A novel that is
written in the form of letters or other
documents, such as diary entries,
newspaper clippings, or emails. The
epistolary novel allows the reader to
access the thoughts and feelings of
 113

the characters directly, as well as to

witness different perspectives and
opinions on the same
events. Examples of epistolary
novels are Pamela by Samuel
Richardson, Frankenstein by Mary
Shelley, and The Color Purple by
Alice Walker
 Historical Novel: A novel that is set
in a specific historical period and
that attempts to recreate the culture,
events, and characters of that time
with accuracy and detail. The
historical novel may feature actual
historical figures or fictional ones,
 114

and may explore the impact of

historical events on individual lives
or society as a whole. Examples of
historical novels are War and Peace
by Leo Tolstoy, The Name of the
Rose by Umberto Eco, and The
Book Thief by Markus Zusak
 New Journalism: A style of novel
that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s
that combines journalistic research
and reporting with literary
techniques and personal voice. The
new journalism novel often deals
with contemporary social issues,
such as politics, crime, or culture,
 115

and presents them in a vivid,

dramatic, and subjective way.
Examples of new journalism novels
are In Cold Blood by Truman
Capote, The Electric Kool-Aid Acid
Test by Tom Wolfe, and Fear and
Loathing in Las Vegas by Hunter
S. Thompson
 Satirical Novel: A novel that uses
humor, irony, exaggeration, or
ridicule to expose and criticize the
follies and vices of individuals,
institutions, or society. The satirical
novel often aims to provoke
laughter, reflection, or reform, and
 116

may employ various literary

devices, such as parody, allegory, or
satire. Examples of satirical novels
are Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan
Swift, Animal Farm by George
Orwell, and Catch-22 by Joseph
Heller
 Dystopian Novel: A novel that
depicts a bleak, oppressive, or
futuristic society where human
freedom, happiness, or dignity are
severely compromised or
threatened. The dystopian novel
often explores the consequences of
totalitarianism, environmental
 117

degradation, technological abuse, or

social injustice, and may offer a
warning or a critique of the present
or the possible future. Examples of
dystopian novels are Nineteen
Eighty-Four by George Orwell,
Brave New World by Aldous
Huxley, and The Hunger Games by
Suzanne Collins
 Detective Novel: A novel that
features a crime, usually a murder,
and a professional or amateur
investigator who tries to solve it by
following clues, interrogating
suspects, and deducing the truth.
 118

The detective novel often involves a

complex plot, a suspenseful
atmosphere, and a surprise twist at
the end. Examples of detective
novels are The Murders in the Rue
Morgue by Edgar Allan Poe, The
Hound of the Baskervilles by Arthur
Conan Doyle, and The Girl with the
Dragon Tattoo by Stieg Larsson
 Gothic Novel: A novel that
originated in the late 18th century
and that combines elements of
horror, romance, and mystery. The
gothic novel typically features a
dark, gloomy, or haunted setting,
 119

such as a castle, a monastery, or a

cemetery, and a plot that involves
supernatural, violent, or macabre
events, such as ghosts, curses, or
murders. The gothic novel often
evokes a sense of fear, dread, or
terror in the reader, as well as a
fascination with the unknown or the
sublime. Examples of gothic novels
are The Castle of Otranto by Horace
Walpole, Dracula by Bram Stoker,
and Wuthering Heights by Emily
Brontë
 Short Story
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o Definition of Short Story

 A short story is a work of prose
fiction that can be read in one
sitting, usually between 20 minutes
to an hour. There is no maximum
length, but the average short story is
1,000 to 7,500 words, with some
outliers reaching 10,000 or 15,000
words. A short story is usually
concerned with a single effect,
theme, or mood, conveyed in only
one or a few significant episodes or
scenes. A short story is often judged
by its ability to provide a complete
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or satisfying treatment of its

characters and subject
o Origin of Short Story
 Before the 19th century, the short
story was not considered a separate
literary form, but rather a part of
other genres, such as novels, essays,
or poetry. The term “short story”
was coined in the 19th century by
American writer Edgar Allan Poe,
who defined it as a narrative that
can be read in one sitting and has a
single effect on the reader.
 122

 Throughout history, humankind has

enjoyed various types of brief
narratives, which can be classified
into different categories, such as:
o Jests: humorous stories that often
involve trickery, irony, or
exaggeration, such as “The Miller’s
Tale” by Geoffrey Chaucer or “The
Three Sillies” by Joseph Jacobs.
o Anecdotes: personal or historical
accounts that illustrate a point or a
lesson, such as “The Death of Julius
Caesar” by Plutarch or “The Lion
and the Mouse” by Aesop.
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o Studied digressions: short stories that

are inserted into a larger work, often
to provide background information,
contrast, or commentary, such as
“The Grand Inquisitor” by Fyodor
Dostoyevsky or “The Legend of
Sleepy Hollow” by Washington
Irving.
o Short allegorical romances: symbolic
stories that use characters, events, or
settings to represent abstract ideas or
moral principles, such as “The
Pilgrim’s Progress” by John Bunyan
or “The Little Prince” by Antoine de
Saint-Exupéry.
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o Moralizing fairy tales: fantastical

stories that feature magic,
supernatural beings, or talking
animals, and often have a moral
lesson or a happy ending, such as
“Cinderella” by Charles Perrault or
“The Ugly Duckling” by Hans
Christian Andersen.
o Short myths: ancient stories that
explain the origin, nature, or destiny
of the world, gods, heroes, or
phenomena, such as “The Creation”
by Hesiod or “The Labors of
Hercules” by Apollodorus.
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o Abbreviated historical legends:

shortened versions of historical or
legendary events or characters, often
embellished or fictionalized, such as
“King Arthur and the Knights of the
Round Table” by Thomas Malory or
“Robin Hood and His Merry Men”
by Howard Pyle.
 Even the Bible includes stories such
as “Job” or “The Prodigal Son,” (c.
4th–5th century BC) whose
structures and narrative patterns
resemble modern short stories.
These stories have a clear plot, a
main character, a conflict, and a
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resolution, and they convey a

message or a theme to the reader.
Other forerunners of this subgenre
of fiction are ancient works of satire
and romance, which also use short
stories to mock, criticize, or
entertain. Some examples are:
o Satire: a genre that uses humor,
irony, or exaggeration to expose or
ridicule the vices, follies, or
weaknesses of individuals,
institutions, or society, such as “The
Clouds” by Aristophanes or
“Gulliver’s Travels” by Jonathan
Swift.
 127

o Romance: a genre that focuses on the

love, adventure, or fantasy of the
main characters, often in exotic or
idealized settings, such as “The
Aeneid” by Virgil or “The Princess
Bride” by William Goldman.
Indirect Precursors:
Before the short story became a
distinct literary form in the late 18th
century, there were some earlier
narrative cycles that anticipated some
of its features and influenced its
development. These narrative cycles
were collections of stories that were
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linked by a common theme, setting,

or frame-story. Some of the most
famous examples of these narrative
cycles are:
o The Arabian Nights, also known as
One Thousand and One Nights,
which is a collection of stories from
various sources and cultures, such as
Arabic, Persian, Indian, and Turkish.
The stories are framed by the story of
Scheherazade, a clever woman who
tells a different story every night to
her husband, the king, to postpone
her execution. The stories range from
fairy tales, legends, romances,
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comedies, tragedies, to historical and

moral tales. The stories often feature
magic, fantasy, adventure, and
humor.
o The Decameron, which is a
collection of 100 stories by the
Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio.
The stories are framed by the story of
10 young people who flee from
Florence during the Black Death and
entertain themselves by telling
stories for 10 days. The stories reflect
the social and cultural life of the 14th
century, and deal with topics such as
love, sex, fortune, morality, religion,
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and human nature. The stories often

feature irony, satire, realism, and wit.
o The Canterbury Tales, which is a
collection of 24 stories by the
English poet Geoffrey Chaucer. The
stories are framed by the story of a
group of pilgrims who travel from
London to Canterbury to visit the
shrine of Saint Thomas Becket.
Along the way, they agree to tell
stories to pass the time and compete
for a prize. The stories represent the
diverse and colorful characters of the
14th century, and cover genres such
as romance, fabliau, fable, allegory,
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and sermon. The stories often feature

humor, criticism, insight, and poetry.
These narrative cycles share some
common characteristics that are
relevant for the short story, such as:
o The use of a frame-story, which
provides a context and a connection
for the otherwise independent stories.
The frame-story also creates a sense
of unity, coherence, and variety for
the collection.
o The use of a narrator, who
introduces, comments, or interacts
with the stories. The narrator may be
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a character within the frame-story,

such as Scheherazade, or an external
voice, such as Chaucer. The narrator
may also have a distinct personality,
style, or point of view, which adds to
the richness and diversity of the
stories.
o The use of a limited scope, which
focuses on a single event, situation,
or theme, rather than a complex plot
or a long span of time. The stories
are concise, compact, and complete,
and aim to create a single effect or
impression on the reader.
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o The use of a variety of genres, styles,

and tones, which reflect the different
sources, cultures, and interests of the
writers and the audiences. The stories
may be realistic or fantastic, serious
or comic, moral or immoral, and so
on, depending on the purpose and the
mood of the story.
o Comparison of Novel, Short Story,
and Novella/Novelette
 The main difference between a
novel, a short story, and a
novella/novelette is the length. A
novel is the longest form of prose
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fiction, usually consisting of several

chapters and following a complex
plot. A novel may have multiple
subplots, settings, and characters,
and may explore various themes and
issues. A novel is usually over
40,000 words, and may range from
50,000 to 200,000 words or more. A
short story is the shortest form of
prose fiction, usually consisting of a
single chapter and following a
single plot. A short story may have
only one or a few settings and
characters, and may focus on a
single effect, theme, or mood. A
 135

short story is usually under 7,500

words, and may range from 1,000 to
10,000 words or less. A novella or a
novelette is an intermediate form of
prose fiction, usually consisting of a
few chapters and following a
relatively simple plot. A novella or a
novelette may have a few subplots,
settings, and characters, and may
explore a few themes or issues. A
novella or a novelette is usually
between 7,500 and 40,000 words,
and may range from 10,000 to
50,000 words or more.
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DRAMA
What is Drama?
Drama is a literary genre that is
brought to life through performance.
It involves dialogue, action, and
conflict between characters, and it
usually has a plot that follows a
certain structure. Drama can be
written for various mediums, such as
theater, television, radio, and film.
Drama can explore different themes,
emotions, and aspects of the human
experience, such as love, war, justice,
morality, identity, and so on. Drama
 137

can also be classified into different

types or sub-genres, depending on the
tone, style, and purpose of the work.
What are the main types of drama?
The main types of drama
are tragedy and comedy. These are
the oldest and most basic forms of
drama, and they have influenced
many other genres and styles
throughout history.
Tragedy
Tragedy is a type of drama that
depicts the downfall or suffering of a
noble or heroic character, usually due
 138

to a flaw, error, or fate. Tragedy often

evokes pity and fear in the audience,
and it usually has a serious and
somber tone. Tragedy also explores
themes such as fate, free will, justice,
revenge, and the nature of human
suffering. Some examples of famous
tragedies are:
 Oedipus Rex by Sophocles: A
Greek tragedy that tells the story of
Oedipus, the king of Thebes, who
unknowingly kills his father and
marries his mother, fulfilling a
prophecy that he tries to avoid.
 139

 Hamlet by William Shakespeare:

An English tragedy that tells the
story of Hamlet, the prince of
Denmark, who seeks revenge on his
uncle Claudius, who murdered his
father and married his mother.
 Macbeth by William Shakespeare:
An English tragedy that tells the
story of Macbeth, a Scottish general,
who is tempted by witches and his
wife to kill the king and usurp the
throne, but is consumed by guilt and
paranoia.
 140

 Death of a Salesman by Arthur

Miller: An American tragedy that
tells the story of Willy Loman, a
salesman, who struggles with his
failed dreams, his dysfunctional
family, and his suicidal impulses.
Comedy
Comedy is a type of drama that aims
to amuse and entertain the audience,
usually by making fun of human
follies, errors, and
misunderstandings. Comedy often
has a light-hearted and cheerful tone,
and it usually has a happy or
 141

optimistic ending. Comedy also

explores themes such as love,
marriage, social class, gender, and
identity.
What are the sub-genres of
comedy?
Comedy has multiple sub-genres
depending on the source of humor,
the method of delivery, and the
context in which it is delivered.
These sub-genres often overlap and
merge with other forms of comedy or
other genres of film and literature.
 142

Some of the sub-genres of comedy

are:
1. Farce:
Farce is a type of comedy that relies
on exaggerated and improbable
situations, physical humor, and fast-
paced action to create laughter. Farce
often involves mistaken identities,
misunderstandings, deceptions, and
coincidences. Farce also mocks the
conventions and norms of society,
such as marriage, law, and religion.
Some examples of farce are:
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 The Comedy of Errors by William

Shakespeare: A play that depicts the
chaos and confusion caused by two
sets of identical twins who are
separated at birth and unknowingly
encounter each other in the same
city.
 The Pink Panther by Blake
Edwards: A film series that follows
the clumsy and incompetent
Inspector Clouseau, who constantly
gets into trouble and causes
disasters while trying to solve
crimes.
 144

 Fawlty Towers by John Cleese and

Connie Booth: A television sitcom
that portrays the misadventures and
mishaps of Basil Fawlty, the rude
and incompetent owner of a hotel,
and his staff and guests.
2. Burlesque:
Burlesque is a type of comedy that
parodies or ridicules a serious or
highbrow subject, style, or genre, by
using lowbrow or vulgar humor, such
as sexual innuendo, slapstick, and
mockery. Burlesque often
exaggerates or distorts the features or
 145

characteristics of the original work or

subject, to create contrast and irony.
Some examples of burlesque are:
 Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan
Swift: A novel that satirizes the
politics, culture, and society of 18th-
century Europe, by depicting the
adventures of Gulliver, who visits
various fantastical lands, such as
Lilliput, where the people are tiny,
and Brobdingnag, where the people
are giants.
 Monty Python’s Life of Brian by
Monty Python: A film that spoofs
 146

the biblical epic genre, by depicting

the life of Brian, a man who is born
on the same day and next door to
Jesus, and is mistaken for the
Messiah by a group of followers.
 Airplane! by Jim Abrahams, David
Zucker, and Jerry Zucker: A film
that parodies the disaster film genre,
by depicting the absurd and
hilarious events that occur on a
plane that is in danger of crashing,
with a deadpan and nonsensical
style of humor.
3. Comedy of manners:
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Comedy of manners is a type of

comedy that mocks the behavior,
manners, and customs of a particular
social class or group, especially the
upper class or the elite. Comedy of
manners often exposes the hypocrisy,
vanity, and pretentiousness of the
characters, and their conflicts and
intrigues over love, marriage,
reputation, and money. Comedy of
manners also uses witty dialogue,
irony, and satire to create humor.
Some examples of comedy of
manners are:
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 The Importance of Being

Earnest by Oscar Wilde: A play
that ridicules the Victorian society
and its conventions, by depicting
two men who pretend to be named
Ernest to woo their love interests,
and the complications that arise
from their lies.
 Pride and Prejudice by Jane
Austen: A novel that portrays the
manners, morals, and marriage
prospects of the Bennet family,
especially the relationship between
Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy,
 149

who overcome their pride and

prejudice to fall in love.
 The Office by Ricky Gervais and
Stephen Merchant: A television
sitcom that depicts the everyday life
of the employees of a paper
company, and their interactions with
their boss, David Brent, who is
oblivious, insensitive, and self-
deluded.
THEATRE OF ABSURD:
The Theatre of the Absurd is a term
coined by the critic Martin Esslin in
his 1962 book of the same name. It
 150

refers to a group of plays written by

European and American playwrights
in the 1950s and 1960s that share a
common theme of the absurdity of
human existence. The term is derived
from the philosophical concept of
absurdism, which was popularized by
the French existentialist Albert
Camus in his essay “The Myth of
Sisyphus” (1942). Camus argued that
life is meaningless and absurd, and
that humans must create their own
values and meanings in a world that
offers none. He also compared the
human condition to that of Sisyphus,
 151

a mythical king who was condemned

by the gods to endlessly roll a
boulder up a hill, only to see it roll
down again.
Characteristics:
The Theatre of the Absurd rejects the
conventional elements of drama, such
as plot, character, dialogue, and
realism. Instead, it creates a new
theatrical language that expresses the
absurdity of human existence through
various techniques, such as:
 Non-sequiturs: The dialogue often
consists of illogical, disconnected,
 152

and contradictory statements that

reflect the breakdown of
communication and rationality in a
chaotic world.
 Repetition: The dialogue and action
are often repeated, sometimes with
slight variations, to create a sense of
monotony, futility, and circularity.
 Silence: The dialogue is sometimes
interrupted by long pauses or
silences that convey the emptiness
and meaninglessness of human
speech and interaction.
 153

 Gestures: The characters often

perform exaggerated, absurd, or
violent gestures that contrast with
their words or reveal their inner
emotions and conflicts.
 Symbols: The plays often use
symbolic objects, settings, or
images that suggest a deeper or
hidden meaning, such as a cross, a
tree, a door, or a hat.
 Humor: The plays often employ
humor, irony, parody, or satire to
mock the pretensions and
absurdities of human society and
 154

culture, or to relieve the tension and

despair of the characters and the
audience.
Themes
The Theatre of the Absurd explores
various themes that relate to the
absurdity of human existence, such
as:
 Isolation: The characters are often
isolated from each other, from
themselves, and from the world.
They are unable to communicate,
understand, or empathize with
others. They are also alienated from
 155

their own identities, feelings, and

desires. They are trapped in a state
of loneliness, boredom, and anxiety.
 Existence: The characters are often
confronted with the question of their
existence and its meaning. They are
aware of their mortality, their
freedom, and their responsibility.
They are also faced with the
absurdity and randomness of their
existence, which is devoid of any
inherent purpose, value, or order.
They are forced to create their own
meanings and values, or to accept
the absurdity of their situation.
 156

 Futility: The characters are often

engaged in futile actions or pursuits
that have no effect or outcome.
They are unable to change their
situation, their environment, or
themselves. They are also unable to
escape from their condition, their
routines, or their habits. They are
stuck in a state of inertia, stagnation,
and impotence.
 Illusion: The characters are often
living in a world of illusion,
deception, or fantasy. They are
unable to distinguish between
reality and appearance, between
 157

truth and falsehood, between sanity

and madness. They are also deluded
by their own beliefs, expectations,
or memories. They are lost in a state
of confusion, uncertainty, and doubt.
THE ORIGIN OF GREEK
DRAMA
Background
Greek drama is one of the most
influential and enduring forms of
theatre in the world. It originated in
the 6th century BCE in Athens,
where it was performed at religious
festivals in honor of Dionysos, the
 158

god of wine, fertility, and ritual

madness. Greek drama consisted of
two main genres: tragedy and
comedy, which explored themes such
as human suffering, morality,
politics, and humor. Greek drama
also had a significant impact on the
development of Hellenistic and
Roman theatre, as well as modern
theatre and literature.
The Development of Tragedy
Tragedy (tragōida) is a form of drama
that depicts the downfall of a noble
hero or heroine, usually through
 159

some combination of fate, human

error, and divine intervention. The
exact origins of tragedy are debated,
but some scholars suggest a link to
the lyrical performance of epic poetry
or the rituals of Dionysiac worship,
which involved the sacrifice of goats
and the wearing of masks . The first
known tragedian was Thespis, who is
credited with introducing a single
actor (hupokritēs) who impersonated
different characters by changing
masks and costumes. He also
engaged in dialogue with the chorus,
a group of up to 15 performers who
 160

sang and danced but did not speak.

The chorus represented the collective
voice of the community or the
spectators, and often provided
commentary, background
information, or moral guidance. The
earliest surviving tragedies are those
of Aeschylus, who added a second
actor and reduced the role of the
chorus. He also wrote trilogies, or
groups of three plays that were
connected by a common theme or
story. Some of his famous works
include the Oresteia, which deals
with the cycle of violence and
 161

revenge in the house of Atreus, and

Prometheus Bound, which portrays
the suffering of the titan who gave
fire to humanity. Aeschylus was
followed by Sophocles, who added a
third actor and introduced more
complex characters and plots. He also
made use of dramatic irony, where
the audience knows more than the
characters, creating suspense and
sympathy. Some of his famous works
include Oedipus Rex, which depicts
the tragic fate of a king who
unknowingly kills his father and
marries his mother, and Antigone,
 162

which explores the conflict between

divine and human law. The third
great tragedian was Euripides, who
broke with the traditional
conventions of tragedy and portrayed
more realistic and controversial
characters and situations. He also
experimented with different forms
and styles, such as satire, romance,
and melodrama. Some of his famous
works include Medea, which depicts
the revenge of a scorned woman who
kills her children, and The Bacchae,
which shows the destructive power of
Dionysiac frenzy.
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The Development of Comedy

Comedy (kōmōidia) is a form of
drama that aims to entertain and
amuse the audience, usually by
mocking or ridiculing individuals,
institutions, or ideas. The origins of
comedy are also unclear, but some
scholars suggest a link to the phallic
songs and processions that were part
of the Dionysiac cult, or to the rustic
festivals that celebrated the fertility
of the land . The first known
comedian was Aristophanes, who
wrote in the genre of Old Comedy,
which was characterized by political
 164

and social satire, fantasy, and

obscenity. He also made use of
parabasis, a direct address to the
audience where he expressed his
personal views or opinions. Some of
his famous works include The
Clouds, which mocks the sophists
and their teachings, and Lysistrata,
which depicts a sex strike by women
to end the Peloponnesian War.
Aristophanes was followed by
Menander, who wrote in the genre of
New Comedy, which was
characterized by domestic and
romantic themes, realistic and
 165

sympathetic characters, and happy

endings. He also made use of
prologue, a speech that introduces the
plot and the characters, and
recognition, a scene where the true
identity or relationship of the
characters is revealed. Some of his
famous works include The Grouch,
which depicts the transformation of a
miserly old man, and The Girl from
Samos, which portrays a love triangle
involving a young man, his mistress,
and his wife.
The Influence of Greek Drama
 166

Greek drama had a lasting and

profound influence on the theatre of
later civilizations, especially the
Hellenistic and Roman cultures. The
Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE) saw
the expansion of Greek culture and
theatre across the Mediterranean and
Asia, as well as the development of
new genres and forms, such as mime,
pantomime, and tragedy with a happy
ending. The Roman period (31 BCE-
476 CE) saw the adaptation and
imitation of Greek drama by Roman
playwrights, such as Plautus,
Terence, Seneca, and Horace, who
 167

modified it to suit their own tastes

and audiences. They also introduced
new elements, such as stock
characters, musical accompaniment,
and elaborate stage machinery. Greek
drama also influenced the theatre of
the Renaissance and the modern era,
as many playwrights and authors
drew inspiration from the works of
the ancient Greek dramatists. Some
examples include Shakespeare, who
borrowed plots and characters from
Greek tragedy and comedy, Racine,
who followed the rules and
conventions of classical tragedy, and
 168

Brecht, who revived the role of the

chorus and the use of alienation
effects.
THE DRAMATIC UNITIES:
Definition and Origin
The dramatic unities are the three
principles derived by French
classicists from Aristotle’s Poetics;
they require a play to have a single
action represented as occurring in a
single place and within the course of
a day . These principles were called,
respectively, unity of action, unity of
time, and unity of place. The unity of
 169

action means that a play should have

one main plot that is coherent and
consistent, and that every minor part
must contribute to it. The unity of
time means that the action in a play
should occur over a period of no
more than 24 hours, or the time that
is required for the play’s
performance. The unity of place
means that a play should exist in a
single physical location, or a place
that can be easily imagined by the
audience.
The origin of the dramatic unities is
attributed to Aristotle, the Greek
 170

philosopher who wrote the Poetics, a

treatise on the nature and forms of
poetry, especially tragedy. However,
Aristotle did not explicitly prescribe
the unities as rules for dramatic
structure; he only observed them as
features of some Greek tragedies,
such as those of Sophocles and
Euripides. He also emphasized only
one unity, that of action, as the most
important element of a well-
constructed plot . The other two
unities were inferred by later
interpreters of Aristotle, such as the
Italian humanist Lodovico
 171

Castelvetro, who translated and

commented on the Poetics in the 16th
century. Castelvetro was influenced
by the practice of the ancient Roman
dramatists, such as Seneca and
Plautus, who followed the unities
more strictly than the
Greeks. Castelvetro also imposed his
own ideas and preferences on
Aristotle’s text, and sometimes
altered or misunderstood his
meanings .
Application and Influence
 172

The dramatic unities were introduced

in Italy in the 16th century by the
playwright Gian Giorgio Trissino,
who claimed to follow Aristotle in his
tragedy Sofonisba. Trissino also
introduced the chorus and the blank
verse, which were features of the
classical Greek drama. His play was
imitated by many other Italian
playwrights, who adhered to the
unities as a way of reviving the
ancient forms and modes of
theatre. However, the imitation of the
classical models had a stifling effect
on the Italian drama, which became
 173

rhetorical and inert, and none of the

16th century tragedies have survived
as significant examples of the genre .
The dramatic unities were then
adopted by the French classicists in
the 17th century, who regarded them
as the essential rules for the theatre.
The first French play to follow the
unities was Jean Mairet’s
Sophonisbe, which was a translation
and adaptation of Trissino’s
Sofonisba. Mairet’s play was praised
by Voltaire as the father of the French
stage, and inspired many other
playwrights, such as Pierre Corneille
 174

and Jean Racine, to write according

to the unities. The French classicists
also engaged in heated debates and
controversies over the interpretation
and application of the unities, such as
whether a single day meant 12 or 24
hours, and whether a single place
meant one room or one city. Some of
them also tried to justify or modify
the unities according to their own
artistic purposes, such as Corneille,
who defended his play Le Cid against
the accusations of violating the unity
of time and place. The French
classicists produced some of the most
 175

remarkable tragedies in the history of

the theatre, such as Corneille’s
Horace and Racine’s Phèdre, which
derived their power and beauty from
the concentration and intensity of the
unities.
The dramatic unities were less
influential and respected in other
European countries, especially in
England and Spain, where the
playwrights experimented with
different forms and styles of drama,
and often ignored or violated the
unities. The English dramatists, such
as Christopher Marlowe, William
 176

Shakespeare, and Ben Jonson, often

included two or more plots in a play,
mixed comedy and tragedy, and
freely switched settings. They also
created complex and realistic
characters and situations, and
explored themes and emotions that
were beyond the scope of the
classical tragedy. The Spanish
dramatists, such as Lope de Vega,
Tirso de Molina, and Pedro Calderón
de la Barca, also wrote plays that
were rich and varied in action, time,
and place. They also incorporated
elements of romance, fantasy, and
 177

spectacle, and appealed to the

popular taste and imagination of the
audience. The English and Spanish
dramas, therefore, represented a
different and original tradition of the
theatre, which was more flexible and
creative than the classical one.
Evaluation and Criticism
The dramatic unities have been the
subject of much criticism and debate
throughout the history of the theatre,
and their validity and value have
been questioned and challenged by
many critics and playwrights. Some
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of the main arguments against the

unities are:
 The unities are not based on
Aristotle’s original and authentic
teachings, but on later and
inaccurate interpretations and
adaptations of his Poetics. Aristotle
himself did not prescribe the unities
as rules, but only described them as
features of some Greek tragedies.
He also did not mention the unity of
place, and allowed some exceptions
to the unity of time. He also valued
other aspects of the tragedy, such as
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the characters, the language, and the

spectacle, more than the unities.
 The unities are not realistic or
natural, but artificial and arbitrary.
They do not reflect the true nature
of human life and action, which are
often complex, diverse, and
unpredictable. They also limit the
scope and variety of the drama, and
prevent the exploration of different
themes, settings, and characters.
They also impose a rigid and
uniform structure on the drama, and
ignore the individual and creative
expression of the playwright.
 180

 The unities are not necessary or

sufficient for the quality and
effectiveness of the drama. They do
not guarantee the coherence,
consistency, or interest of the plot,
nor the credibility, sympathy, or
emotion of the characters. They also
do not enhance the pleasure or the
understanding of the audience, who
are willing to suspend their disbelief
and accept the conventions of the
theatre. There are many examples of
great plays that do not follow the
unities, such as Shakespeare’s
Hamlet and Calderón’s Life is a
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Dream, and many examples of

mediocre plays that do follow the
unities, such as Trissino’s Sofonisba
and Aretino’s Orazia.
The dramatic unities, therefore, are
not universal or immutable principles
of the theatre, but historical and
cultural products of a specific time
and place. They reflect the tastes and
values of the classical and the French
classicist traditions, but they do not
apply to all forms and modes of the
drama. They can be useful and
effective as guidelines or tools for the
playwright, but they should not be
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followed blindly or dogmatically. The

drama, as a living and dynamic art
form, should be open to change and
innovation, and should respond to the
needs and expectations of the
audience and the society.
THE ORIGIN OF ENGLISH
DRAMA:
English drama is a genre of literature
that represents stories and characters
through dialogue and action, intended
to be performed on stage, radio, or
television. English drama has a long
and rich history, dating back to the
 183

medieval period, and influenced by

various cultural and historical factors.
English drama reflects the values,
beliefs, and concerns of the English
people, who used theatre as a
medium of expression, education,
and entertainment. English drama
also had a lasting impact on the
theatre of other cultures, especially
the modern and contemporary ones.
The Religious Origins of English
Drama
The origin of English drama is deep-
rooted in the religious predispositions
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of mankind. Same is the case not

only with English drama, but with
dramas of other nations as well. The
ancient Greek and Roman dramas
were mostly concerned with religious
ceremonials of people, such as the
worship of gods and goddesses, the
celebration of festivals, and the
enactment of myths and legends. The
early Christian church also used
drama as a tool for teaching and
spreading the gospel, especially to
the illiterate and the common people.
As most of the Bible was written in
Latin, a language that was not widely
 185

understood by the masses, the clergy

tried to find out some new methods
of teaching and expounding the
teachings of the Bible to the common
people. For this purpose, they
developed a new method, wherein the
stories of the Gospel were explained
through the living pictures. The
performers acted out the story in a
dumb show, using gestures,
costumes, and props, while the priest
narrated the story in Latin or in the
vernacular language. These
performances were called liturgical
dramas, because they were performed
 186

inside the church, as part of the

liturgy or the service. The earliest
examples of liturgical dramas are the
Quem Quaeritis (Whom do you
seek?) and the Visitatio Sepulchri
(The Visit to the Sepulchre), which
depict the events of the Easter
morning, when the women visit the
tomb of Jesus and find it empty.
These dramas were performed during
the Easter Mass, and were sung by
the choir or the clergy.
The Development of English
Drama
 187

As the liturgical dramas became more

popular and elaborate, they also
became more independent and
secular. They moved out of the
church and into the streets, where
they were performed by lay people,
such as the members of the craft
guilds or the townsmen. They also
expanded their scope and variety, and
included stories not only from the
Bible, but also from the lives of the
saints, the martyrs, and the historical
figures. These dramas were called
mystery plays or miracle plays,
because they dealt with the mysteries
 188

or the miracles of God and his

creation. The mystery plays were
usually performed in cycles, or series
of plays that covered the whole
history of the world, from the
Creation to the Last Judgment. The
most famous cycles of mystery plays
are the York cycle, the Chester cycle,
the Towneley cycle, and the N-Town
cycle, which were performed in
different towns of England, during
the feast of Corpus Christi or other
religious occasions. The mystery
plays were performed on pageant
wagons, which were movable stages
 189

that were drawn by horses or oxen,

and stopped at different stations or
locations around the town. The
audience would either follow the
wagons or wait for them to arrive at
their station. The mystery plays were
also accompanied by music, songs,
and special effects, such as fire,
smoke, and flying angels.
Another type of religious drama that
emerged in the late medieval period
was the morality play, which was a
more allegorical and didactic form of
drama, that aimed to teach moral
lessons and to instruct the audience
 190

on how to live a good Christian life.

The morality plays featured abstract
and personified characters, such as
Everyman, Mankind, Vice, Virtue,
Death, and Good Deeds, who
represented the qualities, the
temptations, and the choices of the
human soul. The morality plays also
used humor, satire, and irony, to
expose the follies and the vices of the
society, and to appeal to the emotions
and the reason of the audience. The
most famous examples of morality
plays are Everyman, Mankind, The
 191

Castle of Perseverance, and The

Summoning of Everyman.
The Influence of English Drama
English drama had a lasting and
profound influence on the theatre of
later periods, especially the
Renaissance and the modern era. The
Renaissance period (16th-17th
century) saw the emergence of new
forms and styles of drama, such as
the comedy of humors, the comedy of
manners, the revenge tragedy, the
history play, and the romantic
comedy, which were influenced by
 192

the classical models of Greece and

Rome, as well as the contemporary
issues and events of the society. The
Renaissance period also produced
some of the greatest playwrights and
dramatists in the history of the
theatre, such as Christopher
Marlowe, William Shakespeare, Ben
Jonson, John Webster, and John Ford,
who created masterpieces of drama
that explored themes such as love,
power, ambition, jealousy, revenge,
madness, and death. The modern
period (20th-21st century) saw the
development of new movements and
 193

experiments in drama, such as the

realism, the naturalism, the
expressionism, the absurdism, the
epic theatre, and the theatre of the
oppressed, which were influenced by
the social, political, and cultural
changes and challenges of the world.
The modern period also produced
some of the most innovative and
influential playwrights and dramatists
in the history of the theatre, such as
Henrik Ibsen, Anton Chekhov,
George Bernard Shaw, Bertolt
Brecht, Samuel Beckett, Arthur
Miller, and August Wilson, who
 194

created dramas that reflected the

realities, the conflicts, and the
aspirations of the people.
MYSTERIES AND MIRACLE
PLAYS:
Definition and Characteristics
Mysteries and miracle plays are two
types of religious drama that emerged
in the medieval period in
Europe. They are distinguished as
two different forms, although the
terms are often used interchangeably .
Mysteries are plays that depict stories
from the Bible, such as the Creation,
 195

the Fall, the life of Christ, and the

Last Judgment. Miracles are plays
that depict stories from the lives of
saints and martyrs, such as their
miracles, conversions, and sufferings.
Both types of plays were performed
by lay people, usually members of
the craft guilds or the townsmen, who
organized and financed the
productions. The plays were
performed in cycles, or series of
plays that covered a large span of
history or biography, and were staged
on movable platforms or wagons that
travelled around the town. The plays
 196

were also accompanied by music,

songs, and special effects, such as
fire, smoke, and flying angels.
Origin and Development
The origin of the mysteries and
miracle plays is traced back to the
liturgical dramas that were performed
inside the church as part of the
service. These dramas were based on
the tropes, or verbal embellishments
of the liturgical texts, and were sung
by the choir or the clergy. The
earliest example of a liturgical drama
is the Quem quaeritis? (Whom do
 197

you seek?), which depicts the scene

of the women visiting the tomb of
Christ on Easter morning. The
liturgical dramas gradually became
more elaborate and vernacular, and
moved out of the church and into the
streets, where they attracted larger
and more diverse audiences. The first
known mystery play is the Play of
Adam, which was written in French
in the 12th century, and dramatizes
the story of Adam and Eve, Cain and
Abel, and Noah and the Flood. The
first known miracle play is the Play
of St. Nicholas, which was written by
 198

the French poet Jehan Bodel in the

13th century, and dramatizes the
story of St. Nicholas, the patron saint
of children, sailors, and merchants.
The mysteries and miracle plays
flourished in the 14th and 15th
centuries, especially in France,
England, and Germany, where they
developed into complex and
sophisticated forms of theatre.
Influence and Legacy
The mysteries and miracle plays had
a lasting and profound influence on
the theatre of later periods, especially
 199

the Renaissance and the modern era.

The mysteries and miracle plays
introduced new themes, characters,
and techniques to the theatre, such as
the representation of historical and
legendary events, the mixture of
comedy and tragedy, the use of
dialogue and action, and the
involvement of the audience. The
mysteries and miracle plays also
inspired many playwrights and
authors, who borrowed, adapted, or
imitated their stories, styles, and
forms. Some examples include
Shakespeare, who used the mystery
 200

plays as sources for his history plays,

such as Henry VI and Richard III,
and his comedies, such as The
Comedy of Errors and The Merchant
of Venice; Marlowe, who used the
miracle plays as sources for his
tragedies, such as Doctor Faustus and
The Jew of Malta; and Milton, who
used the mystery plays as models for
his epic poem, Paradise Lost.
THE INTERLUDES:
Definition and Characteristics
The interludes are a form of English
dramatic entertainment that emerged
 201

in the late medieval and early Tudor

period, between the 15th and 16th
centuries. They are considered to be
the transition between the medieval
morality plays and the Tudor dramas.
The interludes are much shorter in
extent and more merry and farcical
than the morality plays, which were
longer and more serious and didactic.
The interludes also feature typical
personages, such as commoners,
fools, or courtiers, instead of
allegorical characters, such as virtues,
vices, or abstractions, which were
common in the morality plays. The
 202

interludes were generally played in

the intervals of a festival, such as a
banquet, a wedding, or a royal
celebration, and were exceedingly
popular among the audience, who
enjoyed their humor, satire, and wit.
The interludes often dealt with
topical and controversial issues, such
as religion, politics, marriage, and
social class, and sometimes mocked
or criticized the authorities, the
clergy, or the nobility.
Origin and Development
 203

The interludes originated from the

morality plays, which were
themselves derived from the liturgical
and the mystery plays. The morality
plays were allegorical dramas that
taught moral lessons and instructed
the audience on how to live a good
Christian life. However, some
morality plays also included elements
of comedy, such as comic relief,
parody, or irony, to entertain the
audience and to expose the follies
and the vices of the society. These
elements gradually developed into
the interludes, which became more
 204

independent and secular, and less

concerned with religious or moral
themes. The interludes also moved
out of the church and into the court or
the great houses, where they were
performed by professional or amateur
actors, who were often associated
with the royal household or the
nobility. The interludes also
expanded their scope and variety, and
included different genres, such as
comedy, tragedy, romance, or history.
Influence and Legacy
 205

The interludes had a lasting and

profound influence on the theatre of
later periods, especially the
Renaissance and the modern era. The
interludes introduced new themes,
characters, and techniques to the
theatre, such as the representation of
contemporary and realistic events, the
mixture of comedy and tragedy, the
use of dialogue and action, and the
involvement of the audience. The
interludes also inspired many
playwrights and authors, who
borrowed, adapted, or imitated their
stories, styles, and forms. Some
 206

examples include Shakespeare, who

used the interludes as sources for his
comedies, such as A Midsummer
Night’s Dream and The Merry Wives
of Windsor, and his histories, such as
Henry IV and Henry VIII; Jonson,
who used the interludes as models for
his masques, such as The Masque of
Blackness and The Masque of
Queens; and Milton, who used the
interludes as references for his
poems, such as L’Allegro and Il
Penseroso.
THE FIRST REGULAR
TRAGEDY AND COMEDY:
 207

The development of English drama in

the 16th century was influenced by
various factors, such as the revival of
classical literature, the Reformation,
the Renaissance, and the patronage of
the court and the nobility. Among the
different genres of drama, tragedy
and comedy were the most popular
and influential. In this essay, I will
discuss the characteristics and
significance of the first regular
tragedy and comedy in English
literature, namely Gorboduc and
Ralph Royster Doyster.
 208

Gorboduc: The First Regular

Tragedy
Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex, is
considered the first regular tragedy in
English literature for several reasons.
First, it is the first play in English to
use blank verse, which is unrhymed
iambic pentameter. Blank verse
became the standard form of verse
for English tragedy, as it allowed
more flexibility and naturalness than
rhyme. Second, it follows the
classical model of tragedy, as it is
based on a historical or legendary
story, has a five-act structure,
 209

observes the three unities of time,

place, and action, and depicts the
downfall of a noble hero due to a
fatal flaw. Third, it explores the
themes of political and moral issues,
such as the consequences of tyranny,
civil war, and regicide, which were
relevant to the contemporary
audience in the context of the Tudor
monarchy and the succession crisis.
Gorboduc tells the story of King
Gorboduc of Britain, who decides to
divide his kingdom between his two
sons, Ferrex and Porrex, before his
death. However, this leads to a
 210

conflict between the brothers, as

Porrex kills Ferrex to secure the
whole kingdom for himself.
Gorboduc and his queen, Videna, are
outraged by this act, and Videna
murders Porrex in revenge. This
triggers a rebellion among the nobles
and the people, who slaughter
Gorboduc, Videna, and the rest of the
royal family, leaving the kingdom in
chaos and anarchy.
The play is notable for its use
of chorus, which is a group of
characters who comment on the
action and the moral lessons of the
 211

play. The chorus also serves as a link

between the audience and the stage,
as they address the spectators directly
and appeal to their emotions and
judgments. The play also
employs dumb shows, which are
silent scenes that precede each act
and foreshadow the events to come.
The play is criticized for its lack of
characterization, as the characters are
mostly flat and stereotypical, and for
its excessive violence and bloodshed,
which create a sense of horror and
disgust rather than pity and fear.
 212

Ralph Royster Doyster: The First

English Comedy
Ralph Royster Doyster is regarded as
the first English comedy for several
reasons. First, it is the first play in
English to use prose, which is the
ordinary form of spoken or written
language. Prose is more suitable for
comedy than verse, as it allows more
variety and humor than rhyme.
Second, it follows the classical model
of comedy, as it is based on a comic
plot, has a five-act structure, observes
the three unities of time, place, and
action, and depicts the happy ending
 213

of a love affair. Third, it explores the

themes of social and domestic issues,
such as the folly of courtship, the
deception of servants, and the rivalry
of suitors, which were amusing and
familiar to the contemporary
audience in the context of the urban
and middle-class life.
Ralph Royster Doyster tells the story
of Ralph, a foolish and boastful
gentleman, who falls in love with
Christian Custance, a wealthy widow.
However, Custance is already
engaged to Gawin Goodluck, a
merchant who is away on a voyage.
 214

Ralph, encouraged by his parasite

friend, Matthew Merrygreek, tries to
woo Custance with letters, gifts, and
songs, but he is rejected and ridiculed
by her and her servants. Ralph then
attempts to force his way into her
house, but he is beaten and driven
away by Custance and her neighbors.
In the end, Goodluck returns and
marries Custance, while Ralph is
mocked and abandoned by
Merrygreek.
The play is notable for its use
of farce, which is a type of comedy
that relies on exaggerated and absurd
 215

situations, physical humor, and

slapstick. The play also
employs wordplay, which is a form of
verbal humor that involves puns,
rhymes, malapropisms, and double
entendres. The play is praised for its
characterization, as the characters are
lively and realistic, and for its
dialogue, which is witty and natural.
The Three Levels of Drama: Text,
Transformation, and Performance
Drama is a collaborative art form that
combines text, performance, and
transformation, engaging multiple
 216

senses and allowing for collective

meaning-making . The three levels of
text, transformation, and performance
interact and influence each other in
the creation and reception of drama
in various ways, as explained below.
Text
Text is the written or spoken
language that constitutes the script or
dialogue of a play. Text can also
include other verbal elements such as
songs, chants, or narrations. Text
provides the basic structure, plot,
characters, themes, and style of a
 217

play. Text can be influenced by the

historical, cultural, and social context
of the playwright, as well as by the
genre and conventions of drama. Text
can also be adapted, translated, or
modified by the director, actors, or
other collaborators to suit different
purposes or audiences.
Text influences performance by
providing the cues, directions, and
motivations for the actors and other
performers. Text also influences
transformation by setting the tone,
mood, and atmosphere of the play, as
well as by suggesting the possible use
 218

of props, costumes, lighting, sound,

or other elements. Text is influenced
by performance and transformation
by being interpreted, embodied, and
enacted by the performers, who may
add, omit, or change words, gestures,
or expressions. Text is also
influenced by the feedback, reactions,
and expectations of the audience,
who may have different levels of
familiarity, engagement, or
appreciation of the text.
Transformation
 219

Transformation is the process of

changing or modifying the text,
performance, or other aspects of a
play to create a new or different
theatrical experience. Transformation
can involve various methods, such as
adaptation, translation, parody,
revision, or improvisation.
Transformation can also involve
various elements, such as props,
costumes, lighting, sound, music, or
special effects. Transformation can be
influenced by the artistic vision,
intention, or innovation of the
playwright, director, actors, or other
 220

collaborators, as well as by the

practical, technical, or financial
limitations or opportunities of the
production.
Transformation influences text by
altering, enhancing, or challenging
the original meaning, message, or
style of the play. Transformation also
influences performance by creating
new or different possibilities,
challenges, or effects for the actors
and other performers. Transformation
is influenced by text and performance
by being based on, inspired by, or
responsive to the existing or potential
 221

language, action, or expression of the

play. Transformation is also
influenced by the reception,
interpretation, or evaluation of the
audience, who may have different
tastes, preferences, or criteria for the
quality or validity of the
transformation.
Performance
Performance is the act of presenting
or enacting a play in front of an
audience, involving the collaboration
of actors and other performers, such
as musicians, dancers, or puppeteers.
 222

Performance can also include other

aspects, such as staging, direction,
choreography, or dramaturgy.
Performance can be influenced by the
skills, talents, or personalities of the
performers, as well as by the training,
rehearsal, or preparation of the
production. Performance can also be
influenced by the venue, setting, or
context of the presentation, as well as
by the genre and conventions of
drama.
Performance influences text by
bringing it to life, giving it voice,
movement, and emotion.
 223

Performance also influences

transformation by realizing,
demonstrating, or experimenting with
the changes or modifications of the
play. Performance is influenced by
text and transformation by following,
adapting, or deviating from the
written or spoken language, as well
as from the visual or auditory
elements of the play. Performance is
also influenced by the interaction,
communication, or participation of
the audience, who may have different
roles, responses, or influences on the
performance.
224