The man, proud and excited about his raise in salary, bought a new car.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE1

o 4. Expand the verb.

1. SIMPLE SENTENCES
The man bought and sold a new car.
The man bought a new car and sold it.
Sentences can be long or short, simple or complex. Here is a simple sentence.
o 5. Expand the object.
The man bought a new car. The man bought a fancy new red car.
The man bought a new car and a computer.
It contains one independent clause —also called as ‘main clause’ (a sentence that
The man bought his wife a new car.
makes sense alone and can stand alone). We can add other information to the
sentence above and the sentence will still have only one independent clause. It The man bought a new car for his wife.
will just be a longer sentence.
o 6. Add information at the end.

We can add information at several points within the sentence, and that The man bought a new car last week.
information can take the form of different grammatical structures. The man bought a new car because he felt adventurous.
The man bought a new car when he could afford it.
o 1. Add information at the beginning. The man bought a new car to try to impress his friends.
Last week, the man bought a new car. The man bought a new car even though his wife didn’t approve.
Because he felt adventurous, the man bought a new car.
Note that in each of the preceeding sentences, there is only one clause that can
Although his wife hated the idea, the man bought a new car.
stand alone —the independent clause.
Wanting to look prosperous, the man bought a new car.
Bored with his life in the city, the man bought a new car. EXERCISES:
To try to impress his friends, the man bought a new car.

o 2. Expand the Subject

The rich man bought a new car.
The man who got a raise last week bought a new car.
The man who works in my office bought a new car.
The man working in my office bought a new car.
The man and his wife bought a new car.
The man with an old Cadillac bought a new car.

o 3. Insert some additional information in the middle

The man in my office, Joseph Moran, bought a new car.
The man, wanting to impress his friends, bought a new car.

1 In the preparation of these notes the following source is extensively used: Ann Raimes,
Grammer Troublespots, An Editing Guide for ESL Students, St. Martin’s Press.
 The car is unreliable; it never starts in the rain.
2. COMPOUND SENTENCES: COMBINING SENTENCES THROUGH COORDINATION
o b. You can also indicate HOW two independent clauses are related in
meaning within a sentence if you coordinate the two clauses by using a
You can connect complete sentences together to form a coordinate sentence that
comma followed by one of these seven connecting words:
will contain two or more independent clauses of equal importance (that is core
ideas). When two or more independent clauses are joined, the resulting sentence
S + V, [and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet]3 S + V.
is called a compound sentence.2

Examples: My father earned the money, and my uncle paid the rent.
There are several ways to do the following:

The man bought a new car, but his wife didn’t know about it.
S+V + S+V

Exception: When two independent clauses with the same subject are condensed
Which way you choose will depend on what seems to fit best the content and
into one sentence with a connecting word, no comma separates the two
context of your piece of writing:
sentences.

o a. When sentences are closely connected and their structure is The man bought a new car. The man changed his job.
similar, you can connect them by using a semicolon: 
The man bought a new car; he gave it to his wife as a surprise birtday present. The man bought a new car and changed his job. (No comma separates the two
verbs when they have the same subject.)
My mother took care of the housework; my father earned the money.
People who belong to a state are called its citizens; citizens of other states are Important Note: To connect two independent clauses, a comma is not enough.
called foreigners.
You need a comma and a connecting word, or you need a semicolon. The
In 1945 there were only 45 states; in 1977 there were more than 150. following sentences are NOT acceptable in English.
People need the state to defend them against outside aggression and internal
disorder; in exchange, they promise to live by the laws of their state. *The man bought a new car his wife didn’t know about it. (There is no connecting
word between these two independent clauses, nor is there any punctuation to separate
People recognize the state’s legitimacy; they recognize its right to be the highest them. This is called a run-on sentence.)
political authority.
*The man bought a new car, his wife didn’t know about it. (The two clauses are
There are many names for the territorial state; some examples are “country”, sperated only by a comma, yet a period or semicolon is needed. This is called a
“nation”, and “nation-state”. comma splice.)

2 Other than combination of sentences, sentence parts can also be combined to make a
o c. There are also many linking expressions that help to point out
coordinate sentence. This is often possible when two or more sentences say almost the same how sentences are joined according to meaning. Even if you use one of these
thing, and they repeat many words. The repating parts can be combined by an “and” or “or”. words, you still need to separate your sentences with a period or with a
When there are more than one combined sentence parts in the new sentence, a comma is semicolon at the end of your first independent clause. For example:
used to combine sentence parts until the final sentence part is combined with a comma
together with an “and” or an “or”. The parts which are the same are not repeated in the new The little girl had always hated spiders. In fact, she was absolutely terrified of
sentence. For example, “Two ethnic groups form a state. More ethnic groups form a state.” them. OR:
These sentences are combined as “Two or more ethnic groups form a state.” Similarly, the
following two sentences “This may be because of a war. This may be because of a treaty” can
be combined as “This maybe because of a war, or a treaty.” Remember that although “a” is 3 And shows agreement or similarity. But shows disagreement or contrast. For comes before
also repeated in two sentences, the “a” is repeated. But, “in” in sentence parts like “in a reason or cause. It is like the word “because”, and it tells why something is true. Nor is
history, in culture, in language” is not repeated. Also, “against” in “against the boundaries, used to join two negative statements. It replaces “not” in the second sentence. After the
against the people” is repeated. SO WATCH OUT to determine what is and what is not conjunction “nor”, the word order in the second sentence is changed so the auxiliary-verb
repated???? Remember also that when combining sentence parts a comma is not used before comes before the subject. Or indicates a choice. Use it when there are two ideas, and either
an “and” or an “or”. idea is possible. So comes before a result. You may think of “so” as the opposite of “for”.
 The little girl had always hated spiders; in fact, she was absolutely terrified of 5. Hemingway was a sentimental man, keeping his possessions all around him. He
them. OR: hardly ever threw anything away.
The little girl had always hated spiders. She was, in fact, absolutely terrified of 6. Hemingway always did a surprising amount of rewriting of his novels. He wrote
them. OR: the ending to A Farewell to Arms thirty-nine times.
The little girl had always hated spiders. She was absolutely terrified of them, in 7. Hemingway wrote his short story “The Killers” in one morning. After lunch, he
fact. wrote “Today is Friday” and “Ten Indians.”
8. Hemingway often wrote all through the afternoon and evening without stopping.
Linking words and phrases are set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. A His landlady worried that he wasn’t eating enough.
list of some of the most frequently used linking expressions is given below. The
expressions are not necessarily interchangeable. The context determines which is
appropriate.
ANSWER KEY4:

To add an idea: in addition, furthermore, moreover, also 1. . . . ; for instance, he always wrote standing up.
2. . . . ; in addition, he was an active sportsman.
To show time or sequence: meanwhile, first, second, then, next, later, finally 3. . . . . However, he shifted to his typewriter when the writing was easy . . .
4. . . . . He was, nevertheless, a neat person at heart.
To contrast: however, nevertheless, though, in contrast, on the 5. . . . ; in fact, he hardly ever threw anything away.
other hand
6. . . . ; for example, he wrote the ending to A Farwell to Arms thirty-nine times.
7. . . . . Then, after lunch, he wrote . . .
To show result: therefore, thus, consequently, as a result
8. . . . . As a result, his landlady worried that he wasn’t eating enough.

To emphasize: in fact, of course, indeed, certainly

To provide an example: for example, for instance

To generalize or summarize: in general, overall, in short.

EXERCISES:

Connect the following pairs of sentences by using punctuation, connecting words,

or linking expressions. Remember, you need to determine the relationship
between the two sentences before you can choose a connecting word or a linking
expression.

1. Hemingway had some individual peculiarities as a writer. He always wrote

standing up.
2. Hemingway was a gifted journalist, novelist, and short-story writer. He was an
active sportsman.
3. Hemingway mostly did his writing in pencil on onionskin typewriter paper. He
turned to his typewriter when the writing was easy for him, such as writing dialogue.
4 Please note that there is often more than one correct answer to an exercise. If your answer
4. Hemingway’s room looked untidy at first glance. He was a neat person at heart. is different from the one proposed here, do not assume your answer is wrong. You may have
found an alternative solution.
 Hemingway, who was a sentimental man, hardly ever threw anything away.
3. COMPLEX SENTENCES: COMBINING SENTENCES THROUGH SUBORDINATION Because Hemingway was a sentimental man, he hardly ever threw anything away.

When you connect one independent clause with at least one dependent clause, The dependent clause of each of these two sentences is in italics. Note that it
this is called a complex sentence. These sentences use subordinating cannot stand alone. It has been made subordinate to the independent clause and
conjunctions to link ideas. is now dependent on it for meaning. The following is not a complete sentence but
a fragment:

You can combine two simple sentences by using connecting words or linking *Because Hemingway was a sentimental man.
expressions; the result is two independent clauses (see ‘Coordinating’ above). You
also have the option of making one of your independent ideas subordinate to, that The following list shows both the relationships that allow one sentence to be
is, dependent on, the other. In the new sentence, one part is called the main subordinated to another (type of clause) and the subordinating words used to
clause, and the other part is called the subordinate clause. The dependent clause, begin dependent clauses.
i.e. the subordinate clause, is a clause in a complex sentence that cannot stand
alone as a complete sentence and that functions within the sentence as a noun,
adjective, or adverb. RELATIVE that, who, whom, which, whose (that, whom, which are
sometimes omitted as the object of the clause)

o Look at these two simple sentences: The man who won the lottery bought a new car.
Hemingway was a sentimental man. The man [that] I met last night is an accountant.
He hardly ever threw anything away.
TIME when, before, after, until, since, as soon as
o One way to combine these ideas is to coordinate the sentences as
When he won the money, he decided to buy a car.
follows:
Hemingway was a sentimental man, so he hardly ever threw anything away. PLACE where, wherever
Hemingway was a sentimental man. In fact, he hardly ever threw anything away.
She drove wherever she wanted.
In the preceding example, the two clauses have equal weight and, therefore,
equal importance in the reader’s mind. One way to change the emphasis is to CAUSE because, as, since
subordinate one idea to the other: make the most important idea the independent
clause and make the less important idea a condensed phrase, attaching it to the She got a parking ticket because she parked illegally.
core idea. The following examples include condensed phrases:
PURPOSE so that, in order that
Hemingway, a sentimental man, hardly ever threw anything away.
He drove fast so that he could get to work on time.
Being sentimental, Hemingway hardly ever threw anything away.
For sentimental reasons, Hemingway hardly ever threw anything away. RESULT so . . . that, such . . . that

A. SUBORDINATING WORDS He drove so fast that he got a speeding ticket.

The two clauses can also be combined by keeping them as full clauses (subject + CONDITION if, unless
verb) and (subject + verb), but making one of them subordinate to the other by
introducing it with a subordinating word. If she hadn’t won the lottery, she would have been very unhappy.

CONCESSION although, even though

For example:
 Although she thought she was a good driver, she got a lot of tickets for speeding. clause.

Included STATEMENT or QUESTION that (sometimes omitted), what, why,

how, ‘As’ shows a time relationship. Use it when the actions in the main clause and the
subordinate clause happen at the same time.

where, when, who, which, whose, whether,

if ‘Before’ shows a time relationship. The result is in the main clause and the cause
is in the subordinate clause.
He knows why he gets so many tickets.
He knows [that] his business will be succesful. ‘If’ shows a condition. The truth of the statement in the main clause depends on
the truth of the statement in the subordinate clause.
B. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

‘So that’ shows a result. The reason is in the main clause and the result is in the
There are many ways to subordinate sentences. One particular way is by using
subordinate clause.
subordinate conjunctions. In the new sentence, one part is called the main
clause, and the other part is called the subordinate clause. The subordinate clause
may be in either first or second position. When the main clause precedes the ‘When’ shows a time relationship or a condition. Use it for actions that happen at
subordinate clause in the sentence, no comma is used before the subordinate the same time. It is very useful for statements of general truth.
conjunction except before the conjunction ‘although’. When subordinate clause
precedes main clause, a comma is always used to separate the subordinate clause
from the main clause. The subordinate conjunction always comes before the C. RELATIVE CLAUSE
subordinate clause, and shows its relationship to the idea in the main clause.
Another type of subordinate clause is the relative clause. You can use a relative
Many people do not support large defence systems (this is the main idea). Nuclear clause to say something more about a word in the main clause. The relative
weapons cost so much (this gives a reason, thus it will be the subordinate clause). clause relates, or refers, to a word in the main clause. The word in the main
clause is called the antecedent. There are two types of relative clauses. One
Many people do not support large defence systems because nuclear weapons cost
so much (no comma separates the main clause from the subordinate clause).
type, the restrictive clause, limits (restricts) the meaning of the antecedent. It
often includes information which is necessary for the identification of the
Because nuclear weapons cost so much, many people do not support large antecedent. The second type, the non-restrictive clause, does not limit or restrict
defence systems (a comma separates the subordinate clause from the main clause). the meaning of the antecedent. The non-restrictive clause simply adds more
information of an interesting —but not necessary— character. Non-restrictive
But note that the conjunction ‘although’ is exceptional. A comma is always used clauses are always separated from the main clause by commas.
before it when the subordinate clause comes second.

There is disagreement about the importance of so many nuclear weapons (main D. ELEMENTS WHICH INTERRUPT THE SUBJECT-VERB-COMPLEMENT WORD ORDER
idea). The nuclear states are obviously the strongest (subordinate idea). (PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES, INTRODUCTORY (ADJECTIVE-PARTICIPIAL-GERUND) PHRASES
MADE FROM SUBORDINATE CLAUSES, RELATIVE CLAUSES, SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
There is disagreement about the importance of so many nuclear weapons, INTRODUCTORY PARTICIPLE PHRASE, APPOSTIVIES, STATEMENTS IN PARANTHESES,
although the nuclear states are obviously the strongest. EXAMPLES … (TEXTBOOK PP 77-80;
D.1. Preposotional Phrases
Meanings of some of the subordinate conjunctions:
Perpositional phrase may come at the beginning or at the end. If at the beginning,
‘After’ shows a time relationship. Use if when the action in the main clause came a comma seperates the phrepositional phrase from the main clause.
second, and the action in the subordinate clause came first.
Without the immigrants who helped to build it, the United States would not be the
‘Although’ shows disagreement. Use it when the main clause shows action that strong nation that is it now. The United States would not be the strong nation
you would not expect or action that is not in agreement with the subordinate that it is now without the immigrants who helped to build it.
From 1824 to 1924, thirty-six million people immigrated to the United States. The life of the early Japanese was organized around tribes, (which are) groups of
people with family ties.

During its more recent history, the United States imposed restrictions.
A state must have a government, (which is) some kind of political organization to
help its citizens to act together.
In the “power as mass” theory, the emphasis is often on the amount o military
strength a nation has.
EXERCISES:
D.2. Introductory (Adjective) Phrases Made From Subordinate Clauses
Short sentences can thus be combined to make longer sentences by coordinating
Although it is not the only important conditon, size is a distinct advantage. clauses, subordinating clauses, or by condensing core ideas into phrases.
Although not the only important condition, size is a distinct advantage.
1. Combine the following short independent clauses into longer sentences by
When they are isolated from their minorty language group for a period of time, using coordinating or subordinating words, or by condensing ideas. Find as many
most people will learn the majority language. When isolated…, most people… . ways as you can to rewrite these sentences.

d.3 Introductory Adjective Participial Phrases Made From Passive Sentences Jack wanted to make a good impression. Jack wore a suit. The suit was new. The
suit belonged to his brother. Jack was our administrative assistant. The suit was big for
him. The pants kept falling down.
Passive voice sentences can be often changed to adjective phrases, using the
participle and the rest of the sentence. This is a common technique of sentence
combination. (Possible Answers:)

Since Jack, our administrative assistant, wanted to make a good impression, he

Most developed nations are located in the northern hemisphere. Most developed wore his brother’s new suit, the pants of which kept falling down because the suit was
nations possess great amounts of food, education, and housing. big for him.
To make a good impression, Jack, our administrative assistant, wore his brother’s
new suit, but the pants kept falling down because the suit was big for him.
Located in the northern hemisphere, most developed nations possess ….
Although our administrative assistant, Jack, wore a new suit belonging to his
d.4. Participial Phrases after the subject (textbook p. 123-4 brother in order to make a good impression, the suit was too big for him, so the pants
kept falling down.

Participial phrases can also come after the subject of a sentence. In this case, be Wanting to make a good impression, Jack, our administrative assistant, wore his
careful not to confuse the participle with the main verb of the sentence which brother’s new suit, but the suit was so big for him that the pants kept falling down.
follows the phrase!
2. Examine the structure of the following sentence by answering the questions
below:
The view… opposes Western development strategies. The view is held by many
TW countries. Wanting to make a good impression, Jack, our administrative assistant, wore his
brother’s new suit, but the suit was so big for him that the pants kept falling down.

The view held by many TW countries opposes Western development strategies. 1. How many independent clauses are there? What are they?
2. What is the subject and verb of each independent clause?
D.3. Appositives (definitions in context)
3. If there is more than one independent clause, how are they connected?
A relative clause can often be changed to an appositive phrase. Appositives are 4. How many subordinate clauses are there?
commonly used as definitions in context. To make an appositive, take out the
5. How have other core ideas been attached to the independent clause(s)?
subject and the verb from the relative clause.
Answers: (Which sentence of each group did you select as the independent clause of your
new sentence? Why did you select that one? How does the meaning of your
1. There are two independnet clauses: Jack wore his brother’s new suit. and The sentence change if you choose a different indepedent clause?)
suit was so big for him.
2. Jack wore and The suit was.
Possible Answers:
3. The independent clauses are connected by but.
1. As I watched a little girl carrying a big shopping bag, I felt so sorry for her that
4. There is one subordinate clause: that the pants kept falling down (result).
I offered to help.
5. Other attachments are condensed phrases: wanting to make a good impression,
2. When my huge family met at my grandparents’ house every holiday, there were
and our administrative assistant
never enough chairs, so I always had to sit on the floor.

3. In a similar way, long sentences can be broken down into short, core parts. 3. Computers save so much time that many businesses are buying them, but the
managers sometimes do not realize that they have to train people to operate the
This breakdown is useful for you to check the structure of any long sentences you
machines.
or others write. Now, separate the long sentence in the following excerpt into
short sentences; that is, break the sentence down into its basic set of core ideas 4. All their lives they have lived with their father, a powerful politician who has
expressed in a series of independent clauses. made lots of enemies.
5. Wanting to be succesful, she worked day and night for a famous advertising
Her picture as a young woman, placed on the polished lid of the piano that’s never agency until eventually she became a vice-president.
opened except when the piano tuner comes, is in a heavy silver frame of ornate
primitive design brought by my uncle from Peru. 6. Although he really wants to go skiing, he has decided to go to a beach resort in
Californai since his sister, who(m) he hasn’t seen for 10 years, lives there. OR

Answer: Although he really wants to go skiing, he has decided to go to a beach resort in

California to visit his sister, whom he hasn’t seen for 10 years.
Her picture is in a heavy silver frame. The frame is of ornate primitive design. The
frame was brought by my uncle from Peru. The picture shows her as a young woman.
The picture is placed on the polished lid of the piano. The lid is never opened. The
piano tuner comes and opens it.

4. Find as many ways as you can to combine each of the following sentence
groups into one sentence. Include all the ideas that are there, but collapse
sentences into words or phrases, if you want. You can also add words
(subordinating words, for example, or connecting words like and and but) that will
help you to combine the ideas.

1. I watched a little girl. She was carrying a big shopping bag. I felt sorry for her. I
offered to help.
2. My family was huge. My family met at my grandparents’ house every holiday.
There were never enough chairs. I always had to sit on the floor.
3. Computers save time. Many businesses are buying them. The managers have to
train people to operate the machines. Sometimes they don’t realize that.
54. All their lives they have lived with their father. Their father is a politician. He is
powerful. He has made lots of enemies.
5. She wanted to be successful. She worked day and night. She worked for a
famous advertising agency. Eventually she became a vice president.
6. He really wants to go skiing. He has decided to go to a beach resort in
California. His sister lives in the beach resort. He hasn’t seen her for 10 years.
 IMPROVING YOUR STYLE: TRANSITION WORDS
4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES

Otherwise known as "connectors/connectives" or "cohesive devices/markers".

A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least
They are words or short phrases which help to guide your reader through your
one dependent clause. The dependent clause can be part of the independent
writing, and are used to link sentences, paragraphs and sections both forwards
clause.
and backwards. Good use will make what you have written easy to follow; bad use
might mean your style is disjointed, probably with too many short sentences, and
The following is a compound-complex sentence: consequently difficult to follow. Your mark could be affected either way.

When the drought comes, the reservoirs dry up, and residents know that water
restrictions will be in effect.
The best way to "get a feel" for these words is through your reading. Most
textbooks and articles are well-written and will probably include a lot of these
cohesive devices. Note how they are used and try to emulate what you have read.
In the example above, ‘when the drought comes,’ is a dependent clause and is
Do make sure though that you fully understand their meaning: incorrect use could
set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma because it starts with ‘when’, a
change completely what you're trying to say. Try to use a variety of expressions,
subordinate conjunction, and is placed at the beginning of the sentence. 5 On the
particularly in longer pieces of writing.
other hand, ‘the reservoirs dry up,’ and ‘and residents know that water
restrictions will be in effect.’ are independent clauses.
Don't forget "AND"! Two short sentences are often best connected together with
Chris wanted to drive to work, but she couldn’t until her car was repaired. this little word.

In this example above, ‘Chris wanted to drive to work,’ is an independent clause

and is set off with a comma from the following independent clause ‘but she Here is a list of words and phrases that can be used. BE CAREFUL: although
couldn’t’, because a comma is always used before a coordinate conjunction—e.g. grouped together, none is totally synonymous. Their position in the sentence can
but—except only when ‘and’ is used to coordinate two sentences whose subjects also vary. This is where your reading and dictionary come in.
are the same.6 Finally, ‘until her car was repaired’ is a dependent clause because it
was connected with a subordinating word—i.e. ‘until’. Listing Giving examples Generalising

first, second, third for example in general

first, furthermore, finally for instance generally

to begin, to conclude as follows: on the whole

next that is as a rule

Reinforcement in this case for the most part

also namely in most cases

furthermore in other words usually

moreover Result/consequence Highlighting

what is more so in particular

5 See the underlined information in notes b1 on page 4 above on the use of comma in
in addition therefore particularly
complex sentences connected with subordinate conjunctions.
6 See p. 2 item b above.
besides as a result/consequence especially overall surely still

above all accordingly mainly therefore after all yet

as well (as) consequently Reformulation

in the same way because of this/that in other words

TRANSITION WORD EXERCISES
not only ... but also thus rather
Always ask yourself what the exact relationship is between the sentences or parts
Similarity hence to put it more simply of sentences. Are you leading to the result of something? Are you making a
deduction? Are you introducing some contradictory evidence or ideas? Your choice
equally for this/that reason Expressing an alternative of word or phrase obviously depends on this. And always check in a good
dictionary if you're not quite sure about a word's use or its position in a sentence.
likewise so that alternatively Remember that punctuation will affect what you use.

similarly in that case rather

Exercise Insert the best alternative
under these
correspondingly on the other hand
circumstances
1 Polls show that Tony Blair is the most popular Prime Minister this century.
________________, there are even members of his own party who are uneasy
in the same way Deduction the alternative is
with his approach. (In particular, However, For instance)
another possibility would
Transition to new point then
be 2 There are some slight variations in temperature, but ________________ 26 to
27ºC should be expected. (consequently, otherwise, as a rule)
now, in other words Contrast

as far as x is concerned in that case instead 3 The two main Channel Islands, ________________ Jersey and Guernsey, are
much closer to France than to England. (for example, namely, in particular)
with regard/reference to otherwise conversely

as for ... this implies that ... on the contrary 4 It was announced that nurses' working hours would be increased by 25%.
______________ , even fewer trainee nurses are expected to join the profession.
it follows that if so/not in contrast (As a result, So that, Likewise)

turning to Stating the obvious in comparison 5 Sales of CDs have experienced a small but steady fall over the past 12 months.
_____________ , vinyl records have seen an increase in their share of the
Concession (sth
Summary obviously market, up to 1.7%. (Above all, Correspondingly, In contrast)
unexpected)

in conclusion clearly however 6 The Vice Chancellor explained that in light of the current financial climate and
because of unexpected bad debts, it would be necessary to peg salary levels at
to conclude naturally even though their current level for all grades of staff. ______________ , no-one was getting a
pay rise. (Nevertheless, In other words, Similarly)
in brief of course however much

to summarise as can be expected nevertheless

7 It is clear, therefore, that the situation in Brazil will improve only slowly. way (reformulation).
______________ the economic problems being experienced in Japan, the outlook
is slightly more optimistic. (Furthermore, In comparison, With reference to)
7 It is clear, therefore, that the situation in Brazil will improve only slowly. With
reference to the economic problems being experienced in Japan, the outlook is
8 In order to try to reduce car use in the inner cities, the government has slightly more optimistic. (The second sentence deals with a new aspect/point.)
announced new restrictions on company parking spaces and ______________ , a
new tax on individual car use. (as well as, in addition, in the same way)
8 In order to try to reduce car use in the inner cities, the government has
announced new restrictions on company parking spaces and in addition , a new
9 Essays must be handed in by the deadline, ______________ they will not be tax on individual car use. (Reinforcement of the idea; an extra point. As well as
marked. (obviously, otherwise, as a result) must be immediately followed by a noun or verb.)

10 ______________ it has been shown that fractures can occur at even relatively 9 Essays must be handed in by the deadline, otherwise they will not be marked.
low pressures, the use of the material should not be completely discounted. (The second part is a consequence of the first.)
(Nevertheless, Because, Even though)

10 Even though it has been shown that fractures can occur at even relatively low
ANSWERS pressures, the use of the material should not be completely discounted. (The idea
of concesssion again; the second part is somewhat unexpected.)
1 Polls show that Tony Blair is the most popular Prime Minister this century.
However, there are even members of his own party who are uneasy with his
approach. (However indicates that what follows is something of a contradiction or
an exception.)

2 There are some slight variations in temperature, but as a rule 26 to 27ºC

should be expected. (As a rule shows you are about to make a generalisation.)

3 The two main Channel Islands, namely Jersey and Guernsey, are much closer
to France than to England. (You are actually naming the two islands mentioned,
so namely is used.)

4 It was announced that nurses' working hours would be increased by 25%. As a

result , even fewer trainee nurses are expected to join the profession. (The
second sentence is a result or consequence of the first. So that must be followed
by a verb.)

5 Sales of CDs have experienced a small but steady fall over the past 12
months.In contrast , vinyl records have seen an increase in their share of the
market, up to 1.7%. (The second sentence contrasts vinyl with CDs.)

6 The Vice Chancellor explained that in light of the current financial climate and
because of unexpected bad debts, it would be necessary to peg salary levels at
their current level for all grades of staff. In other words , no-one was getting a
pay rise. (The second sentence says the same as the first, but in a much simpler