Chess

Chess is a board game for two players, called White and Black, each controlling an army of
chess pieces, with the objective to checkmate the opponent's king. It is sometimes called
international chess or Western chess to distinguish it from related games such as xiangqi
(Chinese chess) and shogi (Japanese chess). The recorded history of chess goes back at least to
the emergence of a similar game, chaturanga, in seventh-century India. The rules of chess as
they are known today emerged in Europe at the end of the 15th century, with standardization
and universal acceptance by the end of the 19th century. Today, chess is one of the world's most
popular games, and is played by millions of people worldwide.

Chess is an abstract strategy game that involves no hidden information and no elements of
chance. It is played on a chessboard with 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid. At the start, each
player controls sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and
eight pawns. White moves first, followed by Black. The game is won by checkmating the
opponent's king, i.e. threatening it with inescapable capture. There are also several ways a
game can end in a draw.

Organized chess arose in the 19th century. Chess competition today is governed
internationally by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs; the International Chess
Federation). The first universally recognized World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed
his title in 1886; Ding Liren is the current World Champion. A huge body of chess theory has
developed since the game's inception. Aspects of art are found in chess composition, and chess in
its turn influenced Western culture and the arts, and has connections with other fields such as
mathematics, computer science, and psychology.
One of the goals of early computer scientists
was to create a chess-playing machine. In
1997, Deep Blue became the first computer Chess
to beat the reigning World Champion in a
match when it defeated Garry Kasparov.
Today's chess engines are significantly
stronger than the best human players and
have deeply influenced the development of
chess theory; however, chess is not a solved
game.

This article
uses Part of a Staunton
algebraic chess set
notation to
describe Left to right: white
chess moves. king, black rook,
black queen, white
Rules pawn, black knight,
The rules of chess are published by FIDE white bishop
(Fédération Internationale des Échecs;
"International Chess Federation"), chess's
[2]
Years c. 1475 to
world governing body, in its Handbook.
Rules published by national governing bodies,
active present[1]
or by unaffiliated chess organizations,
commercial publishers, etc., may differ in
(predecessors
some details. FIDE's rules were most recently
revised in 2023.
 c. 900 years
Setup
earlier)

Genres Board
game
Abstract
Setup at the start of a chess game

Chess sets come in a wide variety of styles.

strategy
The Staunton pattern is the most common,
and is usually required for competition. Chess game
pieces are divided into two sets, usually light
and dark colored, referred to as white and Mind
black, regardless of the actual color or
design. The players of the sets are referred to sport
as White and Black, respectively. Each set
consists of sixteen pieces: one king, one queen,
Players 2
two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight
pawns.
Chance None
The game is played on a square board of eight
rows (called ranks) and eight columns (called
files). By convention, the 64 squares Skills Strategy,
alternate in color and are referred to as
light and dark squares; common colors for tactics
chessboards are white and brown, or white
and green.
Synonyms Internatio
chess
Western ch
 Initial
position
abcde fgh
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
abcde fgh
First row: rook, knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight, rook. Second row: pawns.

The pieces are set out as shown in the diagram and photo. Thus, on White's first rank, from left
to right, the pieces are placed as follows: rook, knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight, rook.
Eight pawns are placed on the second rank. Black's position mirrors White's, with an equivalent
piece on the same file. The board is placed with a light square at the right-hand corner nearest
to each player. The correct position of the light square may be remembered by the phrase
"light on right", while the correct positions of the king and queen may be remembered by the
phrase "queen on her own color" (i.e. the white queen begins on a light square, and the black
queen on a dark square).

In competitive games, the piece colors are allocated to players by the organizers; in informal
games, the colors are usually decided randomly, for example by a coin toss, or by one player
concealing a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the other, and having the opponent
choose.

Movement
White moves first, after which players alternate turns, moving one piece per turn (except for
castling, when two pieces are moved). A piece is moved to either an unoccupied square or one
occupied by an opponent's piece, which is captured and removed from play. With the sole
exception of en passant, all pieces capture by moving to the square that the opponent's piece
occupies. Moving is compulsory; a player may not skip a turn, even when having to move is
detrimental.

Each piece has its own way of moving. In the diagrams, crosses mark the squares to which the
piece can move if there are no intervening piece(s) of either color (except the knight, which
leaps over any intervening pieces). All pieces except the pawn can capture an enemy piece if it
is on a square to which they could move if the square were unoccupied. Pieces are generally not
permitted to move through squares occupied by pieces of either color, except for the knight
and during castling.
Moves of the Moves of a Moves of a
king rook bishop
ab c de f gh ab c de f gh ab c de f gh
8 88 88 8
7 77 77 7
6 66 66 6
5 55 55 5
4 44 44 4
3 33 33 3
2 22 22 2
1 11 11 1
ab c de f gh ab c de f gh ab c de f gh
 Moves of a Moves of a Moves of a
queen knight pawn
ab c de f gh ab c de f gh ab c de f gh
8 88 88 8
7 77 77 7
6 66 66 6
5 55 55 5
4 44 44 4
3 33 33 3
2 22 22 2
1 11 11 1
ab c de f gh ab c de f gh ab c de f gh

The king moves one square in any

direction. There is also a special move
called castling that involves moving the
king and a rook. The king is the most
valuable piece—attacks on the king must
be immediately countered, and if this is
impossible, the game is immediately
lost (see Check and checkmate below).
A rook can move any number of squares
along a rank or file, but cannot leap
over other pieces. Along with the king,
a rook is involved during the king's
castling move.
A bishop can move any number of
squares diagonally, but cannot leap
over other pieces.
A queen combines the power of a rook
and bishop and can move any number of
squares along a rank, file, or diagonal,
but cannot leap over other pieces.
A knight moves to any of the closest
squares that are not on the same rank,
file, or diagonal. (Thus the move forms
an "L"-shape: two squares vertically and
one square horizontally, or two squares
horizontally and one square vertically.)
The knight is the only piece that can
leap over other pieces.
A pawn can move forward to the
unoccupied square immediately in front
of it on the same file, or on its first
 move it can advance two squares along
the same file, provided both squares are
unoccupied (black dots in the diagram).
A pawn can capture an opponent's piece
on a square diagonally in front of it by
moving to that square (black crosses). It
cannot capture a piece while advancing
along the same file. A pawn has two
special moves: the en passant capture
and promotion.

Check and checkmate

When a king is under immediate attack, it is said to be in check. A move in response to a check is
legal only if it results in a position where the king is no longer in check. There are three ways
to counter a check:

Capture the checking piece.

 Interpose a piece between the checking
piece and the king (which is possible
only if the attacking piece is a queen,
rook, or bishop and there is a square
between it and the king).
Move the king to a square where it is
not under attack.
Castling is not a permissible response to a check.[2]

The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in
check, and there is no legal way to get it out of check. It is never legal for a player to make a
move that puts or leaves the player's own king in check. In casual games, it is common to
announce "check" when putting the opponent's king in check, but this is not required by the
rules of chess and is usually not done in tournaments.[3]
 ab c de f gh ab c de f gh
8 88 8
7 77 7
6 66 6
5 55 5
4 44 4
3 33 3
2 22 2
1 11 1
ab c de f gh ab c de f gh
The black king is in check by the rook. White is in checkmate, being unable to escape attack by the bishop on f3.
Castling

Examples of castling (view

animation (https://upload.wikimedi
a.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/C
hessCastlingMovie_en.svg) )

Once per game, each king can make a move known as castling. Castling consists of moving the
king two squares toward a rook of the same color on the same rank, and then placing the rook
on the square that the king crossed.

Castling is permissible if the following conditions are met:[2]

Neither the king nor the rook has

previously moved during the game.
There are no pieces between the king
and the rook.
The king is not in check and does not
pass through or finish on a square
 attacked by an enemy piece.
Castling is still permitted if the rook is under attack, or if the rook crosses an attacked
square.

En passant

Examples of pawn moves:

(left) promotion; (right) en
passant

When a pawn makes a two-step advance from its starting position and there is an opponent's
pawn on a square next to the destination square on an adjacent file, then the opponent's pawn
can capture it en passant ("in passing"), moving to the square the pawn passed over. This can be
done only on the turn immediately following the enemy pawn's two-square advance; otherwise,
the right to do so is forfeited. For example, in the animated diagram, the black pawn advances
two squares from g7 to g5, and the white pawn on f5 can take it en passant on g6 (but only
immediately after the black pawn's advance).

Promotion
When a pawn advances to its eighth rank, as part of the move, it is promoted and must be
exchanged for the player's choice of queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color. Usually,
the pawn is chosen to be promoted to a queen, but in some cases, another piece is chosen; this is
called underpromotion. In the animated diagram, the pawn on c7 can be advanced to the eighth
rank and be promoted. There is no restriction on the piece promoted to, so it is possible to
have more pieces of the same type than at the start of the game (e.g., two or more queens). If
the required piece is not available (e.g. a second queen) an inverted rook is sometimes used as a
substitute, but this is not recognized in FIDE-sanctioned games.

End of the game

Win
A game can be won in the following ways:

Checkmate: The opposing king is in check

and the opponent has no legal move.
(See check and checkmate above.)
Resignation: A player may resign,
conceding the game to the opponent.[4]
If, however, the opponent has no way of
checkmating the resigned player, this is
a draw under FIDE Laws.[2] Most
tournament players consider it good
etiquette to resign in a hopeless
position.[5][6]
Win on time: In games with a time
control, a player wins if the opponent
runs out of time, even if the opponent
has a superior position, as long as the
player has a theoretical possibility to
checkmate the opponent were the game
to continue.
Forfeit: A player who cheats, violates
the rules, or violates the rules of
conduct specified for the particular
tournament can be forfeited.
Occasionally, both players are
forfeited.[2]
Draw
There are several ways a game can end in a draw:

Stalemate: If the player to move has no

legal move, but is not in check, the
position is a stalemate, and the game is
drawn.
Dead position: If neither player is able
to checkmate the other by any legal
sequence of moves, the game is drawn.
For example, if only the kings are on
the board, all other pieces having been
captured, checkmate is impossible, and
the game is drawn by this rule. On the
other hand, if both players still have a
knight, there is a highly unlikely yet
theoretical possibility of checkmate, so
this rule does not apply. The dead
position rule supersedes the previous
rule which referred to "insufficient
material", extending it to include other
positions where checkmate is impossible,
such as blocked pawn endings where the
pawns cannot be attacked.
Draw by agreement: In tournament
chess, draws are most commonly reached
by mutual agreement between the
players. The correct procedure is to
verbally offer the draw, make a move,
then start the opponent's clock.
Traditionally, players have been
allowed to agree to a draw at any point
in the game, occasionally even without
playing a move. More recently efforts
have been made to discourage short
draws, for example by forbidding draw
offers before move thirty.
Threefold repetition: This most
commonly occurs when neither side is
able to avoid repeating moves without
incurring a disadvantage. In this
situation, either player can claim a
draw; this requires the players to keep
a valid written record of the game so
that the claim can be verified by the
arbiter if challenged. The three
occurrences of the position need not
occur on consecutive moves for a claim
to be valid. The addition of the fivefold
repetition rule in 2014 requires the
arbiter to intervene immediately and
declare the game a draw after five
occurrences of the same position,
consecutive or otherwise, without
requiring a claim by either player.
FIDE rules make no mention of
perpetual check; this is merely a
specific type of draw by threefold
repetition.
Fifty-move rule: If during the previous
50 moves no pawn has been moved and
no capture has been made, either player
can claim a draw. The addition of the
seventy-five-move rule in 2014 requires
the arbiter to intervene and
immediately declare the game drawn
after 75 moves without a pawn move or
capture, without requiring a claim by
either player. There are several known
endgames where it is possible to force a
mate but it requires more than 50
moves before a pawn move or capture is
made; examples include some endgames
with two knights against a pawn and
some pawnless endgames such as queen
against two bishops. Historically, FIDE
has sometimes revised the fifty-move
rule to make exceptions for these
endgames, but these have since been
repealed. Some correspondence chess
organizations do not enforce the fifty-
move rule.[note 1]
Draw on time: In games with a time
control, the game is drawn if a player
is out of time and no sequence of legal
moves would allow the opponent to
checkmate the player.[2]
Draw by resignation: Under FIDE Laws, a
game is drawn if a player resigns and
no sequence of legal moves would allow
the opponent to checkmate that
player.[2]
 ab c de f gh ab c de f gh ab c de f gh
8 88 88 8
7 77 77 7
6 66 66 6
5 55 55 5
4 44 44 4
3 33 33 3
2 22 22 2
1 11 11 1
ab c de f gh ab c de f gh ab c de f gh
Black (to move) is not in check and A dead position; White's king and Also a dead position; neither king can
has no legal move. The result is bishop are insufficient to capture the other's pawns in order to
stalemate. checkmate. promote a pawn and give checkmate.
Time control

A digital chess clock

In competition, chess games are played with a time control. If a player's time runs out before
the game is completed, the game is automatically lost (provided the opponent has enough pieces
left to deliver checkmate).[2] The duration of a game ranges from long (or "classical") games,
which can take up to seven hours (even longer if adjournments are permitted), to bullet chess
(under 3 minutes per player for the entire game). Intermediate between these are rapid chess
games, lasting between one and two hours per game, a popular time control in amateur weekend
tournaments.

Time is controlled using a chess clock that has two displays, one for each player's remaining
time. Analog chess clocks have been largely replaced by digital clocks, which allow for time
controls with increments.

Time controls are also enforced in correspondence chess competitions. A typical time control is
50 days for every 10 moves.

Notation
Historically, many different notation systems have been used to record chess moves; the
standard system today is short-form algebraic notation.[8] In this system, each square is
uniquely identified by a set of coordinates, a–h for the files followed by 1–8 for the ranks. The
usual format is
 initial of the piece moved – file of
destination square – rank of
destination square
The pieces are identified by their initials. In English, these are K (king), Q (queen), R (rook), B
(bishop), and N (knight; N is used to avoid confusion with king). For example, Qg5 means "queen
moves to the g-file, 5th rank" (that is, to the square g5). Different initials may be used for
other languages. In chess literature, figurine algebraic notation (FAN) is frequently used to
aid understanding independent of language.

Square names in algebraic chess notation

To resolve ambiguities, an additional letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank
from which the piece moved (e.g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3";
R1e2 means "rook on the first rank moves to e2"). For pawns, no letter initial is used; so e4
means "pawn moves to the square e4".

If the piece makes a capture, "x" is usually inserted before the destination square. Thus Bxf3
means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn
departed is used to identify the pawn making the capture, for example, exd5 (pawn on the e-file
captures the piece on d5). Ranks may be omitted if unambiguous, for example, exd (pawn on the
e-file captures a piece somewhere on the d-file). A minority of publications use ":" to indicate a
capture, and some omit the capture symbol altogether. In its most abbreviated form, exd5 may
be rendered simply as ed. An en passant capture may optionally be marked with the notation
"e.p."

If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece chosen is indicated after the
move (for example, e1=Q or e1Q). Castling is indicated by the special notations 0-0 (or O-O)
for kingside castling and 0-0-0 (or O-O-O) for queenside castling. A move that places the
opponent's king in check usually has the notation "+" added. There are no specific notations for
discovered check or double check. Checkmate can be indicated by "#". At the end of the game, "1–
0" means White won, "0–1" means Black won, and "½–½" indicates a draw.[2] Chess moves can be
annotated with punctuation marks and other symbols. For example: "!" indicates a good move;
"!!" an excellent move; "?" a mistake; "??" a blunder; "!?" an interesting move that may not be
best; or "?!" a dubious move not easily refuted.[9]

"Scholar's mate"

For example, one variation of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate (see animated
diagram) can be recorded:

1. e4 e5 2. Qh5?! Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6?? 4.

Qxf7#
Variants of algebraic notation include long algebraic, in which both the departure and
destination square are indicated; abbreviated algebraic, in which capture signs, check signs, and
ranks of pawn captures may be omitted; and Figurine Algebraic Notation, used in chess
publications for universal readability regardless of language.
Portable Game Notation (PGN) is a text-based file format for recording chess games, based on
short form English algebraic notation with a small amount of markup. PGN files (suffix .pgn)
can be processed by most chess software, as well as being easily readable by humans.

Until about 1980, the majority of English language chess publications used descriptive
notation, in which files are identified by the initial letter of the piece that occupies the first
rank at the beginning of the game. In descriptive notation, the common opening move 1.e4 is
rendered as "1.P-K4" ("pawn to king four"). Another system is ICCF numeric notation,
recognized by the International Correspondence Chess Federation though its use is in decline.

In tournament games, players are normally required to keep a score (record of the game). For
this purpose, only algebraic notation is recognized in FIDE-sanctioned events; game scores
recorded in a different notation system may not be used as evidence in the event of a dispute.

Chess in public spaces

Chess is often played casually in public spaces such as parks and town squares.
Public chess Men
tables in the playing
Jardin du chess,
Luxembourg, Kutaisi
Paris 2014
 Anna Cramling Chess game in
playing with Kilifi, Kenya
passersby,
Kungsträdgården,
Stockholm
 A child Large chess
playing set in
chess in Cathedral
Washingto Square,
n Square Christchurc
Park h, New
Zealand
Organized competition

Tournaments and matches

Tata Steel Chess Tournament 2019,

Wijk aan Zee (the Netherlands)

Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues,
tournaments, and congresses. Thousands of chess tournaments, matches, and festivals are held
around the world every year catering to players of all levels.

Tournaments with a small number of players may use the round-robin format, in which every
player plays one game against every other player. For a large number of players, the Swiss
system may be used, in which each player is paired against an opponent who has the same (or as
similar as possible) score in each round. In either case, a player's score is usually calculated as
1 point for each game won and one-half point for each game drawn. Variations such as
"football scoring" (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw) may be used by tournament
organizers, but ratings are always calculated on the basis of standard scoring. A player's score
may be reported as total score out of games played (e.g. 5½/8), points for versus points
against (e.g. 5½–2½), or by number of wins, losses and draws (e.g. +4−1=3).

The term "match" refers not to an individual game, but to either a series of games between two
players, or a team competition in which each player of one team plays one game against a
player of the other team.
Governance
Chess's international governing body is usually known by its French acronym FIDE (pronounced
FEE-day) (French: Fédération internationale des échecs), or International Chess Federation.
FIDE's membership consists of the national chess organizations of over 180 countries; there
are also several associate members, including various supra-national organizations, the
International Braille Chess Association (IBCA), International Committee of Chess for the Deaf
(ICCD), and the International Physically Disabled Chess Association (IPCA).[10] FIDE is
recognized as a sports governing body by the International Olympic Committee,[11] but chess
has never been part of the Olympic Games.

Garry Kasparov, former

World Chess Champion

FIDE's most visible activity is organizing the World Chess Championship, a role it assumed in
1948. The current World Champion is Ding Liren of China.[12] The reigning Women's World
Champion is Ju Wenjun from China.[13]

Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess Championship, the
European Individual Chess Championship, the tournaments for the World Championship
qualification cycle, and the various national championships. Invitation-only tournaments
regularly attract the world's strongest players. Examples include Spain's Linares event, Monte
Carlo's Melody Amber tournament, the Dortmund Sparkassen meeting, Sofia's M-tel Masters, and
Wijk aan Zee's Tata Steel tournament.
Regular team chess events include the Chess Olympiad and the European Team Chess
Championship.

The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championships include
both team and individual events; these are held independently of FIDE.

Titles and rankings

In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF, and most national chess organizations use the Elo rating
system developed by Arpad Elo. An average club player has a rating of about 1500; the highest
FIDE rating of all time, 2882, was achieved by Magnus Carlsen on the March 2014 FIDE rating
list.[14]

Players may be awarded lifetime titles by FIDE:[16]

Grandmaster (GM; sometimes

International Grandmaster or IGM is
used) is awarded to world-class chess
masters. Apart from World Champion,
Grandmaster is the highest title a chess
player can attain. Before FIDE will
confer the title on a player, the player
must have an Elo rating of at least
2500 at one time and three results of a
prescribed standard (called norms) in
tournaments involving other
grandmasters, including some from
countries other than the applicant's.
There are other milestones a player can
achieve to attain the title, such as
winning the World Junior
Championship.
International Master (IM). The
conditions are similar to GM, but less
demanding. The minimum rating for the
IM title is 2400.
FIDE Master (FM). The usual way for a
player to qualify for the FIDE Master
 title is by achieving a FIDE rating of
2300 or more.
Candidate Master (CM). Similar to FM,
but with a FIDE rating of at least
2200.
The above titles are open to both men and women. There are also separate women-only titles;
Woman Grandmaster (WGM), Woman International Master (WIM), Woman FIDE Master (WFM) and
Woman Candidate Master (WCM). These require a performance level approximately 200 Elo
rating points below the similarly named open titles, and their continued existence has
sometimes been controversial. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women
have earned the open GM title: 40 as of July 2023.[note 2]

FIDE also awards titles for arbiters and trainers.[17][18] International titles are also awarded
to composers and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chess players (by the
International Correspondence Chess Federation). National chess organizations may also award
titles.

Theory
Chess has an extensive literature. In 1913, the chess historian H.J.R. Murray estimated the
total number of books, magazines, and chess columns in newspapers to be about 5,000.[19] B.H.
Wood estimated the number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000.[20] David Hooper and Kenneth
Whyld write that, "Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of
new chess publications. No one knows how many have been printed."[20] Significant public chess
libraries include the John G. White Chess and Checkers Collection at Cleveland Public Library,
with over 32,000 chess books and over 6,000 bound volumes of chess periodicals;[21] and the
Chess & Draughts collection at the National Library of the Netherlands, with about 30,000
books.[22]

Chess theory usually divides the game of chess into three phases with different sets of
strategies: the opening, typically the first 10 to 20 moves, when players move their pieces to
useful positions for the coming battle; the middlegame; and last the endgame, when most of the
pieces are gone, kings typically take a more active part in the struggle, and pawn promotion is
often decisive.

Opening theory is concerned with finding the best moves in the initial phase of the game. There
are dozens of different openings, and hundreds of variants. The Oxford Companion to Chess
lists 1,327 named openings and variants.[23]

Middlegame theory is usually divided into chess tactics and chess strategy. Chess strategy
concentrates on setting and achieving long-term positional advantages during the game – for
example, where to place different pieces – while tactics concerns immediate maneuver. These two
aspects of the gameplay cannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostly
achieved through tactics, while the tactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy
of play.

Endgame theory is concerned with positions where there are only a few pieces left. These
positions are categorized according to the pieces, for example "King and pawn" endings or
"Rook versus minor piece" endings.

Opening
A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the "opening moves"). Recognized
sequences of opening moves are referred to as openings and have been given names such as the
Ruy Lopez or Sicilian Defense. They are catalogued in reference works such as the Encyclopaedia
of Chess Openings. There are dozens of different openings, varying widely in character from
quiet positional play (for example, the Réti Opening) to very aggressive (the Latvian Gambit).
In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to
more than 30 moves.[24] Professional players spend years studying openings and continue doing
so throughout their careers, as opening theory continues to evolve.
The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar:[25]

Development: This is the technique of

placing the pieces (particularly bishops
and knights) on useful squares where
they will have an optimal impact on the
game.
Control of the center: Control of the
central squares allows pieces to be
moved to any part of the board
relatively easily, and can also have a
cramping effect on the opponent.
King safety: It is critical to keep the
king safe from dangerous possibilities.
A correctly timed castling can often
enhance this.
 Pawn structure: Players strive to avoid
the creation of pawn weaknesses such as
isolated, doubled, or backward pawns,
and pawn islands – and to force such
weaknesses in the opponent's position.
Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the
game with a small advantage. This initially gives White the initiative.[26] Black usually strives
to neutralize White's advantage and achieve equality, or to develop dynamic counterplay in an
unbalanced position.

Middlegame
The middlegame is the part of the game that starts after the opening. There is no clear line
between the opening and the middlegame, but typically the middlegame will start when most
pieces have been developed. (Similarly, there is no clear transition from the middlegame to the
endgame; see start of the endgame.) Because the opening theory has ended, players have to form
plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take into account the tactical
possibilities of the position.[27] The middlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur.
Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain. Middlegame
combinations are often connected with an attack against the opponent's king. Some typical
patterns have their own names; for example, the Boden's Mate or the Lasker–Bauer
combination.[28]

Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings that
result in a specific type of pawn structure. An example is the minority attack, which is the
attack of queenside pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside. The study
of openings is therefore connected to the preparation of plans that are typical of the
resulting middlegames.[29]

Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce
material and transition into an endgame (i.e. simplify). Minor material advantages can
generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side
must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending. Not every reduction of material is good
for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-squared bishop and the opponent has a
dark-squared one, the transformation into a bishops and pawns ending is usually advantageous
for the weaker side only, because an endgame with bishops on opposite colors is likely to be a
draw, even with an advantage of a pawn, or sometimes even with a two-pawn advantage.[30]

Tactics
In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions – so short-term that they can be
calculated in advance by a human player or a computer. The possible depth of calculation
depends on the player's ability. In quiet positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep
calculation is more difficult and may not be practical, while in positions with a limited
number of forced variations, strong players can calculate long sequences of moves.

Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, for example:
pins, forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especially discovered checks), zwischenzugs,
deflections, decoys, sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences.[31] Simple one-
move or two-move tactical actions – threats, exchanges of material, and double attacks – can be
combined into more complicated sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the
point of view of one or both players.[32] A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and
usually results in a tangible gain is called a combination.[32] Brilliant combinations – such as
those in the Immortal Game – are considered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers. A
common type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players' skills, is a position where a decisive
combination is available and the challenge is to find it.[33]
Strategy

Example of underlying pawn

structure
 ab c de f gh ab c de f gh
8 88 8
7 77 7
6 66 6
5 55 5
4 44 4
3 33 3
2 22 2
1 11 1
ab c de f gh ab c de f gh
Position after 12...Re8 ... ... and its pawn structure, known as the "Rauzer formation"
[34]
Tarrasch vs. Euwe, Bad Pistyan (1922)

Chess strategy is concerned with the evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals
and long-term plans for future play. During the evaluation, players must take into account
numerous factors such as the value of the pieces on the board, control of the center and
centralization, the pawn structure, king safety, and the control of key squares or groups of
squares (for example, diagonals, open files, and dark or light squares).
The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both
sides.[35] The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually, pawns are
considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about five
points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop or knight being known as the
exchange), and queens about nine points. The king is more valuable than all of the other pieces
combined, since its checkmate loses the game. But in practical terms, in the endgame, the king as
a fighting piece is generally more powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a
rook.[36] These basic values are then modified by other factors like position of the piece (e.g.
advanced pawns are usually more valuable than those on their initial squares), coordination
between pieces (e.g. a pair of bishops usually coordinate better than a bishop and a knight), or
the type of position (e.g. knights are generally better in closed positions with many pawns
while bishops are more powerful in open positions).[37]

Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is pawn structure (sometimes
known as the pawn skeleton): the configuration of pawns on the chessboard.[38] Since pawns are
the least mobile of the pieces, pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the
strategic nature of the position. Weaknesses in pawn structure include isolated, doubled, or
backward pawns and holes; once created, they are often permanent. Care must therefore be
taken to avoid these weaknesses unless they are compensated by another valuable asset (for
example, by the possibility of developing an attack).[39]

Endgame

Example of
zugzwang
 ab c de f gh
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
ab c de f gh
The side to move is disadvantaged.

The endgame (also end game or ending) is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left
on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and
the endgame:[40]

Pawns become more important.

Endgames often revolve around
endeavors to promote a pawn by
advancing it to the furthest rank.
The king, which requires safeguarding
from attack during the middlegame,
emerges as a strong piece in the
endgame. It is often brought to the
center where it can protect its own
pawns, attack enemy pawns, and hinder
moves of the opponent's king.
Zugzwang, a situation in which the
player who is to move is forced to incur
a disadvantage, is often a factor in
endgames but rarely in other stages of
the game. In the example diagram,
either side having the move is in
 zugzwang: Black to move must play
1...Kb7 allowing White to promote the
pawn after 2.Kd7; White to move must
permit a draw, either by 1.Kc6
stalemate or by losing the pawn after
any other legal move.
Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces remaining on the board. Basic
checkmates are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two
pieces and can checkmate the opposing king, with the pieces working together with their king.
For example, king and pawn endgames involve only kings and pawns on one or both sides, and the
task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns. Other more complicated endings are
classified according to pieces on the board other than kings, such as "rook and pawn versus
rook" endgames.
History

Origins

Sasanian Empire King Khosrow I sits on his throne

before the chessboard, while his vizir and the Indian
envoy, probably sent by the Maukhari King
Śarvavarman of Kannauj, are playing chess.
Shahnama, 10th century AD.[41][42]

Texts referring to the origins of chess date from the beginning of the seventh century. Three
are written in Pahlavi (Middle Persian)[43] and one, the Harshacharita, is in Sanskrit.[44] One
of these texts, the Chatrang-namak, represents one of the earliest written accounts of chess.
The narrator Bozorgmehr explains that Chatrang, "Chess" in Pahlavi, was introduced to Persia
by 'Dewasarm, a great ruler of India' during the reign of Khosrow I:[45]

Dewasarm has fashioned this chatrang after the likeness of a battle, and in its
likeness are two supreme rulers after the likeness of Kings (shah), with the
essentials of rooks (rukh) to right and to left, with Counsellor (farzin) in the
likeness of a commander of the champions, with the Elephant (pil) in the likeness of
the commander of the rearguard, with Horse (asp) in the likeness of the
commander of the cavalry, with the Footsoldier (piyadak) in the likeness of so
many infantry in the vanguard of the battle
 — Translation by Murray,
1913[46]
The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to about 840, written by al-Adli ar-
Rumi (800–870), a renowned Arab chess player, titled Kitab ash-shatranj (The Book of Chess).
This is a lost manuscript, but is referenced in later works.[47] Here also, al-Adli attributes the
origins of Persian chess to India, along with the eighth-century collection of fables Kalīla wa-
Dimna.[48] By the 20th century, a substantial consensus[49][50] developed regarding chess's
origins in northwest India in the early seventh century.[51] More recently, this consensus has
been the subject of further scrutiny.[52]

The early forms of chess in India were known as chaturaṅ ga (Sanskrit: चतुरङ्ग), literally "four
divisions" [of the military] – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry – represented by
pieces that would later evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively.
Chaturanga was played on an 8×8 uncheckered board, called ashtāpada.[53] Thence it spread
eastward and westward along the Silk Road. The earliest evidence of chess is found in nearby
Sasanian Persia around 600 A.D., where the game came to be known by the name chatrang
(Persian: ‫)چترنگ‬.[54] Chatrang was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of
Persia (633–51), where it was then named shatranj (Arabic: ‫ ;شطرنج‬Persian: ‫)شترنج‬, with the
pieces largely retaining their Persian names. In Spanish, "shatranj" was rendered as ajedrez
("al-shatranj"), in Portuguese as xadrez, and in Greek as ζατρίκιον (zatrikion, which comes
directly from the Persian chatrang),[55] but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions
of the Persian shāh ("king"), from which the English words "check" and "chess" descend.[note 3] The
word "checkmate" is derived from the Persian shāh māt ("the king is dead").[56]

Knights Templar playing chess, Libro de los

juegos, 1283
Xiangqi is the form of chess best known in China. The eastern migration of chess, into China
and Southeast Asia, has even less documentation than its migration west, making it largely
conjectured. The word xiàngqí ( 象棋) was used in China to refer to a game from 569 A.D. at the
latest, but it has not been proven if this game was or was not directly related to chess.[57][58]
The first reference to Chinese chess appears in a book entitled Xuánguaì Lù ( 玄怪錄; "Record of
the Mysterious and Strange"), dating to about 800. A minority view holds that Western chess
arose from xiàngqí or one of its predecessors.[59][60] Chess historians Jean-Louis Cazaux and
Rick Knowlton contend that xiangqi's intrinsic characteristics make it easier to construct an
evolutionary path from China to India/Persia than the opposite direction.[61]

The oldest archaeological chess artifacts – ivory pieces – were excavated in ancient Afrasiab,
today's Samarkand, in Uzbekistan, Central Asia, and date to about 760, with some of them
possibly being older. Remarkably, almost all findings of the oldest pieces come from along the
Silk Road, from the former regions of the Tarim Basin (today's Xinjiang in China),
Transoxiana, Sogdiana, Bactria, Gandhara, to Iran on one end and to India through Kashmir on
the other.[62]

The game reached Western Europe and Russia via at least three routes, the earliest being in the
ninth century. By the year 1000, it had spread throughout both the Muslim Iberia and Latin
Europe.[63] A Latin poem called Versus de scachis ("Verses on Chess") dated to the late 10th
century, has been preserved at Einsiedeln Abbey in Switzerland.

1200–1700: Origins of the modern

game
The game of chess was then played and known in all European countries. A famous 13th-century
Spanish manuscript covering chess, backgammon, and dice is known as the Libro de los juegos,
which is the earliest European treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on
European tables games. The rules were fundamentally similar to those of the Arabic shatranj.
The differences were mostly in the use of a checkered board instead of a plain monochrome
board used by Arabs and the habit of allowing some or all pawns to make an initial double
step. In some regions, the queen, which had replaced the wazir, or the king could also make an
initial two-square leap under some conditions.[64]

A tactical puzzle from Lucena's 1497

book

Around 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified in Europe, culminating, several
major changes later, in the emergence of modern chess practically as it is known today.[65] A
major change was the modern piece movement rules, which began to appear in intellectual
circles in Valencia, Spain, around 1475,[note 4] which established the foundations and brought
it very close to current chess. These new rules then were quickly adopted in Italy and Southern
France before diffusing into the rest of Europe.[68][69] Pawns gained the ability to advance two
squares on their first move, while bishops and queens acquired their modern movement powers.
The queen replaced the earlier vizier chess piece toward the end of the 10th century and by the
15th century had become the most powerful piece;[70] in light of that, modern chess was often
referred to at the time as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess".[71] Castling, derived from the
"king's leap", usually in combination with a pawn or rook move to bring the king to safety, was
introduced. These new rules quickly spread throughout Western Europe.

Writings about chess theory began to appear in the late 15th century. An anonymous treatise
on chess of 1490 with the first part containing some openings and the second 30 endgames is
deposited in the library of the University of Göttingen.[72] The book El Libro dels jochs
partitis dels schachs en nombre de 100 was written by Francesc Vicent in Segorbe in 1495, but
no copy of this work has survived.[72] The Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetition
of Love and the Art of Playing Chess) by Spanish churchman Luis Ramírez de Lucena was
published in Salamanca in 1497.[69] Lucena and later masters like Portuguese Pedro Damiano,
Italians Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona, Giulio Cesare Polerio and Gioachino Greco, and Spanish
bishop Ruy López de Segura developed elements of opening theory and started to analyze simple
endgames.
1700–1873: Romantic era

The "Immortal Game", Anderssen vs.

Kieseritzky, 1851

In the 18th century, the center of European chess life moved from Southern Europe to
mainland France. The two most important French masters were François-André Danican
Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy,
and later Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who won a famous series of matches against
Irish master Alexander McDonnell in 1834.[73] Centers of chess activity in this period were
coffee houses in major European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris and Simpson's Divan in
London.[74][75]

At the same time, the intellectual movement of romanticism had had a far-reaching impact on
chess, with aesthetics and tactical beauty being held in higher regard than objective soundness
and strategic planning. As a result, virtually all games began with the Open Game, and it was
considered unsportsmanlike to decline gambits that invited tactical play such as the King's
Gambit and the Evans Gambit.[76] This chess philosophy is known as Romantic chess, and a sharp,
tactical style consistent with the principles of chess romanticism was predominant until the
late 19th century.[77]

The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century. Also in the
19th century, the convention that White moves first was established (formerly either White or
Black could move first). Finally, the rules around castling and en passant captures were
standardized – variations in these rules persisted in Italy until the late 19th century. The
resulting standard game is sometimes referred to as Western chess[78] or international
chess,[79] particularly in Asia where other games of the chess family such as xiangqi are
prevalent. Since the 19th century, the only rule changes, such as the establishment of the
correct procedure for claiming a draw by repetition, have been technical in nature.

Chess in the Netherlands (1864)

As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many chess clubs, chess
books, and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for
example, the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824.[80] Chess
problems became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers; Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling,
and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843, von der Lasa
published his and Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), the first
comprehensive manual of chess theory.

The first modern chess tournament was organized by Howard Staunton, a leading English chess
player, and was held in London in 1851. It was won by the German Adolf Anderssen, who was
hailed as the leading chess master. His brilliant, energetic attacking style was typical for the
time.[81][82] Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal Game and Evergreen Game or Morphy's
"Opera Game" were regarded as the highest possible summit of the art of chess.[83]

Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with the American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary
chess prodigy. Morphy won against all important competitors (except Staunton, who refused to
play), including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's
success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively
knew how to prepare attacks.[84]
1873–1945: Birth of a sport

Wilhelm Steinitz, the

first official World
Chess Champion, from
1886 to 1894

Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz laid the foundations for a scientific approach to the game, the
art of breaking a position down into components[85] and preparing correct plans.[86] In
addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his
triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first
official World Chess Championship. This win marked a stylistic transition at the highest levels
of chess from an attacking, tactical style predominant in the Romantic era to a more
positional, strategic style introduced to the chess world by Steinitz. Steinitz lost his crown in
1894 to a much younger player, the German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained
this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of any world champion.[87]

After the end of the 19th century, the number of master tournaments and matches held
annually quickly grew. The first Olympiad was held in Paris in 1924, and FIDE was founded
initially for the purpose of organizing that event. In 1927, the Women's World Chess
Championship was established; the first to hold the title was Czech-English master Vera
Menchik.[88]

A prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca, known for his skill in endgames, won the World
Championship from Lasker in 1921. Capablanca was undefeated in tournament play for eight
years, from 1916 to 1924. His successor (1927) was the Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a
strong attacking player who died as the world champion in 1946. Alekhine briefly lost the
title to Dutch player Max Euwe in 1935 and regained it two years later.[89]
In the interwar period, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called
hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the
center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, thus inviting opponents to
occupy the center with pawns, which become objects of attack.[90]

1945–1990: Post-World War II era

Mikhail Botvinnik, the first

post-war World Champion

Bobby Fischer, World

Champion from 1972 to 1975

After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought. FIDE, which has controlled the
title since then, ran a tournament of elite players. The winner of the 1948 tournament was
Russian Mikhail Botvinnik. In 1950, FIDE established a system of titles, conferring the titles
of Grandmaster and International Master on 27 players. (Some sources state that, in 1914,
the title of chess Grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to
Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch, and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim.[note 5])

Botvinnik started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world, which mainly through the
Soviet government's politically inspired efforts to demonstrate intellectual superiority over
the West[91][92] stood almost uninterrupted for more than a half-century. Until the dissolution
of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer
(champion 1972–1975).[93] Botvinnik also revolutionized opening theory. Previously, Black
strove for equality, attempting to neutralize White's first-move advantage. As Black, Botvinnik
strove for the initiative from the beginning.[94] In the previous informal system of World
Championships, the current champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and
the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match. FIDE set up a new system of
qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into Interzonal
tournaments, where they were joined by players who had qualified from Zonal tournaments. The
leading finishers in these Interzonals would go through the "Candidates" stage, which was
initially a tournament, and later a series of knockout matches. The winner of the Candidates
would then play the reigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a
right to play a rematch a year later. This system operated on a three-year cycle. Botvinnik
participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world
championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954.
In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he
lost the title to the 23-year-old Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and
attacking player who is widely regarded as one of the most creative players ever,[95] hence his
nickname "the magician from Riga". Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961.

Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a
rematch, and the next champion, Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a player renowned for his
defensive and positional skills, held the title for two cycles, 1963–1969. His successor, Boris
Spassky from Russia (champion 1969–1972), won games in both positional and sharp tactical
style.[96] The next championship, the so-called Match of the Century, saw the first non-Soviet
challenger since World War II, American Bobby Fischer. Fischer defeated his opponents in the
Candidates matches by unheard-of margins, and convincingly defeated Spassky for the world
championship. The match was followed closely by news media of the day, leading to a surge in
popularity for chess; it also held significant political importance at the height of the Cold
War, with the match being seen by both sides as a microcosm of the conflict between East and
West.[97] In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov
when he was unable to reach agreement on conditions with FIDE, and Karpov obtained the title
by default.[98] Fischer modernized many aspects of chess, especially by extensively preparing
openings.[99]

Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early
1980s with a string of tournament successes.[100] In the 1984 World Chess Championship,
Karpov faced his toughest challenge to date, the young Garry Kasparov from Baku, Soviet
Azerbaijan. The match was aborted in controversial circumstances after 5 months and 48
games with Karpov leading by 5 wins to 3, but evidently exhausted; many commentators
believed Kasparov, who had won the last two games, would have won the match had it continued.
Kasparov won the 1985 rematch. Kasparov and Karpov contested three further closely fought
matches in 1986, 1987 and 1990, Kasparov winning them all.[101] Kasparov became the
dominant figure of world chess from the mid-1980s until his retirement from competition in
2005.

Beginnings of chess technology

Chess-playing computer programs (later known as chess engines) began to appear in the 1960s.
In 1970, the first major computer chess tournament, the North American Computer Chess
Championship, was held, followed in 1974 by the first World Computer Chess Championship. In
the late 1970s, dedicated home chess computers such as Fidelity Electronics' Chess Challenger
became commercially available, as well as software to run on home computers. The overall
standard of computer chess was low, however, until the 1990s.

The first endgame tablebases, which provided perfect play for relatively simple endgames such
as king and rook versus king and bishop, appeared in the late 1970s. This set a precedent to
the complete six- and seven-piece tablebases that became available in the 2000s and 2010s
respectively.[102]

The first commercial chess database, a collection of chess games searchable by move and
position, was introduced by the German company ChessBase in 1987. Databases containing
millions of chess games have since had a profound effect on opening theory and other areas of
chess research.

Digital chess clocks were invented in 1973, though they did not become commonplace until the
1990s. Digital clocks allow for time controls involving increments and delays.
1990–present: Rise of computers and
online chess

Technology
The Internet enabled online chess as a new medium of playing, with chess servers allowing users
to play other people from different parts of the world in real time. The first such server,
known as Internet Chess Server or ICS, was developed at the University of Utah in 1992. ICS
formed the basis for the first commercial chess server, the Internet Chess Club, which was
launched in 1995, and for other early chess servers such as FICS (Free Internet Chess Server).
Since then, many other platforms have appeared, and online chess began to rival over-the-
board chess in popularity.[103][104] During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the isolation ensuing
from quarantines imposed in many places around the world, combined with the success of the
popular Netflix show The Queen's Gambit and other factors such as the popularity of online
tournaments (notably PogChamps) and chess Twitch streamers, resulted in a surge of
popularity not only for online chess, but for the game of chess in general; this phenomenon has
been referred to in the media as the 2020 online chess boom.[105][106]

Computer chess has also seen major advances. By the 1990s, chess engines could consistently
defeat most amateurs, and in 1997 Deep Blue defeated World Champion Garry Kasparov in a
six-game match, starting an era of computer dominance at the highest level of chess. In the
2010s, engines significantly stronger than even the best human players became accessible for
free on a number of PC and mobile platforms, and free engine analysis became a commonplace
feature on internet chess servers. An adverse effect of the easy availability of engine analysis
on hand-held devices and personal computers has been the rise of computer cheating, which has
grown to be a major concern in both over-the-board and online chess.[107] In 2017, AlphaZero
– a neural network also capable of playing shogi and Go – was introduced. Since then, many
chess engines based on neural network evaluation have been written, the best of which have
surpassed the traditional "brute-force" engines. AlphaZero also introduced many novel ideas
and ways of playing the game, which affected the style of play at the top level.[108]
As endgame tablebases developed, they began to provide perfect play in endgame positions in
which the game-theoretical outcome was previously unknown, such as positions with king, queen
and pawn against king and queen. In 1991, Lewis Stiller published a tablebase for select six-
piece endgames,[109][110] and by 2005, following the publication of Nalimov tablebases, all six-
piece endgame positions were solved. In 2012, Lomonosov tablebases were published which
solved all seven-piece endgame positions.[111] Use of tablebases enhances the performance of
chess engines by providing definitive results in some branches of analysis.

Technological progress made in the 1990s and the 21st century has influenced the way that
chess is studied at all levels, as well as the state of chess as a spectator sport.

Previously, preparation at the professional level required an extensive chess library and
several subscriptions to publications such as Chess Informant to keep up with opening
developments and study opponents' games. Today, preparation at the professional level involves
the use of databases containing millions of games, and engines to analyze different opening
variations and prepare novelties.[112] A number of online learning resources are also available
for players of all levels, such as online courses, tactics trainers, and video lessons.[113]

Since the late 1990s, it has been possible to follow major international chess events online,
the players' moves being relayed in real time. Sensory boards have been developed to enable
automatic transmission of moves. Chess players will frequently run engines while watching
these games, allowing them to quickly identify mistakes by the players and spot tactical
opportunities. While in the past the moves have been relayed live, today chess organizers will
often impose a half-hour delay as an anti-cheating measure. In the mid-to-late 2010s – and
especially following the 2020 online boom – it became commonplace for supergrandmasters,
such as Hikaru Nakamura and Magnus Carlsen, to livestream chess content on platforms such as
Twitch.[114][115] Also following the boom, online chess started being viewed as an esport, with
esport teams signing chess players for the first time in 2020.[116]

Growth
Organized chess even for young children has become common. FIDE holds world championships
for age levels down to 8 years old. The largest tournaments, in number of players, are those
held for children.[117]
The number of grandmasters and other chess professionals has also grown in the modern era.
Kenneth Regan and Guy Haworth conducted research involving comparison of move choices by
players of different levels and from different periods with the analysis of strong chess
engines; they concluded that the increase in the number of grandmasters and higher Elo ratings
of the top players reflect an actual increase in the average standard of play, rather than
"rating inflation" or "title inflation".[118]

Professional chess
In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short broke ties with FIDE to organize their own match
for the World Championship and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA).
From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Championships and respective
World Champions: the PCA or "classical" champions extending the Steinitzian tradition in
which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of games, and the other following
FIDE's new format of many players competing in a large knockout tournament to determine the
champion. Kasparov lost his PCA title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia.[119] Due to the
complicated state of world chess politics and difficulties obtaining commercial sponsorships,
Kasparov was never able to challenge for the title again. Despite this, he continued to
dominate in top level tournaments and remained the world's highest rated player until his
retirement from competitive chess in 2005.

The World Chess Championship 2006, in which Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin
Topalov, reunified the titles and made Kramnik the undisputed World Chess Champion.[120] In
September 2007, he lost the title to Viswanathan Anand of India, who won the championship
tournament in Mexico City. Anand defended his title in the revenge match of 2008,[121] 2010
and 2012. Magnus Carlsen defeated Anand in the 2013 World Chess Championship, and defended
his title in 2014, 2016, 2018, and 2021. After the 2021 match, he announced that he would
not defend his title a fifth time, so the 2023 World Chess Championship was played between
the winner and runner-up of the Candidates Tournament 2022: respectively, Ian
Nepomniachtchi of Russia and Ding Liren of China. Ding beat Nepomniachtchi, making him the
current World Chess Champion.[12]
Connections

Arts and humanities

In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, chess was a part of noble culture; it was used to
teach war strategy and was dubbed the "King's Game".[122] Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in
the play at Chestes", says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of
the Courtier (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's
main passion. Castiglione explains it further:

Noble chess players, Germany, c. 1320

And what say you to the game at chestes? It is truely an honest kynde
of enterteynmente and wittie, quoth Syr Friderick. But me think it hath
a fault, whiche is, that a man may be to couning at it, for who ever will
be excellent in the playe of chestes, I beleave he must beestowe much
tyme about it, and applie it with so much study, that a man may
 assoone learne some noble scyence, or compase any other matter of
importaunce, and yet in the ende in beestowing all that laboure, he
knoweth no more but a game. Therfore in this I beleave there
happeneth a very rare thing, namely, that the meane is more
commendable, then the excellency.[123]

Some of the elaborate chess sets used by the aristocracy at least partially survive, such as the
Lewis chessmen.

Chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality. An example is Liber de moribus hominum
et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of
nobles or the Book of Chess'), written by an Italian Dominican friar Jacobus de Cessolis
c. 1300. This book was one of the most popular of the Middle Ages.[124] The work was translated
into many other languages (the first printed edition was published at Utrecht in 1473) and
was the basis for William Caxton's The Game and Playe of the Chesse (1474), one of the first
books printed in English.[125] Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different
classes of people, and human duties were derived from the rules of the game or from visual
properties of the chess pieces:[126]

The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an hors in suche wyse
that he haue an helme on his heed and a spere in his ryght hande/ and
coueryd wyth his sheld/ a swerde and a mace on his lyft syde/ Cladd
wyth an hawberk and plates to fore his breste/ legge harnoys on his
legges/ Spores on his heelis on his handes his gauntelettes/ his hors
well broken and taught and apte to bataylle and couerid with his
armes/ whan the knyghtes ben maad they ben bayned or bathed/ that
is the signe that they shold lede a newe lyf and newe maners/ also they
wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god that he wylle
gyue hem grace that they may gete that thynge that they may not gete
by nature/ The kynge or prynce gyrdeth a boute them a swerde in
signe/ that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom they take theyr
dispenses and dignyte.[127]
Known in the circles of clerics, students, and merchants, chess entered into the popular culture
of the Middle Ages. An example is the 209th song of Carmina Burana from the 13th century,
which starts with the names of chess pieces, Roch, pedites, regina...[128] The game of chess, at
times, has been discouraged by various religious authorities in Middle Ages: Jewish,[129]
Catholic and Orthodox.[130] Some Muslim authorities prohibited it even recently, for example
Ruhollah Khomeini in 1979 and Abdul-Aziz ash-Sheikh even later.[131]

During the Age of Enlightenment, chess was viewed as a means of self-improvement. Benjamin
Franklin, in his article "The Morals of Chess" (1750), wrote:

The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very

valuable qualities of the mind, useful in the course of human life, are
to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on
all occasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points
to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which
there is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, in some degree,
the effect of prudence, or the want of it. By playing at Chess then, we
may learn:

I. Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the

consequences that may attend an action ...

II. Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene

of action: – the relation of the several Pieces, and their situations ...

III. Caution, not to make our moves too hastily ...[132]

Through the Looking-Glass: the Red King

is snoring. Illustration by Sir John
Tenniel.
Chess was occasionally criticized in the 19th century as a waste of time.[133][134]

Chess is taught to children in schools around the world today. Many schools host chess clubs,
and there are many scholastic tournaments specifically for children. Tournaments are held
regularly in many countries, hosted by organizations such as the United States Chess
Federation and the National Scholastic Chess Foundation.[135]

Chess is many times depicted in the arts; significant works where chess plays a key role range
from Thomas Middleton's A Game at Chess to Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll, to
Vladimir Nabokov's The Defense, to The Royal Game by Stefan Zweig. Chess has also featured in
film classics such as Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal, Satyajit Ray's The Chess Players, and
Powell and Pressburger's A Matter of Life and Death.

Chess is also present in contemporary popular culture. For example, the characters in Star
Trek play a futuristic version of the game called "Federation Tri-Dimensional Chess"[136] and
"Wizard's Chess" is played in J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter.[137]

Mathematics
The game structure and nature of chess are related to several branches of mathematics. Many
combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess, such as the knight's tour and the
eight queens puzzle, have been known for hundreds of years.

Mathematicians Euler,
Legendre, de Moivre, and
Vandermonde studied the
knight's tour.
The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be 4.59 ± 0.38 × 1044 with a 95%
confidence level,[138] with a game-tree complexity of approximately 10123. The game-tree
complexity of chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon as 10120, a number known as the
Shannon number.[139] An average position typically has thirty to forty possible moves, but
there may be as few as zero (in the case of checkmate or stalemate) or (in a constructed
position) as many as 218.[140]

In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theory of game strategies, which is
considered one of the predecessors of game theory.[141] Zermelo's theorem states that it is
possible to solve chess, i.e. to determine with certainty the outcome of a perfectly played game
(either White can force a win, or Black can force a win, or both sides can force at least a
draw).[142] With 1043 legal positions in chess, however, it will take an impossibly long time to
compute a perfect strategy with any feasible technology.[143]

Psychology
There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology.[note 6][145][146][147][148] Alfred
Binet and others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at
the core of expertise.[149][150] In his doctoral thesis, Adriaan de Groot showed that chess
masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position.[151] According to de Groot, this
perception, made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer
ability to anticipate moves. De Groot showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown
for a few seconds almost perfectly. The ability to memorize does not alone account for chess-
playing skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces,
had equivalent recall (about six positions in each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize
patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices.
When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total
positional recall.[152]

More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge
and look-ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the
role of personality and intelligence in chess skill; gender differences; and computational
models of chess expertise. The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other
domains of expertise has led to much empirical investigation. Ericsson and colleagues have
argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess.[153]
Recent research, however, fails to replicate their results and indicates that factors other than
practice are also important.[154][155] For example, Fernand Gobet and colleagues have shown
that stronger players started playing chess at a young age and that experts born in the
Northern Hemisphere are more likely to have been born in late winter and early spring.
Compared to the general population, chess players are more likely to be non-right-handed,
though they found no correlation between handedness and skill.[155]

A relationship between chess skill and intelligence has long been discussed in scientific
literature as well as in popular culture. Academic studies that investigate the relationship
date back at least to 1927.[156] Although one meta-analysis and most children studies find a
positive correlation between general cognitive ability and chess skill, adult studies show mixed
results.[157][158]

Composition

Richard Réti
Ostrauer
Morgenzeitung,
1921
 abcde fgh
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
abcde fgh
White to move and draw
This Réti endgame study is solved by a diagonal advance of the white king that brings it to both pawns
simultaneously to stop the black pawn or to support the white pawn on its way to queen.[159]

Chess composition is the art of creating chess problems (also called chess compositions). The
creator is known as a chess composer.[160] There are many types of chess problems; the two most
important are:

Directmates: White to move first and

checkmate Black within a specified
number of moves, against any defense.
These are often referred to as "mate in
n" – for example "mate in three" (a
three-mover); two- and three-move
problems are the most common. These
usually involve positions that would be
highly unlikely to occur in an actual
game, and are intended to illustrate a
particular theme, usually requiring a
surprising or counterintuitive key
move. Themes associated with chess
problems occasionally appear in actual
games, when they are referred to as
"problem-like" moves.[161]
Studies: orthodox problems where the
stipulation is that White to play must
 win or draw. The majority of studies
are endgame positions.[162]
Fairy chess is a branch of chess problem composition involving altered rules, such as the use of
unconventional pieces or boards, or unusual stipulations such as reflexmates.

Tournaments for composition and solving of chess problems are organized by the World
Federation for Chess Composition, which works cooperatively with but independent of FIDE.
The WFCC awards titles for composing and solving chess problems.[163]

Online chess
Online chess is chess that is played over the internet, allowing players to play against each
other in real time. This is done through the use of Internet chess servers, which pair up
individual players based on their rating using an Elo or similar rating system. Online chess
saw a spike in growth during the quarantines of the COVID-19 pandemic.[164][165] This can be
attributed to both isolation and the popularity of Netflix miniseries The Queen's Gambit,
which was released in October 2020.[164][165] Chess app downloads on the App Store and Google
Play Store rose by 63% after the show debuted.[166] Chess.com saw more than twice as many
account registrations in November as it had in previous months, and the number of games
played monthly on Lichess doubled as well. There was also a demographic shift in players, with
female registration on Chess.com shifting from 22% to 27% of new players.[167] GM Maurice
Ashley said "A boom is taking place in chess like we have never seen maybe since the Bobby
Fischer days", attributing the growth to an increased desire to do something constructive
during the pandemic.[168] USCF Women's Program Director Jennifer Shahade stated that chess
works well on the internet, since pieces do not need to be reset and matchmaking is virtually
instant.[169]
Computer chess
The idea of creating a chess-playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the
chess-playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax.[170]
Serious trials based on automata, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be
useful. Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts, computer
engineers, and computer scientists have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and
success, chess-playing machines and computer programs.[171] The groundbreaking paper on
computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", was published in 1950 by Claude
Shannon.[note 7] He wrote:

The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem
is sharply defined both in allowed operations (the moves) and in the
ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple as to be trivial
nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally
considered to require "thinking" for skillful play; a solution of this
problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanized
thinking or to further restrict our concept of "thinking"; (4) the
discrete structure of chess fits well into the digital nature of modern
computers.[173]

1990s chess-playing computer

The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) held the first major chess tournament for
computers, the North American Computer Chess Championship, in September 1970. CHESS 3.0,
a chess program from Northwestern University, won the championship. The first World
Computer Chess Championship, held in 1974, was won by the Soviet program Kaissa. At first
considered only a curiosity, the best chess playing programs have become extremely strong. In
1997, a computer won a chess match using classical time controls against a reigning World
Champion for the first time: IBM's Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov 3½–2½ (it scored two wins,
one loss, and three draws).[174][175] There was some controversy over the match,[176] and human–
computer matches were relatively close over the next few years, until convincing computer
victories in 2005 and in 2006.

In 2009, a mobile phone won a category 6 tournament with a performance rating of 2898:
chess engine Hiarcs 13 running on the mobile phone HTC Touch HD won the Copa Mercosur
tournament with nine wins and one draw.[177] The best chess programs are now able to
consistently beat the strongest human players, to the extent that human–computer matches no
longer attract interest from chess players or the media.[178] While the World Computer Chess
Championship still exists, the Top Chess Engine Championship (TCEC) is widely regarded as the
unofficial world championship for chess engines.[179][180][181] The current champion is
Stockfish.

With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers can help players to
learn chess and prepare for matches. Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play
opponents worldwide. The presence of computers and modern communication tools have raised
concerns regarding cheating during games.[182]

Variants

Sittuyin, after setup phase. Players

elect their own starting setups
behind the pawns.
There are more than two thousand published chess variants, games with similar but different
rules.[183] Most of them are of relatively recent origin.[184] They include:

direct predecessors of chess, such as

chaturanga and shatranj;
traditional national or regional games
that share common ancestors with
Western chess such as xiangqi (Chinese
chess), shogi (Japanese chess), janggi
(Korean chess), ouk chatrang (Cambodian
chess), makruk (Thai chess), sittuyin
(Burmese chess), and shatar (Mongolian
chess);
modern variations employing different
rules (e.g. Losing chess or
Chess960[note 8]), different forces (e.g.
Dunsany's Chess), non-standard pieces
 (e.g. Grand Chess), and different board
geometries (e.g. hexagonal chess or
Infinite chess);
In the context of chess variants, chess is commonly referred to as Western chess, international
chess, orthodox chess, orthochess, and classic chess.[186][187]

See also

Glossary of chess Chess

portal
Glossary of chess problems
Games
List of World Chess portal

Championships
Women in chess

Notes

1. The fifty-move rule is not applied at

FICGS.[7]
2. Current FIDE lists of top players with
their titles are online at "FIDE Ratings
and Statistics" (https://ratings.fide.co
m/) . ratings.fide.com. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/2023071010163
9/http://ratings.fide.com/) from the
original on 10 July 2023. Retrieved
29 December 2022.
3. At that time the Spanish word would have
been written axedrez. The Spanish "x" was
pronounced as English "sh", as the
Portuguese "x" still is today. The spelling
of ajedrez changed after Spanish lost the
"sh" sound.
4. The allegorical poem Scachs d'amor, the
first to describe a modern game, is
probably from 1475.[66][67]
5. This is stated in The Encyclopaedia of
Chess (1970, p. 223) by Anne Sunnucks,
but is disputed by Edward Winter (chess
historian) in his Chess Notes 5144 and
5152 (http://www.chesshistory.com/wint
er/winter38.html) .
6. Chess is even called the "drosophila" of
cognitive psychology and artificial
intelligence (AI) studies, because it
represents the domain in which expert
performance has been most intensively
studied and measured.[144]
7. Alan Turing made an attempt in
1953.[172]
 8. In 2008 FIDE added Chess960 rules to
an appendix of the Handbook.[185] This
section is now classified under
"Guidelines",[2] indicating that the rules
presented do not have the weight of FIDE
law.

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060640/http://aekphotography.co.uk/C
AA/html/laws_historic.html) from the
original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved
29 December 2022.: "FIDE Laws of Chess -
coming into force on 1 July 2009" (htt
p://aekphotography.co.uk/CAA/Laws_of_C
hess_2009.pdf) (PDF). Chess Arbiters'
Association. Archived (https://web.archiv
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kphotography.co.uk/CAA/Laws_of_Chess_2
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186. "Western culture regards Chess as a
particular game with a particular set of
rules governed by an international
authority (FIDE – the Fédération
Internationale des Echecs). Variously
known as International Chess, World
Chess, Orthochess, and so on [...]" Parlett
(1999), p. 276
187. Schmittberger, R. Wayne (1992). New
Rules for Classic Games (https://archive.o
rg/details/newrulesforclass00rway/pag
e/186) . John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 186 (h
ttps://archive.org/details/newrulesforcl
ass00rway/page/186) . ISBN 978-0-
471-53621-5. "The form of chess most
people know – which is sometimes
referred to as Western chess, orthodox
chess, or orthochess – is itself just one of
many that have been played throughout
history."

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Further reading

Dunnington, Angus (2003). Chess

Psychology: Approaching the
Psychological Battle Both on and Off
the Board. Everyman Chess. ISBN 978-
1-85744-326-4.
Fine, Reuben (1983). The World's Great
Chess Games. Courier Dover
Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-24512-
6. OCLC 9394460 (https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/9394460) .
Hale, Benjamin (2008). Philosophy
Looks at Chess. Open Court Publishing
Company. ISBN 978-0-8126-9633-2.
Kotov, Alexander (1971). Think Like a
Grandmaster. B.T. Batsford Ltd.
ISBN 978-0-7134-3160-5.
Lasker, Emanuel (1960). Lasker's Manual
of Chess. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-
20640-0.
Mason, James (1947). The Art of Chess.
Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-
20463-5. OCLC 45271009 (https://w
ww.worldcat.org/oclc/45271009) . (see
the included supplement, "How Do You
Play Chess")
 Pachman, Ludek (1971). Modern Chess
Strategy. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-
20290-7.
Réti, Richard (1960). Modern Ideas in
Chess. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20638-
7.
Rizzitano, James (2004). Understanding
Your Chess. Gambit Publications.
ISBN 978-1-904600-07-7.
OCLC 55205602 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/55205602) .

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