AU J. T. 18(4): 161-172 (Apr.

2015)

Computer-Aided Load Estimation of Air-conditioning

Systems for Non-residential and Residential Buildings
Tunde Isaac Ogedengbe and Tunji John Erinle
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology,
Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
E-mail: <[email protected]; [email protected]>

Abstract

This study collected existing mathematical formulae that are essential for load
estimation in residential and non-residential buildings, combined the formulae collected
and wrote a computer algorithm that would effectively support load estimation in
residential and non-residential buildings. The algorithm was used to develop interactive
and user-friendly software for load estimation in residential and non-residential
buildings. The software was developed using C# Programming Language and it is
named Air-conditioner Load Estimator (ALE). The ALE has been evaluated and
validated. Hence, using the air-conditioner loads for various buildings, both residential
and non-residential cooling loads can be determined on the quickly without going
through standard tables.

Keywords: Load estimation, Algorithm, Air-conditioner, Software, Validation.

Introduction and physical processes in industries, (Shan,

2000). In the most general sense, air
Air-conditioning is the process of conditioning can refer to any form of
altering the properties of air (primarily technology, heating, cooling, de-
temperature and humidity) to achieve humidification, humidification, cleaning,
favourable conditions, typically with the aim of ventilation, or air movement that modifies the
distributing the conditioned air to an occupied condition of air, (Jones, 2001). Technically, the
space to improve comfort (Jones, 1997). The air-conditioning process involves controlling
air-conditioning system is a mechanical system some parameter of factors that describe the
which has been applied in supplying a atmospheric conditions such as its purity,
controlled atmospheric condition to various humidity of the air within some specifications
housing units such as include; offices, living indicated during the design of an air-
rooms, lecture theatres, industries and other conditioning system, (Jones, 1985). It is a
dwelling units (Stoecker and Jones, 1982). Air- mechanism designed to change the air
conditioners could be used to facilitate the temperature and humidity within an area as
comfort of humans and for the proper shown in Fig. 1).
regulations and performance of some chemical

Fig. 1: Schematic of window type air conditioning system, (ASHRAE, 2001).

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There is necessity of installing air-conditioners equipment, lighting levels, comfort ranges,

due to the intense heat generated in residential ventilations and space specific needs.
and non-residential buildings as a result of
variation in climatic condition. Load estimation Cooling Load Estimation Techniques
for the installation prior to installation of an To design an efficient and effective air
air-conditioning system is very important in conditioning system, the load must first be
order to have optimal performance of the calculated using established techniques. The
system in usage. Load estimating in air- various methods in use are given as follows:
conditioning system installation has been (a) Total Equivalent Temperature Difference
carried out manually in many developing (TETD).
countries especially in Nigeria. There are a lot (b) Cooling load Temperature Difference/
Cooling Load Factor. (CLTD/CLF).
of time wastage, stress, and some calculations
errors that would be incurred in carrying out (c) Transfer Function Method (TFM).
the load estimate manually for a more complex (d) Heat Balance (HB) and Radiant Time
structure. Hence, the automation of the whole Series (RTS).
complicated process through the use of a (e) Manual J Method for Residential
Computer-Aided Design Software is expedient Applications and Manual method for
in reducing the errors that will be involved and Commercial Buildings:
in speeding-up the process. In order to achieve These methods are simplified versions,
this fit, an Object-Oriented approach was used jointly developed by Air-conditioning
herein to develop the software. This involves contractors of America (ACCA) and Air
the use of Microsoft Visual C#, with a more conditioning and Refrigeration Institute.
intuitive and interactive graphical user interface These different methods may yield different
results for the same input data. This is
(GUI) through which the user key in all the
parameters necessary for load estimation is primarily due to the way each method handles
done at the click of a button. The developed the solar effect and building dynamics. But in
software is named Air-conditioner Load true sense all the above approaches attempts to
Estimator (ALE). consider the fundamental principle that heat
flow rates are not instantaneously converted to
Cooling and heating load calculations should loads and heat addition or extraction incident
normally be made for heating, ventilating, and upon the building do not immediately result in
air-conditioning systems (HVAC) and their a change in temperature. Thermally heavy
components (Ansari et al, 2005). In principle, buildings can effectively delay the cooling or
the loads are calculated to maintain the indoor heating load for several hours. Most designers
design conditions. The first step in load use the TETD and CLTD methods because
calculation is to establish the design criteria for these methods give component loads and tend
the project which involves a consideration of to predict load on the conservative side. For
the building concept, construction materials, strictly manual cooling loads calculation
occupancy patterns, density, available method, the most practical to use is the
CLTD/CLF method.
and interior-load-dominated. The envelope heat
Materials and Methods flows are termed “external loads”, in that they
originate with the external environment. The
Accurate load estimates are important other loads are termed “internal loads”, in that
prerequisites of a good air-conditioning system they are generated from within the building
design. Ultimate system performance also itself.
depends on the proper system selections and is
based on a reasonable load estimates. Building
can be classified as envelope-load-dominated

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I. Non-Residential Buildings Cooling Load for the Wall ( ) and 4.6W for 12mm
Estimation thick Glass window ( ), (ASHRAE, 2011).
Generally, the load components for Hence, the Summation of the sensible loads for
estimating load capacity in air-conditioning the wall, roof and the glass window could be
system for a building are identified as follow: obtained.
External Loads: External loads consist of the b. Partitions, Ceiling & Floors: The equation
following:- to calculate the cooling load due to
a. Sensible loads through opaque envelope partitions, ceiling and floors is as given in
assemblies (i.e. due to roofs, walls, floors) (2)
b. Sensible loads through transparent or (2)
translucent envelope assemblies (i.e. due to U Thermal Transmittance for roof or wall or
skylights, windows, glazed openings) glass (ASHRAE, 2001).
c. Sensible loads through ventilation and A area of partition, ceiling or floor calculated
infiltration (i.e. due to air leakage) from building plans
d. Latent loads through ventilation and Outside design temperature
infiltration. Inside design temperature of conditioned
Sensible Heat Gain is the heat flowing into the space (assumed constant)
building by conduction through exterior walls, The U-values used in this research work
floors, ceilings, doors and windows due to the according to ASHRAE, (2011) include:
temperature difference on their two sides; heat 1.47 W for partitions, 0.62 W for
received from solar radiation directly through ceiling for floor
glass of windows, ventilators or doors and the and are measured using a thermometer.
heat absorbed by walls and roofs; he heat given c. Ventilation & Infiltration Air: Ventilation
off by lights; the heat liberated by the and Infiltration air is the amount of outdoor
occupants and the heat carried by the outside air required to maintain Indoor Air Quality
air as result of infiltration and ventilation for the occupants (ASHRAE, 2001) and
through the cracks in doors, windows, chairs, makeup for air leaving the space due to
book-shelves etc and through their frequent equipment exhaust, ex-filtration and
openings. pressurization while Infiltration air is the
Latent Heat Gain is the heat gain due to amount of unconditioned air entering the
moisture in the outside air entering by conditioned space due to opening of some
infiltration and ventilation and the heat gain space. The equation to calculate the cooling
due to condensation of moisture from load due to ventilation and infiltration air is
occupants. as given in (3)
In respect of the external load mentioned above (3)
the sensible load could be calculated in term of where:
various components of non-residential building ACH Ventilation airflow rate/Volumetric air
as follows: flow rate calculated as air change per hour
a. Roofs, External Walls & Conduction d. Solar Load Through Glass: The equation to
through Glass: The equation to calculate calculate the cooling load due to radiant
the cooling load due roofs, walls and the sensible loads from the
conductions through glass is as given in (1) transparent/translucent elements such as
(1) window glass, skylights and plastic sheets
where: is as given in (4)
U is the thermal Transmittance for roof or wall (4)
or glass, A is the area of roof, wall or glass where:
calculated from building plans, CLTD is the A = area of roof, wall or glass calculated from
Cooling Load Temperature Difference for roof, building plans
walls, or glass, (ASHRAE, 2011). SHGC Solar Heat Gain Coefficient.
The Thermal Transmittance used in this work CLF Solar Cooling Load Factor.
is 0.62W for the Roof ( ),
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Q is in kW a. People: The equation to calculate the

In this research work, the Solar Heat Gain cooling load due to people is given as in (5)
Capacity of the glass under consideration is and (6):
taken as 0.65, (ASHRAE, 2011; Duffie and (5)
Backman, 1980; and Kreith and Kreider, 1978), (6)
while the Solar Cooling Load Factor is chosen N number of people in space.
based on the direction being faced by the glass. , Sensible and Latent Head Load of
Internal Loads: Internal cooling loads consist Occupancy.
of the following:- CLF Cooling Load Factor, by hour of
a. Sensible and latent loads due to people occupancy.
b. Sensible loads due to lighting CLF 1.0, if operation is 24 hours of cooling
c. Sensible loads due to power loads and Table 1 gives the value of the Sensible Heat
motors (elevators, pumps, fans & other Gain and the Latent Heat Gain for several
machinery) activities of people.
d. Sensible & latent loads due to appliances
The equations used in estimating internal
cooling loads in term of non-residential
buildings components are:

Table 1: Sensible Heat Gain (SHG) and Latent Heat Gain (LHG) in respect of human activities
S/N Activities SHG (Watt) LHG (Watt)
1 Seated at rest 60 40
2 Seated, very light work, writing 65 55
3 Seated , eating 75 95
4 Seated, light work, typing 75 75
5 Standing, light work, walking, slowly. 90 95
6 Light bench work 100 130
7 Light machine work 100 205
8 Heavy work 165 305
9 Moderate dancing 120 255
10 Athletics 185 340
Source: ASHRAE, 2011.

Since the space temperature is not maintained number of light presently installed. The Blast
constant during the 24 hours period, then the factor allowance (FBF) is 1 for compact
Cooling Load Factor (CLF) is 1. fluorescent Light (CFL) and 1.2 for ordinary
b. Electric `Lights: The equation to calculate fluorescent tube.
the cooling load due to Electric lights is c. Appliances: The equation to calculate the
given as in (7): cooling load due to appliances is given as
(7) in (8):
W Installed lamp watts input from electrical (8)
lighting plan or lighting load data W Installed rating of appliances in watts
FUT Lighting utilization factor according to the manufacturer’s data.
FBF Blast factor allowance, as appropriate Usage factor.
CLF Cooling Load Factor, by hour of Radiation factor.
occupancy. For this research, the Cooling Load CLF Cooling Load Factor, by hour of
Factor is 1. occupancy.
The Wattage is determined by looking at the For the sake of this research work, the Cooling
current rating of the lamp and multiplying that load factor for heavy equipment is taken as
with the standard voltage (240 V). The Light 0.16 while for light equipment is taken as 0.12,
Utilization factor (FUT) is calculated as the (ASHRAE, 2011).
ratio of the light current in use to the total

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Total Loads Multi-dwelling Unit (MDU): Unlike single-

The total load is the summation of family detached units, multifamily units by
external and internal load. Usually 10% safety definition do not have exposed surfaces facing
margin is added. The final load is then used to in all directions. Rather, each unit has only one
size the HVAC equipment. or two exposed surfaces and possibly a roof.
Two exposed walls will be at right angles, and
II. Residential Building Cooling Load both east and west will not be exposed in a
Estimation given living unit. Each living unit has a single
There are two main types of building unitary cooling system or a single fan-coil unit,
that were considered when estimating air- and the rooms are relatively open to one
conditional loads for residential buildings: another. This configuration does not have the
Single-family Unit (SFU): A house in this same load-leveling effects as single-family
category usually has exposed walls in four units, but is not a commercial building.
directions, often more than one story, and a In other to calculate the cooling loads for
roof. The cooling system is single-zone, residential buildings, the following loads
Unitary system with a single thermostat, Two- sources are considered:
story houses may have a separate cooling (a) Glass and Windows Area: The equation to
system for each floor. The rooms are calculate the cooling load due to glass and
reasonably open and generally have a windows is given as in (9):
centralized air return. In this configuration, (9)
both air and load from rooms are mixed, and a where:
load-leveling effect, which requires a GLF is the glass load factor and A is the
distribution of air to each room that is different summation of the areas in the different
from a pure commercial system, results. directions (N, NE, SE etc). Table 2 gives the
Because the amount of air supplied to each glass loads factors assuming that the maximum
room is based on the loads for that room, temperature of 43 is attained in a day also
proper load calculation procedures must be with reference to the type of glass (single,
used. double etc).

Table 2: Glass-Load Factor for Residential Buildings

Direction Single Glass Double Glass Heat Absorbing Triple Glass
Double Glass
N 91 73 63 47
NE & NW 126 104 91 82
E&W 155 132 117 110
SE & SW 145 123 107 98
S 114 95 82 69
Source: ASHRAE, 2011.

(b) Doors: The equation to calculate the

cooling load for doors is as follows: where:
(10) is the U-factor for wall and given as 1.61
where: W/ K (ASHRAE, 2011), A is the area in
is the Transmittance/U-factor for door and square meters while the CTLD is as given in
A is the door area with respect to orientation. Table 3.
is taken as 1.87 W/ K (ASHRAE, 2011). (d) Partitions to Unconditioned Space: The
The Cooling Load Temperature difference equation to calculate the cooling load due
(CTLD) used is given as in Table 3. to Partitions to Unconditioned Space in
(c) External Walls: The equation to calculate considering temperature difference across
the cooling load due to external wall is as the partition is as given in (12):
given in (11): (12)
(11) where:
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is the U-factor for partitions, A is area. (16)

is taken as 1.47 W/ K (ASHRAE, 2011).
(e) Ceiling and Roofs: The equation to where:
calculate the cooling load due to ceiling and Q is the volumetric airflow rate ( /s), ACH is
roofs is as given in (13): the air exchange rate. The value of ACH is
(13) taken as the average of the medium, tight and
where: loose condition values considered in ASHRAE,
is the U-factor, 0.62 W/ K (ASHRAE, 2011. ACH is taken as 0.573.
2011) for roofs and ceiling, A is the area in (g) Occupancy: The equation to calculate the
square meters while the CLTD is the cooling cooling load due to occupant is as given in
load temperature difference. CLTD value is as (17) and (18):
given in Table 3. Sensible heat gain, Sensible heat gain
(f) Exposed Floors: The equation to calculate factor, Number of occupants, N (17)
the cooling load due to exposed floors is as Latent heat gain, Latent heat gain factor,
given in (14): Number of occupants, N (18)
(14) Generally, the cooling load due to one person
Where: in a room is taken as 67 W (ASHRAE, 2011),
is the U-factor for floor, A is area and N is the number of occupant in a room.
CLTD is as given in Table 3. Hence, the total load can be calculated as
Infiltration: The equation to calculate the Latent Load Factor (1.17) Sum of the
cooling load due to infiltration effect is as individual sensible load calculated.
given in (15) and (16):
(15)

Table 3: Cooling Load Temperature Difference for Different Sources for SFU Building and MDU
Walls and Doors Walls and Doors Roofs & Ceilings Roofs & Ceiling Exposed Floors
(SFU) (MDU) (Single family ) (Multi-family)
North-13 N-18 31 43 11
NE & NW-16 NE-20
E & W-18 E-26
SE &SW-17 SE-26
S-14 S-24
SW-32
W-35
NW-28
Source: ASHRAE, 2011.

Table 3 present the CLTD for different sections I and II were implemented through
components of the different types of residential software developed herein. The software called
building, NE and NW represents North-East air-conditioner load estimator was developed
and North-West respectively, E and W using visual C# 2012 integrated development
represents East and the West respectively, SE emolument (IDE)
and SW represents South-East and South-West When the software is triggered a welcome
respectively and S represents South. audio sound and a graphical user interface
(GUI) showing several buttons textboxes and
Software Implementation pictures explaining the functions of each
window in the tab panel is launched. Fig. 2
The formulae needed for determining shows the main features of the login and home
the cooling load for non-residential and page of the software.
residential building compile discussed in

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Fig. 2: Air-conditioner Load Estimator Software Login Page.

Basically, the software is divided into two cooling loads. There are five input interfaces
major interfaces windows according to its for non-residential building cooling load
functionality: These are the non-residential and estimation namely: Roof, External Walls and
the residential building cooling load estimation Glass Panel GUI, Building occupancy GUI,
input interfaces. Both interfaces contain details Ventilation, Partition, Ceiling and Floor GUI,
of the input to be supplied by the user to Light and Equipment GUI and Solar GUI.
facilitate determination of the respective

Fig. 3: Building Occupancy GUI for non-residential building CLC.

Fig. 4: Ventilation, Partition, Ceiling and Floor GUI for non-residential building CLC.
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Also, for residential building cooling load Externals Walls GUI, Partitions of
estimation, there are eight input interfaces Unconditioned Space GUI, Ceiling and Roofs
namely: Glass and Windows GUI, Doors GUI, GUI, Exposed Roof GUI, Infiltrations GUI and
Building Occupancy GUI.

Fig. 5: Building Occupancy GUI for residential building CLC.

Fig. 6: Ceiling and Roofs GUI for residential building CLC.

As an example, see Figures 3 and 4 for the input information relating to the loads starting
building occupancy GUI and Ventilation, from the roof, external wall and conduction
Partition, Ceiling and Floor GUI for non- through glass are entered by the user and the
residential building cooling load calculation computation is done after the user must have
(CLC) respectively. clicked the compute key, i.e. the corresponding
Also, Figures 5 and 6 show the building load is computed.
occupancy GUI and Ceiling and Roofs GUI for If there are other information relating to the
residential building CLC respectively. load due to occupancy, ventilation, partition
Generally, the air-conditioner cooling load and ceiling floors etc and the user enters this
estimator prompted the user for a password. information, then the total load due to these
Immediately, the user launched it and if the sources are computed and displayed in the grid
user enters the correct password the home page layout (see Fig. 7). Some values will be
of the software opens. Thereafter, the relevant provided by the user and entered into the
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appropriate fields and the total load will be calculating the loads manually.
computed and compared with the results of

Fig. 7: Computed loads.

Results and Discussions load estimator software. Also, manual

calculations were used to estimate the cooling
Three set of data were obtained and loads for the buildings in respect of the data.
utilized to test run the developed software. Results show that the cooling load estimates
These data could be categorized into three obtained from the software are in agreement
cases. Data for case 1 provided on Table 4 and with those obtained from manual calculation
5 was obtained from a residential building. The using the assembled formulae (see Table 8, 9
data on Table 6 were obtained from a non- and 10). Also, it was observed that while it
residential building and is used as case 2. took the software about 95 seconds (1.583
Another set of data given on Table 7 was also minutes) to execute the load estimation for a
obtained from school of Engineering and building, on the average, it to approximately 80
Engineering Technology, FUTA conference minutes to do the same for manual calculation.
room. This is case 3 which can also be This implies that the software possesses a
categorized under non-residential building. The productivity which is approximately 50.5 times
three sets of data were used to estimate cooling in comparison to manual calculation
load for the building using the air-conditioner .

Table 4: Data set 1 for case 1- Residential Building

Direction Glass and Doors External Partitions of Ceiling & Exposed
Windows ( Walls ( Unconditioned Roofs ( Floors (
( Space (
North- Facing 12 3.5 12 13 12 12

West-Facing 12 4 12 6.5 12 12

South-Facing 12 4 12 6 12 12

East-Facing 12 3 12 7.5 12 12

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Table 5: Data set 2 for case 1- Residential Building

Infiltration Loads Occupancy/Internal Building Type Temperature (⁰C)
Loads
Room Width = 12m Population = 3 Single family Internal Temperature = 25

Room Height = 4m External Temperature = 27-35

Room Length = 12m

Table 6: Data set for case 2- Non-Residential Buildings

Cooling Load Source Information (Area, direction…) for 1600 hr of
measurement.
Roof Area = 12
Glass Area = 12
External Wall(North) Area = 5
External Wall(South) Area = 5
Occupancy Person Seated ate rest = 2
Persons standing and walking slowly = 2

Partitions Area = 3
Ceiling Area = 12
Expose Floor Area = 12
Light and Equipment Apartment = Heavy e.g. Conference, CFL: Total = 8,
in use = 4, Total Wattage = 9600W.
Total Number of Equipment = 4, heavy = 2 (washing
machine and fridge), medium = 2 (bread toaster and
grinder).
Solar(North) Area = 12 , Glass State = Closed
Solar(South) Area = 12 , Glass State = Closed

Table 7: Data set for case 3- School of Engineering Building Conference Room.

CONFERENCE ROOM INFORMATION OF THE SEET BUILDING

Cooling Load Source Information (Area, direction) for 1300 hr of measurement.
Roof Area = 8 * 5
Glass(Window) Area =
For 8 glasses we have:0.96 * 8 = 7.68
External Wall(North) Area = (8*4)-(7.68) = 32.32 , i.e. the area of the side of the external
wall facing the northern direction – area of the window glass.
External Wall(East) Area = 5
Occupancy The number of chairs in the conference room is 40 and hence, the
number of persons estimated to be seated in the room is given as 40,
and it is most likely that there would be one person making a formal
presentation hence, the total number of persons available is summed
up to 41, and an excess of 43 for the sake of an expected error margin.
Summarily, 42 persons will be seated and probably talking and
writing, while 1 person will be standing, walking and talking.
Partitions There are no partitions
Ceiling Area = 40
Expose Floor Area = 40
Light and Equipment Apartment type =Conference room which corresponds to medium
type, CFL: Total = 9, in use = 9, Total Wattage = 30W * 9 = 270W.
Total Number of Equipment = 5, heavy = 1(projector/165W); medium
= 4 (fans/100W per one ); Wattage for projector = 165Watts ;Wattage
for all Fans = 400Watts
Solar(North) for glass Area = 7.68 , Glass State = Closed
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Table 8: Result of Load Estimation for case 1

Load Glass and Door External Partitio Ceiling/ Expose Infiltrati Occupancy Total
sources Windows Loads Wall n Roof d Floor on Loads Load(Watts) Loads
Load (Watts) Loads Loads Loads Loads (Watts) (Watts)
(Watts) (Watts) (Watts) (Watts) (Watts)
ALE 6180 425.425 1262.52 145.53 922.56 327.36 3300.048 201 11258.54
Estimated
Load
(Watts)
Manuals 6180 425.425 1262.52 145.53 922.56 327.36 3300.048 201 11258.54
Estimate
Load
(Watts)

Table 9: Result of Load Estimation for case 2

Load Sources Roof, Occupancy Ventilation, Light and Solar Total
External Partition, Other Estimated
Wall and Ceiling and Equipment Load
Conduction Floor
through
Glass
ALE 851.17 570 129.078 16368 1171.8 19538.718
Estimated
Load (Watts)
Manuals 851.17 570 129.078 16368 1171.8 19538.718
Estimate Load
(Watts)

Table 10: Result of Load Estimation for case 3

Load Sources Roof, Occupancy Ventilation, Light and Solar Total
External Partition, Other Estimated
Wall and Ceiling and Equipment Load
Conduction Floor
through
Glass
ALE 1768.9184 5225 386.16 767.34548 345.6 8493.02388
Estimated
Load (Watts)
Manuals 1768.9184 5225 386.16 767.34548 345.6 8493.02388
Estimate Load
(Watts)

The value of the total load obtained in case 1 is capacity of the air-conditioning system for case
11258.54 Watts, case 2 is 19538.718 Watts and 1 is 15 hp, case 2 is 25 hp and case 3 is 10 hp.
also in case 3 is 8493.02388 Watts. The actual

Conclusion software implementation of the air-conditioner

load estimator, ALE has been validated and
This study had compiled and assembled hence, the air-conditioner loads for various
equations necessary for the determination of buildings (both residential and non-residential
cooling load estimated of residential and non- can be determined. Important values and
residential building. The equations have been information can be keyed into the software and
used to develop software called ALE for on the click of a button, cooling loads can be
cooling load estimation of the building. The estimated.
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