Lesson 1 Principles of Soil Erosion

2.1 Causes of Soil Erosion

No single unique cause can be held responsible for soil erosion or assumed as the main
cause for this problem. There are many underlying factors responsible for this process,
some induced by nature and others by human being. The main causes of soil erosion
can be enumerated as:
(1) Destruction of Natural Protective Cover by

(i) indiscriminate cutting of trees,

(ii) overgrazing of the vegetative cover and

(iii) forest fires.

(2) Improper Use of the Land

(i) keeping the land barren subjecting it to the action of rain and wind,

(ii) growing of crops that accelerate soil erosion,

(iii) removal of organic matter and plant nutrients by injudicious cropping patterns,

(iv) cultivation along the land slope, and

(v) faulty methos of irrigation.

2.2 Types of Soil Erosion

2.2.1 According to Origin: Soil erosion can broadly be categorized into two types i.e.
geologic erosion and accelerated erosion.
2.2.2 Geological Erosion: Under natural undisturbed conditions an equilibrium is
established between the climate of a place and the vegetative cover that protects the soil
layer. Vegetative covers like trees and forests retard the transportation of soil material
and act as a check against excessive erosion. A certain amount of erosion, however,
does take place even under the natural cover. This erosion, called geologic erosion, is a
slow process and is compensated by the formation of soil under the natural weathering
process. Its effect are not of much consequence so far as agricultural lands are
concerned.
2.2.3 Accelerated Erosion: When land is put under cultivation, the natural balance
existing between the soil, its vegetation cover and climate is disturbed. Under such
condition, the removal of surface soil due to natural agencies takes places at faster rate
than it can be built by the soil formation process. Erosion occurring under these
condition is referred to as accelerated erosion. Its rates are higher than geological
erosion. Accelerated erosion depletes soil fertility in agricultural land.
2.2.4 According to Erosion Agents: Soil erosion is broadly categorized into different
types depending on the agent which triggers the erosion activity. Mentioned below are
the four main types of soil erosion.
(1) Water Erosion: Water erosion is seen in many parts of the world. In fact,
running water is the most common agent of soil erosion. This includes rivers which
erode the river basin, rainwater which erodes various landforms, and the sea waves
which erode the coastal areas. Water erodes and transports soil particles from higher
altitude and deposits them in low lying areas. Water erosion may further be classified,
based on different actions of water responsible for erosion, as : (i) raindrop erosion, (ii)
sheet erosion, (iii) rill erosion, (iv) gully erosion, (v) stream bank erosion, and (vi) slip
erosion.
(2) Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is most often witnessed in dry areas wherein strong
winds brush against various landforms, cutting through them and loosening the soil
particles, which are lifted and transported towards the direction in which the wind
blows. The best example of wind erosion are sand dunes and mushroom rocks
structures, typically found in deserts.
(3) Glacial Erosion: Glacial erosion, also referred to as ice erosion, is common in
cold regions at high altitudes. When soil comes in contact with large moving glaciers, it
sticks to the base of these glaciers. This is eventually transported with the glaciers, and
as they start melting it is deposited in the course of the moving chunks of ice.
(4) Gravitational Erosion: Although gravitational erosion is not as common a
phenomenon as water erosion, it can cause huge damage to natural, as well as man-
made structures. It is basically the mass movement of soil due to gravitational force.
The best examples of this are landslides and slumps. While landslides and slumps
happen within seconds, phenomena such as soil creep take a longer period for
occurrence.
2.3 Agents of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the detachment of soil from its original location and transportation to a
new location. Mainly water is responsible for this erosion although in many locations
wind, glaciers are also the agents causing soil erosion. Water in the form of rain, flood
and runoff badly affects the soil. Soil is in fact a composite of sand, silt and clay. When
the rain falls along the mountains and bare soil, the water detaches the soil particles,
and takes away the silt and clay particles along with the flowing water. Similarly, when
wind blows in the form of storms, its speed becomes too high to lift off the entire soil
upper layer and causes soil erosion.
Other factors responsible for soil erosion are human and animal activities. Vegetation is
the natural cover of soil. When the animals continuously graze in the pastures, the
vegetation is removed due to their walking and grazing. Bare lands left behind are
easily affected by soil erosion. Activities of human like forest cutting, increased
agriculture, and clearing of land for different purposes are the other agents that cause
erosion of the soil. The soil erosion agent can be classified and summarized as shown in
Fig. 2.1.

Fig. 2.1. Soil erosion agents, processes and effects. (Sources: Das, 2000)

2.4 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion

Soil erosion includes the processes of detachment of soil particles from the soil mass
and subsequent transport and deposition of those soil/sediment particles. The main
factors responsible for soil erosion, in India, are excessive deforestation, overgrazing
and faulty agricultural practices. Soil erosion is a very complicated problem as many
complex factors affect the rate of erosion and therefore it is difficult to solve. These
factors include:
1. Climatic Factor: The climatic factors that influence erosion are rainfall amount,
intensity, and frequency. During the periods of frequent or continuous rainfall, high soil
moisture or saturated field conditions are developed, a greater percentage of the rainfall
is converted into runoff. This in turn results in soil detachment and transport causing
erosion at high rate.
2. Temperature: While frozen soil is highly resistant to erosion, rapid thawing of
the soil surface brought about by warm rains can lead to serious erosion. Temperature
also influences the type of precipitation. Although falling snow does not cause erosion,
heavy snow melts in spring can cause considerable runoff damage. Temperature also
influences the amount of organic matter that get collected on the ground surface and get
incorporated with the topsoil layer. Areas with warmer climates have thinner organic
cover on the soil. Organic matter cover on the surface protects the soil by shielding it
from the impact of falling rain and helping in the infiltration of rainfall that would
otherwise cause more runoff. Organic matter inside the soil increases permeability of
the soil to cause more percolation and reduce runoff.
3. Topographical Factors: Among the topographical factors, slope length,
steepness and roughness affect erodibility. Generally, longer slope increases the
potential for erosion. The greatest erosion potential is at the base of the slope, where
runoff velocity is the greatest and runoff concentrates. Slope steepness, along with
surface roughness, and the amount and intensity of rainfall control the speed at which
runoff flows down a slope. The steeper the slope, the faster the water will flow. The
faster it flows, the more likely it will cause erosion and increase sedimentation. Slope
accelerates erosion as it increases the velocity of flowing water. Small differences in
slope make big difference in damage. According to the laws of hydraulics, four times
increase in slope doubles the velocity of flowing water. This doubled velocity can
increase the erosive power four times and the carrying (sediment) capacity by 32 times.
4. Soil: Physical characteristics of soil have a bearing on erodibility. Soil properties
influencing erodibility include texture, structure and cohesion. Texture refers to the size
or combination of sizes of the individual soil particles. Three broad size classifications,
ranging from small to large are clay, silt, and sand. Soil having a large amount of silt-
sized particles is most susceptible to erosion from both wind and water. Soil with clay
or sand-sized particles is less prone to erosion.
Structure refers to the degree to which soil particles are clumped together, forming
larger clumps and pore spaces. Structure influences both the ability of the soil to absorb
water and its physical resistance to erosion. Another property is the cohesion which
refers to the binding force between the soil particles and it influences the structure.
When moist, the individual soil particles in a cohesive soil cling together to form a
doughy consistency. Clay soils are very cohesive, while sand soils are the least
cohesive.
5. Vegetation: Vegetation is probably the most important physical factor
influencing soil erosion. A good cover of vegetation shields the soil from the impact of
raindrops. It also binds the soil together, making it more resistant to runoff. A
vegetative cover provides organic matter, slows down runoff, and filters sediment. On a
graded slope, the condition of vegetative cover will determine whether erosion will be
stopped or only slightly halted. A dense, robust cover of vegetation is one of the best
protections against soil erosion.
6. Biological Factors of Soil Erosion: Biological factors that influence the soil
erosion are the activities like faulty cultivation practices, overgrazing by animals etc.
These factors may be broadly classified into following three groups:(i) Energy factors,
(ii) Resistance factors, and (iii) protection factors.
(i) Energy Factors: They include such factors which influence the potential ability
of rainfall, runoff and wind to cause erosion. This ability is termed as erosivity. The
other factors which directly reduce the power of erosive agents are reduction in
length/degree of slope through the construction of terraces and bunds in case of water
eroded areas and creation of wind breaks or shelter belts in case of wind eroded areas.
(ii) Resistance Factors: They are also called erodibility factors which depend upon
the mechanical and chemical properties of the soil. Those factors which enhance the
infiltration of water into the soil reduce runoff and decrease erodibility, while any
activity that pulverizes the soil increases erodibility. Thus, cultivation may decrease the
erodibility of clay soils but increases that of sandy soil.
(iii) Protection Factors: This primarily focuses on the factors related to plant cover.
Plant cover protects the soil from erosion by intercepting the rainfall and reducing the
velocity of runoff and wind. Degree of protection provided by different plant covers
varies considerably. Therefore, it is essential to know the rate of soil erosion under
different land uses, degrees of length and slope, and vegetative covers so that
appropriate land use can be selected for each piece of land to control the rate of soil
erosion. The quantity of soil moved past a point is called soil loss. It is usually
expressed in unit of mass or volume per unit time per unit area.

2.5 Mechanics of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is initiated by detachment of soil particles due to action of rain. The
detached particles are transported by erosion agents from one place to another and
finally get settled at some place leading to soil erosion process. Different soil erosion
processes are shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2. Process of water erosion by the impact of raindrops.

Mechanics of soil erosion due to water and wind is discussed below.

2.5.1 Mechanics of Water Erosion

There are three steps for accelerated erosion by water:

i) Detachment or loosening of soil particles caused by flowing water, freezing and
thawing of the top soil, and/or the impact of falling raindrops, ii) Transportation of soil
particles by floating, rolling, dragging, and/or splashing and iii) Deposition of
transported particles at some places of lower elevation.

Rain enhances the translocation of soil through the process of splashing as shown in
Fig.2.2. Individual raindrops detach soil aggregates and redeposit them as particles. The
dispersed particles may then plug soil pores, reducing water intake (infiltration). Once
the soil dries, these particles develop into a crust at the soil surface and runoff is further
increased.
2.5.2 Mechanics of Wind Erosion

Wind erosion occurs where soil is exposed to the dislodging force of wind. The
intensity of wind erosion varies with surface roughness, slope and types of cover on the
soil surface and wind velocity, duration and angle of incidence. Fine soil particles can
be carried to great heights and for (may be) hundreds of kilometers. The overall
occurrence of wind erosion could be described in three different phases. These are
initiation of movement, transportation and deposition.
1. Initiation of Movement: The initiation of the movement of soil particles is
caused by several factors acting separately in combination. In the course of collision of
grains rolling and bumping on the surface, some particles may be bounced up. It occurs
when the wind force or the impact of moving particles is strong enough to dislodge
stationary soil particles.
2. Transportation: The transportation of the particles once they are dislodged take
place in three ways:
i) Saltation – In saltation soil particles of medium size (0.10-0.15 mm diameter) are
carried by wind in a series of short bounces. These bounces are caused by the direct
pressure of the wind on soil particles.
ii) Soil Creep – saltation also encourages soil creep (rolling or sliding) along the
surface of the particles (0.5-1.0 mm diameter). The bouncing particles carried by
saltation strike the large aggregates and speed up their movement along the surface.
iii) Suspension – When the particles of soil are very small (less than 0.1 mm) they
are carried over long distances. Finer suspended particles are moved parallel to the
ground surface and upward.
3. Deposition: Deposition of the particles occurs when the gravitational force is
greater than the forces holding the particles in air. Deposition could occur when the
wind velocity is decreased due to surface obstructions or other natural causes.
 Lesson : Erosion Due to Water

Erosion of soil by water is caused by its two forms: liquid as the flowing water, and
solid as the glaciers.
3.1 Forms of Water Erosion

The impact of rainfall causes splash erosion. Runoff water causes scraping and
transport of soil particles leading to sheet, rill and gully erosion. Water waves cause
erosion of bank sides of reservoirs, lakes and oceans. The subsurface runoff causes soil
erosion in the form of pipe erosion, which is also called tunnel erosion. The glacial
erosion causes heavy landsides. In India, glacial erosions are mainly confined to
Himalayan regions. The various forms of water erosion are given below.
3.1.1 Hydraulic Action: The hydraulic action takes place when water runs over the soil
surface compressing the soil, as a result of which the air present in the voids exerts a
pressure on the soil particles and this leads to the soil detachment. The pressure exerted
by the air voids is called hydraulic pressure. The soil particles so detached from their
places, are scoured by the running water. The hydraulic action is more effective when
the soil is in loose condition.
3.1.2 Abrasion: Soil particles mixed with the running water create an abrasive power in
the water which increases the capacity of flowing water to scour more soil particles.
Due to this effect, larger soil particles are eroded by the flowing water.
3.1.3 Attrition: This form includes mechanical breakdown of loads running along the
moving water due to collision of particles with each other. The broken particles are
moved along with the flow velocity, which generate abrasion effect on the bottom and
banks of the water course. This effect pronounces the water erosion.
3.1.4 Solution: This form is associated with the chemical action between running water
and soil or country rocks. This type condition is observed in areas where existing rocks
or soils are easily dissolved in the running water.
3.1.5 Transportation: The process of soil transportation by running water is completed
under the following forms:
1) Solution: the water soluble contents present in the water are transported by the
water in solution form.
2) Suspension: it involves the transportation of finer soil particles, which are
present in suspension form in the flowing water.
3) Saltation and Surface Creep: it involves transportation of medium size soil
particles that are not able to stand in suspension form, but are mixed in water and flow
over the stream bed in the form of mud. The surface creep action is responsible for
transporting the coarser soil particles.

3.2 Factors Affecting Water Erosion

Water erosion is due to dispersive and transporting power of the water; as in case of
water erosion first soil particles are detached from the soil surface by the raindrop force
and then transported with surface runoff. There is a direct relationship between the soil
loss and surface runoff volume. The water erosion process is influenced primarily by
climate, topography, soils and vegetative cover. The factors influencing the water
erosion are discussed below.
3.2.1 Climatic Factors: Climate includes rainfall, temperature and wind. The
frequency, intensity and duration of rainfall are the principal aspects of rainfall
influencing the volume of runoff, erosion and sediment (potential) from a given area.
As the volume and intensity of rainfall increase, the ability of water to detach and
transport soil particles increases. When storms are frequent, intense, and of long
duration, the potential for erosion of bare soils is high. Temperature has a major
influence on soil erosion. Frozen soils are relatively erosion resistant. However, bare
soils with high moisture content are subject to uplift or “spew” by freezing action and
are usually easily eroded upon thawing. Wind contributes to the drying of soil and
increases the need for irrigation for new plantings and for applying wind erosion
control practices.
3.2.2 Soil Characteristics: Soil characteristics include texture, structure, organic matter
content and permeability. In addition, in many situations, compaction is significant.
These characteristics greatly determine the erodibility of soil. Soils containing high
percentages of sand and silt are the most susceptible to detachment because they lack
inherent cohesive characteristics. However, the high infiltration rates of sands either
prevent or delay runoff except where overland flow is concentrated. Clearly, well-
graded and well-drained sands are usually the least erodible soils in the context of sheet
and rill erosion. Clay and organic matter act as a binder to soil particles, thus reducing
erodibility. As the clay and organic matter content of soils increase, the erodibility
decreases. However, while clays have a tendency to resist erosion, they are easily
transported by water once detached. Soils high in organic matter resist raindrop impact,
and the organic matter also increases the binding characteristics of the soil. Sandy and
silty soils on slopes are highly susceptible to gully erosion where flow concentrates
because they lack inherent cohesiveness. Small clay particles, referred to as colloids,
resist the action of gravity and remain in suspension for long periods of time. Colloids
are potentially a major contributor to turbidity where they exist.
3.2.3 Vegetation Cover: Vegetative cover is an extremely important factor in reducing
erosion at a site. It absorbs energy of raindrops, binds soil particles, slows down the
velocity of runoff water, increases the ability of a soil to absorb water, removes
subsurface water between rainfall events through the process of evapotranspiration and
reduces off-site fugitive dust. By limiting the amount of vegetation disturbance and the
exposure of soils to erosive elements, soil erosion can be greatly reduced. Vegetations
create a surface obstruction for direct falling of raindrops on the land surface as well as
in the flowing path of surface runoff. A good vegetative cover completely negates the
effect of rainfall on soil erosion.
3.2.4 Topographic Effect: The main topographic factors which influence the soil
erosion are land slope, length of slope and shape of slope. The land slope or slope
inclination affects the erosion predominantly. As the slope increases, the runoff
coefficient, kinetic energy and carrying capacity of surface runoff also increase thereby
decreasing the soil stability. Critical slope length is the slope length at which the soil
erosion begins. It is related to the critical land inclination. Lower the critical inclination
larger will be the critical slope length. The slope shapes have greater bearing on erosion
potential. The base of a slope is more susceptible to erosion than the top, because runoff
has more momentum and is more concentrated as it approaches the base of slope. The
slopes may be roughly convex or concave. On convex slope the above phenomena is
magnified, whereas on concave slope it is reduced. It is because in convex slope, the
steepness increases towards bottom, while it is flattened towards bottom in case of
concave slope.
3.3 Types of Water Erosion

Water erosion can be classified as splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully
erosion, stream bank erosion, sea-shore erosion and land slide erosion. They are
discussed as follows.
3.3.1 Splash Erosion: It is also known as raindrop erosion (Fig. 3.1) because it is
caused by the impact of raindrops on exposed soil surface. The process of raindrop
erosion can be described as: when raindrop strikes on open soil surface it forms a crater.
This is accomplished by forming a blast which bounces the water and soil up and
returns back around the crater. The soil may be splashed into the air up to a height of 50
to 75 cm depending upon the size of rain drops. At the same time the soil particles also
move horizontally as much as 1.50 m on level land surface. On sloping land, more than
half of the splashed particles move down with the runoff.

Fig. 3.1. Splash erosion.

3.3.2 Sheet Erosion: Sheet erosion may be defined as more or less uniform removal of
soil in the form of a thin layer or in “sheet” form by the flowing water form a given
width of sloping land (Fig. 3.2). It is an inconspicuous type of soil erosion because the
total amount of soil removed during any storm is usually small. In the sheet erosion two
basic erosion processes are involved. First process is the one in which soil particles are
detached from the soil surface by falling of raindrop and in the second one the detached
soil particles are transported away by surface runoff from the original place. The
detached process is referred to as the splash erosion and transportation of detached
particles by flowing water is considered as the wash erosion. When the rate of rainfall
exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil, the excess water tends to flow over the surface
of sloping land. This flowing water also detaches soil particles from the land surface
and starts flowing in the form of thin layer over the surface. The erosion during these
processes is called sheet erosion. The eroding and transporting power of sheet flow
depends on the depth and velocity of flowing water for a given size, shape and density
of soil particles.

Fig. 3.2. Sheet erosion.

3.3.3 Rill Erosion: This type of water erosion is formed in the cultivated fields where
the land surface is almost irregular. As the rain starts, the water tends to accumulate in
the surface depressions and begins to flow following least resistance path. During
movement of water large amount of soil particles are eroded from the sides and bottom
of the flow path, which are mixed in the flowing water. This surface flow containing
soil particles in suspension form moves ahead and forms micro channels and rills (Fig.
3.3).
 Fig. 3.3. Rill erosion.

3.3.4 Gully Erosion: Rills are small in size and can be leveled by tillage operations.
When rills get larger in size and shape due to prolonged occurrence of flow through
them and cannot be removed by tillage operation, these are called gullies (Fig. 3.4).
Large gullies and their network are called ravines. It is the advanced and last stage of
water erosion. In other words it is the advanced stage of rill erosion. If the rills that are
formed in the field are overlooked by the farmers, then they tend to increase in their
size and shape with the occurrence of further rainfall. Some of the major causes of
gully erosion are: steepness of land slope, soil texture, rainfall intensity, land
mismanagement, biotic interference with natural vegetation, incorrect agricultural
practices, etc. Gully erosion gets initiated where the longitudinal profile of an alluvial
land becomes too steep due to sediment deposition. Gullies advance due to the removal
of soil by the flowing water at the base of a steep slope, or a cliff at the time of fall of
stream. High intensity of flow of the runoff increases the gully dimensions. In the
absence of proper control measures, slowly the gullies extend to nearby areas and
subsequently engulf the entire region with a network of gullies of various sizes and
shapes.

Fig. 3.4. Gully erosion.

3.3.5 Stream Bank Erosion: Stream bank erosion is defined as the removal of stream
bank soil by water either flowing over the sides of the stream or scouring from there
(Fig.3.5). The stream bank erosion due to stream flow in the form of scouring and
undercutting of the soil below the water surface caused by wave action is a continuous
process in perennial streams. Stream bank erosion is mainly aggravated due to removal
of vegetation, over grazing or cultivation on the area close to stream banks. Stream
bank erosion is also caused by the occurrence of flood in the stream. Apart from
scouring, the sloughing is also a form of stream bank erosion which is caused when the
stream water subsides after reaching the peak. Sloughing is mainly due to movement of
underground water from side into the stream due to pressure difference.

Fig. 3.5. Stream bank erosion.

3.3.6 Sea-shore Erosion: It is also called coastal erosion. Sea shore erosion is the
wearing away of land and the removal of beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal
currents, wave currents, or drainage (Fig. 3.6). Waves, generated by storms, wind or
fast moving motor craft, cause coastal erosion which may take the form of long-term
losses of sediment and rocks, or merely the temporary redistribution of coastal
sediments. It may be caused by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion.

Fig. 3.6. Sea-shore/ coastal erosion.

3.3.7 Landslide Erosion: When gravity combines with heavy rain or earthquakes,
whole slopes can slump, slip or slide (Fig. 3.7). Slips occur when the soil (topsoil and
subsoil) on slopes becomes saturated. Unless held by plant roots to the underlying
surface, it slides downhill, exposing the underlying material.
 Fig. 3.7. Cross-section of landslide characteristics.

4.1 Mechanics of Water Erosion Control

The different geological actions generated by the flowing water over the land surface by which
soil erosion take place may be described as below.

(a) Hydraulic Action: when water runs over the soil surface then it compresses the soil, as a
result the air present in the voids exerts a pressure on the soil particles, which leads to the soil
detachment. The pressure exerted by the air present in the voids is known as hydraulic pressure.
The soil particles detached in this process from their places, are scoured by the running water.
The hydraulic action is more effective, especially when soil is in loose condition.

(b) Abrasion: In this geologic action, the soil particles mixed the running water, create an
abrasive power in the water by which the capacity of flowing water to scour the soil particles get
increased. Due to this effect greater soil particles are eroded by flowing water. The river bank
erosion and erosion from bottom of the valley are results of abrasion action of running water.

(c) Attrition: This action includes the mechanical breakdown of loads running along the
moving water due to collision of particles with each other. It can be expressed in other way that
when big size rock fragments, boulders or pebbles are present in the moving water of streams or
river, then they are broken due to striking actions with each other. The broken particles are
moved along with the flowing water. They generate abrasion effects on the bottom and banks of
the water course. This effect pronounces the water erosion.

(d) Solution: This process is associated with the chemical action between the running water
and soil/rocks. Occurrence of this type of erosion is observed in those areas, where existing
rocks/soil are easily dissolved in the water. Actually due to this action, the soil or rock materials
are dissolved in the running water due to chemical action and are carried away along the water
flow.

(e) Transportation: It is the process by which soil particles which are dissolved in the
running water are carried away from one place to another. The transportation of particles depends
upon the velocity of running water load present in the water, impediments/obstacles present in
flow path of water and carrying capacity of running water. During water erosion, the process of
soil transportation by running water is completed under the following forms:
i) Solution: The water soluble contents present in the water are transported by the water in
solution form. Normally, certain dissolved chemicals such as calcium carbonate etc. derived from
rocks are transported in solution form by the running water.

ii) Suspension: Suspension process involves the transportation of finer soil particles present
in suspension form in the flowing water.

iii) Saltation and Surface Creep: The saltation mechanism is responsible to transport the
medium size soil particles which can not be carried in suspension form due to their large sizes,
but are mixed in water and flow over the stream bed in the form of mud. The saltation and
surface creep share a major part of sediment load, transported by running water. The
transportation of soil particles by the surface creep action takes place for the coarser soil particles
activated through the actions of jumping, collision and creeping.

(f) Deposition: The deposition of load mixed in the running water take place under following
conditions:

i) The force acting in the direction of water flow and responsible for transport of the load
becomes very less compared to the resisting force acting in the opposite direction, then the
materials get deposited on the bed.

ii) Presence of surface obstruction such as trees, shrubs etc. in the flow path of running water
tends to reduce the velocity of running water and as a result the soil load mixed in the water gets
deposited.

Whenever there is meandering of the river or the stream, the velocity of flow on the concave side
of the river reduces drastically and deposition of the load occurs on that side.

Lesson : Gully Erosion

Gully erosion is an advance stage of rill erosion as rill erosion is the advanced stage of sheet
erosion. It is the most spectacular form of erosion. Any concentration of surface runoff is a
potential source of gully erosion. The Soil Conservation Society of America defines a gully as “a
channel or miniature valley cut by concentrated runoff but through which water commonly flows
only during and immediately after heavy rains. It may be dendritic or branching or it may be
linear, rather long, narrow and of uniform width”. In India, the rate of soil erosion from gullies is
33 t/ha/yr in ravine regions (Shekinah and Saraswathy, 2005). The distinction between ravine,
gully and rills is that of size. A gully is too large to be filled by normal tillage practices. A ravine
is a deep narrow gorge. It is larger than a gully and is usually worn down by running water. It is
estimated that about 4 million ha of land in India are affected by gully erosion (Michael and
Ojha, 2012).

7.1 Development of Gullies

The main processes in the development of gullies are waterfall erosion and channel erosion.
These two erosions are commonly found in the same gully. The extension of the gully head is
usually by waterfall erosion; while the scouring of bottom and sides which enlarges the depth and
width of gullies is by channel erosion. Gullies usually start with channel erosion. When an
overfall develops at the head of the gully, the gully continues to develop by waterfall erosion.
The waterfall erosion at gully head and advancement of the gully towards the upper edge of the
watershed is shown in Fig. 7.1.
 Fig. 7.1. Waterfall erosion at gully head.

The gully development is recognized in four stages:

Formation Stage: Scouring of top soil in the direction of general slope occurs as the runoff
water concentrates. It normally proceeds slowly where the top soil is fairly resistant to erosion.

Development Stage: Causes upstream movement of the gully head and enlargement of the gully
in width and depth. The gully cuts to the C-horizon of soil, and the parent materials are removed
rapidly as water flows.

Healing Stage: Vegetation starts growing in the gully.

Stabilization Stage: Gully reaches a stable gradient, gully walls attain a stable slope and
sufficient vegetation cover develops over the gully surface to anchor the soil and permit
development of new topsoil.

7.2 Classification of Gullies

Gullies can be classified based on three factors viz. their size, shape (cross section) and formation
of branches or continuation. The detailed classification is discussed below.

7.2.1 Based on Size (depth and drainage area)

Gully classification based on the size is presented in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1. Gully classification based on size

Classification Depth (m) Drainage area (ha)

Small <1 <2

Medium 1 to 5 2 to 20

Large >5 > 20

7.2.2 Based on Shape

The classification of gullies based on shape is shown in Fig 7.2.

U-Shaped: These are formed where both the topsoil and subsoil have the same resistance against
erosion. Because the subsoil is eroded as easily as the topsoil, nearly vertical walls are developed
on each side of the gully.

V-Shaped: These gullies develop where the subsoil has more resistance than topsoil against
erosion. This is the most common form of gully.

Trapezoidal: These gullies are formed where the gully bottom is made of more resistant material
than the topsoil. Below the bottom of gully, the subsoil layer has much more resistance to get
eroded and thus the development of further depth of gully is restricted.

Fig. 7.2. Gully classes based on the shape of gully cross-section.

7.2.3 Based on the Formation of Branches or Continuation

Continuous Gullies: These gullies consist of many branches. A continuous gully has a main
gully channel and many mature or immature branch gullies. A gully network is made up of many
continuous gullies. A multiple-gully system may be composed of several gully networks.

Discontinuous Gullies: These may develop on hillsides after landslides. They are also called
independent gullies. At the beginning of its development, a discontinuous gully does not have a
distinct junction with the main gully or stream channel. Flowing water in a discontinuous gully
spreads over a nearly flat area. After some time, it reaches the main gully channel or stream.
Independent gullies may be scattered between the branches of a continuous gully, or they may
occupy a whole area without there being any continuous gullies.

7.3 Principles of Gully Control

Generally, gullies are formed by an increase in surface runoff. Therefore, minimizing surface
runoff is essential in gully control. The rate of gully erosion depends primarily on the runoff
producing characteristics of the watershed, the watershed area, soil characteristics, sizeshape and
slope of gully etc. Watersheds deteriorate because of misuse of the land (man made changes),
short intensive rainstorms, prolonged rains of moderate intensity, and rapid snow melts. The
precipitation factors which turn into high runoff, develop flooding and form gullies. In gully
control, the following three methods should be applied according to the order given:

• Improvement of gully catchments to reduce and regulate the runoff rates (peak flows).

• Diversion of surface water above the gully area.

 • Stabilization of gullies by structural measures and accompanying re-vegetation.

When the first and/or second methods are applied in some regions of the countries with
temperate climates, small or incipient gullies may be stabilized without having to use the third
method. On the other hand, in tropical and subtropical countries which have heavy rains
(monsoons, typhoons, tropical cyclones, etc.); all three methods have to be applied for successful
gully control.

7.4 Gully Control Measures

Preventing the formation of gully is much easier than controlling it once it has formed. One of
the major steps in a gully control programme is to plan the control of runoff from the drainage
area. The various methods employed for controlling runoff may be considered in the following
order:

• Retention of Runoff on the Drainage Area: It is possible through good crop

management and applicable conservation practices such as contouring, strip cropping,
bunding, terracing etc. Where contour bunds are used, runoff is greatly reduced. On
cultivated areas, small and medium sized gullies can also be reclaimed by placing a series
of earthfills across the gully.

• Diversion of Runoff Around the Gullied Area: The most effective control of gullies is
by complete elimination of runoff from the gullied area. This can be obtained by diverting
runoff from the gully, causing it to flow at a non- erosive velocity to a suitable outlet.
Terraces and diversion ditches are generally used for diverting runoff from its natural
outlet. Terraces are very effective in the control of small gullies on cultivated fields or
even medium size shallow gullies. If the slope above a gully is too steep for terracing, or
if the drainage area is pasture or woodland, diversion ditches may be used to keep the
runoff out of the gully.

• Conveyance of Runoff through the Gully: If it is not possible to either retain or divert
the runoff, then runoff must be conveyed through the gully itself. This is possible only if
vegetation can be established in the gullies, or if soil conservation structures are built at
critical points to give primary control.

7.5 Classification of Gully Control Measures or Structures

Basically gully control structures are used to reduce soil erosion, control sedimentation, and
harvesting water. Gully control measures are mainly of two types.

7.5.1 Biological or Vegetative Measures

7.5.1.1 Anti-Erosion Crops

These crops stabilize gully. Crops produced provide supplementary income.

7.5.1.2 Changing Gully into Grassed Waterway

Small and medium size gullies can be converted into grassed waterways. In practice, gully is
shaped and suitable species of grasses are grown. Channel cross-section should be broad and flat,
to keep water spread uniform over a wide area.

7.5.1.3 Sod Flumes

It may be successfully used to control overfall in gullies with head < 3 m and area <10 ha. The
design of sod flume is shown in Fig 7.3. It serves the purpose of preventing further waterfall
erosion by providing a protected surface over which the runoff may flow into the gully. Slope
varies with the soil type, size of watershed, height of overfall and type of sod used. 4:1 is the
steepest slope considered for its design. To maintain a non-erosive velocity, flume should be wide
enough. The maximum depth of flow over the flume should not exceed 30 cm.

Fig. 7.3. Sod flume.

7.5.1.4 Sod Strip Checks

These checks are best adapted to small gullies with small to medium sized watersheds. These
checks cannot be used in gullies with very steep grades. Strips are laid across gully channel (Fig.
7.4). Strips should have a minimum width of 30 cm and should extend up to gully sides at least
15 cm. Strip spacing usually varies from 1.5 to 2.0 m.

Fig. 7.4A. Sod strip checks.

Fig. 7.4B. A series of sod-strip checks in a small gully. (Source: Agr. Handbook No. 61.
USDA, SCS).

7.5.1.5 Low Sodded Earthfills

These are used as substitutes for temporary gully controlled structures in small and medium sized
gullies. Already growing sods are cut along with soil mass and combined together to form earth
fill dams (Fig. 7.5). They are constructed with a maximum height of 45 cm, upstream (u/s) side
slope of 3:1 and downstream (d/S) side slope of 4:1.

Fig. 7.5 Low sodded earthfills.

7.5.1.6 Trees, Shrubs etc.

Trees, shrubs etc. are used to stabilize severely eroded gullied area. Generally gullied area is
fenced and trees are grown. A plant spacing of 1 × 1 m, 1.2 × 1.2 m or a maximum of 2 × 2 m
should be maintained.

Characteristics of contour lines

1. All points in contour line have the same elevation.
2. Widely spaced contour lines indicate a flat ground and closely spaced contour
lines indicate steep ground
3. A series of closed contours with the higher values inside indicate a summit or hill
4. A series of closed contours with the higher values outside indicate a depression
5. Contour lines cannot cross one another or merge on the map except in case of an
over hanging cliff
Use of contours
1. By inspection of a contour map, the characters of the terrain is obtained, whether
it is flat or undulating, etc.
2. Contour map is very useful for taking up land leveling works and computation of
earth work is also possible.
3. With the help of contour map, suitable site for reservoirs, canal, drainage
channels, road, railways etc. can be selected.
 4. Contour maps are essential for taking up any soil conservation works like
terracing, bunding, construction of structures and spillways.
5. From the contour map of agricultural land, most suitable methods of irrigation
for a particular crop can be decided

Interpolation method of contouring

This method is widely used, specially for large areas as it is cheap, quick and less
tedious. In this method spot levels are taken along a series of lines laid out over the
area. Their positions are plotted on the map and contours are drawn by interpolation.
The method is also known as contouring by spot levels. Interpolation of the contours is
the process of spacing the contours proportionally between the plotted ground points.
During the interpolation, the ground between any two spot levels is assumed to be
uniformly sloping.