THE BELL SYSTEM

TECHNICAL JOURNAL
DEVOTED TO THE SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING
ASPECTS OF ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATION

Volume 48 S e p t e m b e r 1969 Number 7

Copyright ® 1969, Amtrican Telephone and Telegraph Company

Integrated Optics: An Introduction

By S T E W A R T E. M I L L E R
( M a n u e c r i p t received J a n u a r y 29, 1969)

This paper outlines a proposal jor a mintcUure form of laser beam

circuitry. Index of refraction changes of the order of 1 0 " ' or 10"* in a
substrate such as glass allow guided laser beam^ of width near 10 miarons.
Photolitíwgraphic techniques may permit simultaneous construction of
complex circuit patterns. This paper also indicates possible miniature forms
for a laser, modulator, and hybrids. If realized, this new art vmdd facuitóte
isolating the laser circuit assembly from thermal, mechanical, and acoustic
ambient changes through small overall size; economy should ultimately
result.

I. INTRODUCTION

L a b o r a t o r y work and experimental repeater work a t laser wave­

lengths (0.4 to 10 + μχη) has been carried o u t b y interconnecting
t h e oscillators, modulators, detectors, a n d so on, using a form of
extremely short-range radio. A freely propagating beam has been
reflected around comers, occasionally refocused with lenses t o avoid
energy loss resulting from beam spreading, a n d often sheltered b y
t u b u l a r enclosures from refractive distortions resulting from t h e r ­
mal gradiente in the ambient air. T y p i c a l separations between com­
ponents range from a few centimeters t o a foot; aggregations of a p ­
p a r a t u s in a single-channel experimental laser repeater are measured
2069
2060 THE BELL SYSTEM TECHNICAL JOURNAL, SEPTEMBER Ιθβθ

in square feet. T h e resulting a p p a r a t u s is sensitive to ambient temper­

ature gradients, to absolute t e m p e r a t u r e changes, t o airborne acousti­
cal effects, and to mechanical vibrations of the separately mounted
parts. All of these effects are understood and are susceptible t o a p ­
propriate engineering design; b u t one n a t u r a l l y looks for alternatives.
Looking ahead, one sees t h e possibility of guiding laser beams on
miniature transmission lines, analogous to the hollow rectangular
waveguide or coaxial cable used extensively in lower frequency re­
peaters. Accompanying papers report contributions leading toward
t h e new form of laser c i r c u i t r y T h i s paper gives a general view
of the proposal and indicates specific component possibilities.

Π. LASER BEAM GUIDANCE

We visualize a dielectric waveguide wherein a region having an index
of refraction is surrounded b y a region of index τ^, as in Fig. l a .
Then a two-dimensional analysis shows t h a t the energy in the lowest-
order guided wave is confined almost entirely to the region if
n, = n,(l - Δ), (1)
where

(2)

λ = free space wavelength

a = half-width of n , region, (λ/αη^) « 1.
T a b l e I , calculated from equations (1) and (2) for λ = 0.6328 μχα,
shows t h a t only a very small change in index Δη^ is needed t o provide
t h e desired guidance. Some higher order modes are above cutoff using
these p a r a m e t e r s ; more exact theory can be used t o calculate t h e
smaller guide width which restricts t h e guidance t o a single mode a t

F i g . 1 — W a v e g u i d e cross s e c t i o n s : ( a ) rectangular s h a p e , i n d e x m > n i , (b)

round s h a p e .
 INTEGRATED OPTICS 2061

T A B L E I — V A L U E S OF Δ FOR VARIOUS
OPTICAL B E A M WIDTHS

Optical Beam Width

2a Δ
I mm 10-·
0.1 mm lOr*
0.01 m m 10-«

the expense of having a larger field component a t t h e t o Πι interface

where dimensional irregularities m a y occur.*'* Values of Δ larger t h a n
tabulated for a particular guide width 2a d o n o t appreciably change
the field distribution for t h e lowest order mode in t h e n-i region b u t
would allow more propagating modes.
I t is n o t i m p o r t a n t t h a t there be a sharp step in index as in t h e to
Πι transition of Fig. l a . Alternatively, t h e index can taper smoothly
from a maximum a t t h e waveguide's center t o a lower value a t radius
r according t o *
η = n , [ l - c(r/a)n (3)
with

c = o.ief-V
2a = laser beam width, provided o » λ. (4)
T h e exponent ρ can h a v e a n y even positive value; t h e lowest order mode
field always h a s a n approximately cosinusoidal shape in t h e region
0 < r < o with a b o u t 1/10 peak value a t r ^ o a n d with approximately
exponentially decaying magnitude for r > a.
T h e square law index variation, given b y ρ = 2 in equation ( 3 ) ,
has t h e well-known property t h a t phase constant differences for t h e
various propagating modes a r e independent of frequency.*-' T h e square
law medium is free of delay distortion resulting from mode conversion
and is unique in t h a t property."-*
W e can anticipate guiding beams around relatively sharp bends
as summarized in T a b l e I I . T h e Δ's associated with these beam widths
m a y be obtained from equation (2) or T a b l e I . B y using a guide which
confines t h e beam t o a 5 to lO^m width (implies a Δ of 0.04 t o 0.01)
the bend radius can be in t h e 1.8 to 14.5 m m (70 t o 570 mils) region,
which could facilitate very small circuitry.

* A s o m e w h a t m o r e accurate expression i s g i v e n as e q u a t i o n ( 5 0 ) i n Ref. 5.

T h i s p e r m i t s a series of terms in ( r / a ) ' t o represent t h e index variation.
2062 T H E BELL SYSTEM TECHNICAL JOURNAL, SEPTEMBER 1969

TABLE II—ESTIMATED BENDING RADIUS

Loser Beam EsUmatsd Acceptabla

Width Bending Radiiu in m*
2a in mm (λ - 0.633 μιη)
1 14,500
0.1 14.5
0.01 0.0145
0.005 0.0018

* T h i s e s t i m a t e is o b t a i n e d using e q u a t i o n (33) of Ref. 9, a n d includes a n a l l o w a n c e

of 0 2 5 d B m a x i m u m loss resulting from a b e n d of a n y a n g l e .

ΠΙ. FABRICATION OF SMALL WAVBGTnDBS

T i n y laser guides can b e fabricated in t h e form of glass fibers.

Previous work on fiber-optics for image transmission or incoherent
light sensing has provided a considerable body of experience on which
to build, not all of which is applicable. So-called " c l a d " fibers have
two discrete regions of index as in Fig. l a . T h e region (which car­
ries little light) m u s t be as thin as possible in image-transmitting fibers
t o minimize the " d e a d " region in the o u t p u t image. F o r modulated laser
beam transmission the cladding m u s t be much thicker and t h e "core"
(na of Fig. l a ) much smaller t o yield well-isolated single mode t r a n s ­
mission.
Whereas glass fibers m a y be used to connect repeater components
and certainly are convenient as flexible connections, we can use an­
other form of dielectric waveguide for miniature laser circuitry. Fig. 2

F i g . 2 — P l a n a r w a v e g u i d e formed using p h o t o l i t h o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e s .
 INTEGRATED OPTICS 2063

shows a channel of index surrounded b y a region of index iht which

would serve as a dielectric waveguide of the t y p e discussed in con­
nection with Fig. 1. This might be created in glass using a series of
steps as follows. A m a s k could be used t o expose selectively a light-
sensitive photo-resist previously placed on a sheet of glass, followed
b y washing and selective deposition (if needed) of a more durable
material for masking purposes. T h e n a diffusion, bombardment, or
ionic replacement process could be used to change t h e index of refrac­
tion of t h e glass, thereby creating the channel imbedded in the rh
substrate. Finally t h e top layer of τΐχ material could be sputtered on
the entire top surface.
Using photolithographic techniques which are currently evolving
for low frequency integrated circuit applications, channel widths in
t h e 2 t o 5 /tm range m a y be achievable and dimensions on t h e order of
10 μΐη are readily held. Complicated masking p a t t e r n s m a y in t i m e be
made, leading to the possibility of simultaneously m a k i n g complicated
laser circuits using combinations of elements such as those described in
the following paragraphs.*
T h i s description is intended to be a broad indication of possible
feasibility r a t h e r t h a n a blueprint. However, relevant contributions
are appearing. G. M . C. Fisher and A. D . Pearson h a v e reported
processes which reduce or increase t h e index of refraction of glass
b y as much as 0.7 per cent.*" F . K . R e i n h a r t , D . F . Nelson, and
J . M c K e n n a h a v e reported t h e existence of an index increase in
gallium phosphide junctions which is effective as a light guide a t
zero bias.**'*' Optical waveguides formed b y proton irradiation have
been reported.** F u r t h e r contributions m a y be anticipated.*'
Some relevant work on two-dimensional light guides has been r e ­
ported.*"-'"' I n this work one transverse dimension of the guided wave
was in t h e 10 t o 100 μχη region; b u t t h e other transverse dimension
was orders of magnitude larger. W e seek waveguides tightly guided
in both transverse dimensions in order t o m a k e possible t h e compo­
nents proposed in Section I V .

IV. INTBGRATED-CIBCUIT LASER

T h e transmission line of Fig. 2 becomes a resonator when mirrors

are placed a t the ends, or when a series of partially reflecting t r a n s -

* C o m p l i c a t e d m a s k i n g p a t t e r n s are feasible n o w w h e r e t h e area i n v o l v e d i s

s m a l l ; d e p t h - o f - f o c u s p r o b l e m s m a y require a d v a n c e s i n m a s k i n g t o produce t h e
large area patterns w e n e e d .
2064 THE BELL SYSTEM TECHNICAL JOURNAL, SEPTEMBER 1969

verse lines are spaced a t a n odd quarter-wave multiple a p a r t t o rein­

force reflections a t t h e resonator's peak frequency (Fig. 3 ) . T h e partial
reflectors are analogous t o layered dielectric mirrors and are large
enough in t h e transverse plane t o intercept most of t h e guided-wave
energy; they m a y be increased index regions placed in t h e sheet a s
noted in Section I I I , empty grooves, or minute grooves coated with
metal.
B y adding a small concentration of neodymium ions and by pro­
viding a p u m p , t h e resonant cavity becomes a laser. F i g 4 shows, in
cross section, two possible ways t h e p u m p might be applied. I n F i g 4a
the active material (such as neodymium) can be applied only in t h e
vicinity of t h e waveguide channel (by sputtering on t h e surface,
beneath t h e Sn02 fihn, for example) or might be distributed through­
out t h e substrate. T h e spherical reflector confines t h e pump energy
near t h e waveguide where t h e laser field is a maximum. T h e electro­
luminescent material (for example, doped zinc sulphide) is selected t o
provide radiation a t a pumping line for t h e active lasing materials.
I n Fig. 4b, ac (kilohertz rate) excitation of t h e electroluminescent
pumping material is implied; t h e electroluminescent material is dis­
tributed throughout t h e glass substrate. Relatively low power laser
sources might be produced in similar structures, t h e order of 0.1 w a t t
being adequate for m a n y communication applications.

F i g . 3 — R e s o n a t o r using planar w a v e g u i d e .
 INTEGRATED OPTICS 2065

,CONTACT

SnOa
ELECTRODE
H'l' l__
I' /
I «
/ '

/
ELECTRO-
^LUMINESCENT
MATERIAL ^ELECTRODES

02
PUMP
REFLECTOR
(a) (b)

F i g . 4 — Cross s e c t i o n s of possible lasers in pinnar w a v e g u i d e : (a) external

p u m p ( b ) p u m p i o n s i m b e d d e d in laser circuit.

V. MODULATOR

Figure δ shows a possible phase modulator for a guided laser beam.

T h e electrooptic material might be t h e substrate or might be applied
as a thin surface layer adjacent to t h e guiding index region η ^ . Using
photolithographic techniques, i t should be possible t o use spacing b e ­
tween t h e metallic electrodes of about 25 /im which would yield large
modulating fields with only a few volts of modulator drive.

MODULATING
POTENTIAL

METALLIC
ELECTRODES

SER
EAM

Fig. 5 — PhasR modulator.

2066 THE BELL SYSTEM TECHNICAL JOTTBNAL, BEFTEMBER 1069

VI. HYBRID

Figure 6 shows the directional coupler form of hybrid. T h e ex­

ponentially decaying fields, propagating in t h e rh region of Fig. 2,
overlap for the two parallel guides of Fig. 6, providing continuous
distributed coupling. Reference 1 gives approximate expressions for
calculating the guide spacing and needed coupling length.
Figure 7 shows the partially reflecting mirror form of h y b r i d ; the
reflecting line m a y be a narrow groove coated with a metal film, an
e m p t y groove, or a high index dielectric region created b y a masking
and diffusion or ionic replacement process. A single e m p t y groove, an
odd q u a r t e r of a wavelength thick, in the direction of propagation
would give a coupling loss of about 9 d B .

Vn. FRBQXJBNCY-SELECTIVB FILTERS

Using techniques familiar a t lower frequencies, hybrids and resonant

circuits can be combined t o form filters, a needed component in fre­
quency-division multiplex systems. Figure 8 shows such an a r r a n g e ­
ment, where band pass cavities Ci and C2 are used to separate fa from
/ft and fo; hybrids divide and recombine the energy t o form a constant

F i g . β — D i r e c t i o n a l coupler t y p e hybrid.
 INTEGRATED OFnCS 2067

Fig. 7 — Junction type hybrid.

1 1

V. _
L
1
1
1
1
"111
1 1 1
1 1
-Ca
REFLECTORS^ J 1 ]
ii
c, \ \ i
W 1 1 1
i' '

Un= \
1 1
\ \
1 1
~. — 1
\ N
1 1 1

F i g . 8 — C h a n n e l dropping filter.
2068 THE BELL SYSTEM TECHNICAL JOURNAL, SEPTEMBER 1969

resistance filter. Alternatively, a multiple-line grating could be used

in place of the resonant cavities as the reflecting element to reflect f„
only, and the o u t p u t positions of fa and ft,, fc would interchange.
I n filters of this kind the intrinsic loss of the substrate is of course
important. Good quality glasses have bulk losses as low as 1 d B per m,
which corresponds to an intrinsic Q of about 30 million; this would
allow filters with band widths of a few hundred megacycles in the
visible region; therefore, intrinsic substrate loss should not be too
limiting.

VIII. CONCLU.<*IONS
This paper outlines a prospect for laser circuitry and devices which,
if realized, would have m a n y attractive features. Photolithographic
processes would simplify reproducing complicated circuits, once the
original was developed. Small size would facilitate isolating the com­
pleted circuit assembly from thermal, mechanical, and acoustic a m ­
bient changes. F o r communication purposes, low laser power levels
are adequate so t h a t the h e a t to be dissipated hopefully will not be
large. I n the very small laser beam cross sections, nonlinear effects
needed for modulation and frequency changing should be achievable
with only a few volts of drive.
Finally, a word of caution is needed. W o r k is just beginning in the
directions indicated, and we have identified goals rather t h a n accom­
plishments. W e recognize these are diflBcult goals; b u t we believe they
are worth t h e serious effort required to achieve them.

IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

T h e helpful comments of J. K. Gait and numerous other colleagues

are gratefully acknowledged.

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 INTEGRATED OPTICS 2069

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