eTropic: electronic journal of studies in the tropics

 
 
Towards a Tropical Urbanism for Cairns, Australia

Lisa Law
https://orcid.org/0000-­0002-­0095-­7588  
 

James Cook University, Cairns, Australia

Urbi Musso
 
Independent Scholar, Cairns, Australia

Abstract
 
This   paper   engages   with   debates   about   tropical   cities   and   climate  
responsive   design   to   consider   the   emergence   of   two   local   government  
master  plans  and  one  planning  scheme  provision  explicitly  addressing  the  
tropical   climate   in   Cairns,   Australia.   The   undergirding   concept   of   these  
initiatives   is   a   terminology   of   Tropical   Urbanism,   a   simultaneously  
environmental  and  social/cultural  term  that  captures  issues  such  as  climate,  
lifestyle  and  identity  in  the  constitution  of  the  urban  fabric.  Through  a  detailed  
reading  of  the  documents,  combined  with  interviews  with  local  architects  and  
planners,   this   paper   positions   Tropical   Urbanism   as   an   environmentally  
aware   version   of   New   Urbanism   and   as   a   distinctive   language   of   urban  
design   emerging   in   the   regional   context   of   tropical   Australia.   Place-­based  
initiatives  such  as  these  are  important  to  improving  the  design  outcomes  and  
sustainability  of  regional  cities,  and  we  suggest  Tropical  Urbanism  could  be  
further   reinforced   by   the   social/cultural   and   political   nuances   of   a   more  
progressive  Critical  Regionalist  approach.  
 
Keywords:   Tropical   Urbanism,   Urban   Design,   Planning,   New   Urbanism,  
Regionalism,  Critical  Regionalism,  Cairns  
 
 
 
 
 
 
eTropic: electronic journal of studies in the tropics publishes  new  research  from  arts,  humanities,  social  
sciences  and  allied  fields  on  the  variety  and  interrelatedness  of  nature,  culture,  and  society  in  the  tropics.  Published  
by  James  Cook  University,  a  leading  research  institution  on  critical  issues  facing  the  worlds’  Tropics.  Free  open  
access,   Scopus   Listed,   Scimago   Q2.   Indexed   in:   Google   Scholar,   DOAJ,   Crossref,   Ulrich's,   SHERPA/RoMEO,  
Pandora.  ISSN  1448-­2940.  Creative  Commons  CC  BY  4.0  free  to  download,  save  and  reproduce.  To  cite,  include:  
Author(s),  Title,  eTropic,  volume,  issue,  year,  pages  and  DOI:  http://dx.doi.org/10.25120/etropic.19.2.2020.3774    
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   eTropic  19.2  (2020)  Special  Issue:  Sustainable  Tropical  Urbanism    

 
 

T
his  study  forms  part  of  a  larger  conversation  amongst  planners,  architects  and  
allied  industries  about  climate  responsive  planning  and  urban  design  in  tropical  
Australia.  The  city  discussed  here  is  Cairns,  Queensland,  a  coastal  city  nestled  
between   two   UNESCO   World   Heritage   areas:   the   Great   Barrier   Reef,   and   the   Wet  
Tropics  rainforest.  Cairns  is  a  tourism-­reliant,  regional  city  of  just  over  160,000  people,  
and  has  a  1.9%  growth  rate  which  has  created  the  need  for  an  increased  supply  of  
land   and   housing   (Cairns   Regional   Council,   2020).   In   2010   and   2011   two   local  
government   master   plans   reflected   this   growth   and   were   underpinned   by   a   new  
concept/term:  Tropical  Urbanism.    One  plan  set  an  agenda  for  rejuvenating  the  Cairns  
City  Centre,  while  the  other  crafted  a  new  template  for  residential  development  in  the  
southern  growth  corridor  of  the  city.  The  concept/term  surfaced  again  in  2016  when  
Tropical   Urbanism   provisions   were   incorporated   into   the   Cairns   Regional   Council’s  
local   government   planning   scheme.   These   three   initiatives   recognise   the   need   for  
greater   consideration   of   the   tropical   climate   in   urban   planning,   and   integrate  
sustainability  concerns,  environmental  sensitivity  and  a  new  emphasis  on  lifestyle  and  
culture.   Indeed,   high   temperatures   and   humidity   levels   make   tropical   cities  
uncomfortable,  and  how  to  accomplish  good  urban  design  within  tropical  climates  –  
including   responsiveness   to   regional   specificities   –   is   a   growing   agenda   for   local  
governments  as  well  as  developers,  architects  and  the  tourism  industries  that  shape  
the  city’s  urban  fabric.  
 
In  this  paper  we  suggest  that  engaging  with  the  tropical  climate  is  encouraging  a  range  
of   professionals   to   think   across   all   scales   of   tropical   urban   design,   not   just   the  
architecture  of  individual  buildings.    Such  thinking  is  evident  in  the  language  of  Tropical  
Urbanism:   a   design   vocabulary   of   shade,   greenery   and   breezes   that   works   across  
buildings,   streets,   blocks   and   neighbourhoods   to   reflect   the   distinctive   context   of  
tropical  north  Queensland.  In  what  follows  we  explore  how  this  terminology  depicts  the  
tropical  climate  in  both  an  environmental  and  social/cultural  sense.  More  specifically,  
we  show  how  the  concept  encourages  climate  responsive  design  but  also  reveals  a  
regionalist,   locally   significant   tropical   identity   and   lifestyle   that   reflects   a   wider  
appreciation  and  use/meaning  of  tropical  urban  space.    
 
In  the  analysis  that  follows  we  compare  Tropical  Urbanism  to  New  Urbanism,  but  also  
to   Critical   Regionalism   as   that   concept   emerged   out   of   specific   debates   in   tropical  
architecture.   New   Urbanism   is   an   American   urban   design   movement   aimed   at  
reducing   car   dependence   bought   about   through   earlier   settlement   design,   while  
encouraging   higher   densities,   walking   and   mixed   use.   Australia   evolved   its   own  
Australian  Council  for  New  Urbanism  (https://www.acnu.org),  and  in  Queensland  New  
Urbanist  ideas  shaped  the  Next  Generation  Planning  handbook  produced  by  the  state  
government   (QDLGP,   2011).   The   handbook   promoted   form-­based   codes   to   create  
compact   urban   form,   thus   increasing   housing   diversity,   walkable   neighbourhoods,  

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   eTropic  19.2  (2020)  Special  Issue:  Sustainable  Tropical  Urbanism    

 
 
active   transport   and   mixed-­use,   while   also   protecting   natural   environments.   The  
handbook  was  intended  to  guide  development  in  the  southeast  corner  of  Queensland  
surrounding  Brisbane,  but  in  practice  the  ideas  were  picked  up  across  the  vast  state,  
thus  implementing  uniformity  across  differing  climate  subregions,  geographic  features  
and   urban   forms.   Critical   Regionalism,   on   the   other   hand,   was   a   movement   in  
architecture   initiated   by   Tzonis   and   Lefaivre   (1981)   but   made   popular   by   Frampton  
(1983).  The  movement  expressed  resistance  to  global  uniformity  in  architecture  and  
worked  towards  a  more  regionally  responsive  built  environment.  Frampton’s  iteration  
did  not  focus  on  the  politics  of  architecture  in  former  colonies,  however,  this  critical  
element   was   evident   in   the   later   work   of   Lefaivre   et   al.   (2001),   while   Lefaivre   and  
Tzonis’   (2012)   recent   focus   has   moved   to   ‘regionalist’   architecture   in   a   context   of  
globalisation   and   related   issues   of   identity,   community   and   sustainability.   In   what  
follows  we  argue  that  Tropical  Urbanism  draws  on  a  New  Urbanism  that  articulates  
with  Regionalist  and  Critical  Regionalist  approaches  that  mediate  between  the  global  
and  local  languages  of  the  built  environment.  
 
The   research   detailed   below   includes   an   analysis   of   the   two   master   plans   and   the  
planning  scheme  provision,  as  well  as  drawing  from  targeted  interviews  with  industry  
professionals.   These   perspectives   suggest   the   need   for   a   regional   vocabulary   of  
tropical  design:  an  urban  grammar  capable  of  local  expression  as  well  as  good  climatic  
and  social  performance,  while  at  the  same  time  using  appropriate  tropical  materials  
and  means  of  building  (see  Bay,  2001,  p.  230).  First,  we  provide  a  brief  background  
to  climate  responsive  planning  as  a  framework  for  this  research.  This  is  followed  by  
an   analysis   of   the   two   master   plans   and   the   new   planning   scheme   provisions,   and  
interviews   with   stakeholders.   We   conclude   by   suggesting   that   Tropical   Urbanism  
should   be   fully   engaged   with   social   and   cultural   nuances   for   a   progressive   Critical  
Regionalist  approach.  
 
Planning  and  Designing  with  Climate  
 
The   consideration   of   local   climatic   conditions   had   been   a   routine   aspect   of   earlier  
settlement  design,  but  a  variety  of  factors  led  to  its  declining  significance  over  time  
(Eliasson,  2000).  In  former  Anglo-­European  colonies,  such  as  tropical  Australia,  this  
scenario   unfolded   in   particular   ways,   primarily   in   terms   of   altering   early   climate-­
adapted   architecture   and   settlement   forms   through   importing   designs   from   far   off,  
mostly  temperate,  places  –  including  from  major  centres  in  the  Australian  south,  which  
were  in  turn  influenced  by  the  Global  North.  Not  only  did  this  alter  ways  of  living,  but  it  
also  inhibited  local-­regional  innovation  in  the  planning  and  design  field  (Bridgeman,  
2003;;   Tay,   2001;;   Chang   &   King,   2011).   Even   the   classic   ‘Queenslander’,   the  
vernacular  building  style  of  Cairns  from  the  1920s  –  with  its  distinctive  architectural  
elements  and  notable  adaption  to  the  climate  –  was  not  locally  produced;;  rather,  it  was  

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   eTropic  19.2  (2020)  Special  Issue:  Sustainable  Tropical  Urbanism    

 
 
a  product  of  early  kit  homes  designed  and  prefabricated  further  south  in  subtropical  
Brisbane  and  shipped  up  to  the  Far  North  Queensland  city  (Heritage  Alliance,  2011;;  
Naylor,  2010).  The  advent  of  mechanical  cooling,  and  its  widespread  availability  since  
the  1980s,  has  significantly  worsened  the  scenario  of  declining  climate  design  (Fantin  
et   al.,   2015).   New   subdivision   developments   in   Cairns   tend   to   have   little   climate  
responsive   and   sensitive   design   elements   and   template-­style   estates   on   small   lots  
with   few   breezeways   have   led   to   year-­round   air   conditioning   and   mounting  
costs/energy  demands  for  the  region  (Law,  2019;;  Law  et  al.,  2021).    Indeed,  climate-­
neutral  building  is  a  key  factor  in  reducing  the  need  for  tropical  design  and  demotes  
sustainable  practices  in  the  process  (Tay,  2001;;  Le  Roux,  2003;;  Bay  &  Ong,  2007;;  
Winter,  2011;;  Safarova  et  al.,  2018).    
 
Precedents   for   climate-­informed   planning   for   the   Tropics   can   be   gleaned   from   the  
contrasting  cold-­temperate  Winter  City  movement.  This  movement  integrates  climate  
and  planning  with  the  goal  of  increasing  liveability  and  senses  of  place  in  cold  regions.  
Originating   in   Canada,   but   extending   to   northern   Europe   and   Japan,   it   focuses   on  
creating  high  functioning  urban  environments  that  can  be  used  even  in  harsh  winter  
conditions.  The  movement  strives  to  reduce  the  influence  of  legislative,  administrative,  
economic   and   political   priorities,   which   typically   result   in   ‘thermally   neutral’  
environments  devoid  of  climate  considerations  and  genius  loci  attributes  (Pressman,  
1996).  It  is  this  combination  of  environment  and  liveability  with  a  social  and  political  
agenda   that   helps   elaborate   an   agenda   for   Tropical   Urbanism   in   Cairns.  
Policies/legislation/regulation  for  the  built  environment  generated  by  state  and  federal  
governments  often  default  to  temperate  conditions  and  this  can  sometimes  mean  poor  
outcomes   in   the   tropical   built   environment;;   for   instance,   green   ratings   systems   that  
encourage  fully  sealed  buildings,  rather  than  well  ventilated  ones  that  better  suit  the  
climate   (see   Law   et   al   2021;;   Oppermann,   et   al.,   2017).   These   temperate-­centric  
policies  can  map  the  climatic  and  ecological  difference  of  the  Tropics  onto  enduring  
power  relations  that  permeate  the  relation  between  northern  tropical  Australia  and  the  
southern  temperate  cities  where  state  and  federal  parliaments  reside  (see  Driver  &  
Yeoh,  2000).  Stated  differently,  Cairns  is  a  distant  regional  city  that  is  governed  at  a  
distance.  The  local  government  has  limited  ability  for  self-­determination  and  planning  
policies  are  often  shaped  by  activities  in  far-­off,  more  populated  centres  with  different  
urban  patterns  and  priorities  (Anderson  &  Law,  2015).  A  strong  reliance  on  tourism  
only  complicates  this  relation  between  Cairns,  and  its  identity,  and  the  elsewhere(s)  of  
tourism  expectations.  
 
In  contrast  to  the  cold,  harsh  climates  of  the  Global  North  or  the  far  south  of  Australia,  
the  Tropics  are  fortunate  in  that  the  outdoor  environment  has  a  high  usability  factor,  
enabling   outdoor   spaces   to   be   utilised   year-­round.   That   said,   tropical   urban   design  
must   still   address   techniques   such   as   orientation,   building   mass,   adequate   green  

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   eTropic  19.2  (2020)  Special  Issue:  Sustainable  Tropical  Urbanism    

 
 
spaces,   and   breezeways,   to   make   the   city   more   habitable   (Emmanuel,   2005).   A  
critically  engaged  tropical  design  might  also  encourage  new  ways  of  engaging  with  
heat/rain/insects,   and   address   the   political   realm   affecting   strategic   planning.   In   a  
multidisciplinary  approach  incorporating  both  architecture  and  planning,  Singaporean  
architect  Tay  Kheng  Soon  (2001)  partially  addressed  this  gap  within  his  Tropical  City  
Concept.  Incorporating  broad-­scale  tropical  urban  design,  he  recognises  the  need  to  
radically  integrate  regionally  responsive  elements  in  both  architecture  and  planning:      
 
The   Tropical   City   Concept   is   an   attempt   to   reconceptualise   the  
relationship  between  architecture  and  city  planning  at  the  metropolitan  
scale  in  a  sustainable  ecological  manner.  It  is  an  attempt  to  forge  the  
critical  link  between  the  ecology,  city  planning  and  architecture.…  The  
Tropical  City  Concept  is  a  design  strategy  which  attempts  to  answer  
the  questions  of  dense  urban  living  in  a  geographical  context  but  in  a  
manner   which   acknowledges   the   sun   and   the   rain   as   positive  
elements  in  design  rather  than  as  factors  to  be  shunned.  The  design  
of   the   city   cannot   any   longer   be   conceptually   divided   into   closed  
categories  such  as  ‘architecture’  and  ‘planning’.  Space  in  the  city  has  
to   be   conceived   of   as   an   integrated   resource   albeit   under   different  
responsibilities  (Tay,  2001,  p.  270).        
 
While  Cairns  is  not  a  dense,  tropical  city  like  Singapore,  Tay’s  rethinking  of  how  we  
integrate   modern   ways   of   living   in   the   tropical   built   environment,   and   his  
acknowledgement   of   the   impact   of   colonial   legacies,   resonates   with   imported   and  
unresponsive  urban  development  in  tropical  Australia.  Similar  to  Tay’s  Tropical  City  
Concept,  Tropical  Urbanism  could  be  further  understood  within  a  Critical  Regionalist  
perspective  that  argues  for  a  built  environment  evolving  from  the  specific  locale  and  
which   is   ecological   while   at   the   same   time   offering   opportunities   for   emancipation  
(Tzonis,  et  al.,  2001).    We  now  turn  to  defining  and  giving  form  to  Tropical  Urbanism  
as  an  emerging,  place-­based  concept  in  Australia  to  explore  these  ideas  further.    
 
Tropical  Planning  in  Cairns  
 
Cairns  is  a  city  with  a  tropical  climate  characterised  by  distinct  wet  and  dry  seasons.  
Summers   are   typically   hot   and   humid   with   daytime   temperatures   between   23-­31˚C  
and  milder  winter  days  between  19-­26°C.  Summer  is  locally  referred  to  as  the  ‘wet  
season’  due  to  the  high  rainfall,  typically  more  than  2000mm  for  the  season.  Cairns  
summers   can   also   experience   tropical   cyclones   which,   like   “the   big   wet”,   are  
incorporated   into   a   social/cultural/climatic   sense   of   place   (see   Spicer,   2016).   The  
earliest  layout  of  Cairns  responds  to  this  tropical  coastal  climate  and  follows  a  typical  
grid  pattern.  Streets  are  oriented  at  an  angle  to  catch  prevailing  southerly  breezes,  

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indicating   climate   responsiveness   during   the   city’s   early   establishment   in   the   late  
1800s.    
 
Master  Plans  -­  Cairns  City  Centre  and  Mount  Peter  
 
Cairns  City  Centre,  the  location  of  the  first  master  plan  examined  here,  covers  a  large  
area,  similar  in  size  to  the  central  business  district  of  Brisbane,  Queensland’s  capital  
city.  This  is  a  significant  scale  in  comparison  to  the  two  city’s  populations,  with  just  
160,000   for   Cairns   and   over   2.4   million   for   Brisbane.   The   expansive   nature   of   the  
Cairns   CBD,   and   a   culture   desiring   physical   and   air-­conditioned   comfort,   means  
walkability  in  the  city  is  limited  and  most  people  rely  on  cars  to  move  around.  The  Plan  
therefore   aims   to   encourage   more   walking   and   legibility/connectivity   between   three  
key  precincts  of  the  city  centre:  the  Esplanade/Lagoon  area  (leisure),  Cairns  Central  
(retail),   and   the   Reef   Fleet   Terminal   (entertainment)   (Figure   1).   The   Plan   aims   to  
enhance  walkability  partly  through  enhancing  the  existing  green  spaces  of  the  city  —  
for  example,  the  large  tropical  native  fig  trees  —  and  greening  the  main  thoroughfares  
in  the  district.  
   
Figure  1  Cairns  City  Centre  Master  Plan  Green  Infrastructure  
 

 
 

Architectus   proposed   enhancing   the   green   spines   of   the   city   to   encourage  

walkability  (Source:    Architectus,  2011)    
 
Mount  Peter,  the  second  Plan  location,  is  a  rural  area  located  15  kilometres  south  of  
Cairns  City  itself.  The  Mount  Peter  area  contains  1,550  hectares  of  developable  land,  
most   of   which   since   early   settlement   has   been   farmland.   The   area   was   declared   a  

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   eTropic  19.2  (2020)  Special  Issue:  Sustainable  Tropical  Urbanism    

 
 
Master  Planned  Area  in  2008  and  is  expected  to  accommodate  an  ultimate  population  
of  40,000  people  over  the  next  few  decades.  The  Mount  Peter  development  is  one  of  
the  largest  master  planning  exercises  undertaken  in  Queensland  and  represents  “an  
opportunity  for  best  practice  urban  planning,  infrastructure  provision,  place  making  and  
urban  design”  (CRC,  2010).  As  inferred  in  Figure  2,  the  development  is  to  be  higher  
density  than  other  suburban  areas,  be  mixed  use,  walkable  and  have  breezeways  and  
green  infrastructure  integrated  throughout.  
 
Figure  2  Mount  Peter  Urban  Densities  and  Transit  Corridors  

 
 

The  Mount  Peter  master  plan  proposed  higher  densities,  walkable  communities  and  
strong  transit  corridors  along  the  major  routes  (Cairns  Regional  Council,  2010)    
 
The  two  Plans  are  intended  for  different  urban  planning  applications  –  the  Cairns  City  
Centre  Master  Plan  is  for  a  mixed-­use  city  centre  and  the  Mount  Peter  Master  Plan  is  
for   a   residential   subdivision   –   but   in   this   sense   they   provide   insight   into   a   range   of  
tropical   urban   spaces   and   their   uses.   Both   consciously   and   deliberately   deploy   the  
language   of   Tropical   Urbanism   and   help   define   the   concept   as   a   guiding   model   for  
future  urban  growth.      
 
The  two  Plans  are  similar  in  the  way  they  depict  Tropical  Urbanism,  particularly  in  the  
way   they   distinguish   two   distinct   tropical   realms:   climatic   and   social/cultural.   The  
Mount   Peter   Master   Plan   devotes   much   attention   to   climate,   for   example,   with   the  

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Mount  Peter  Design  Approach  featuring  extensive  details  about  the  tropical  climate,  
climatology   and   appropriate   design   techniques   for   climate-­sensitive   design,   for  
instance:  block  orientation,  ventilation  corridors,  wide  shady  streets,  outdoor  rooms,  
etc.  (Figure  3).  The  Cairns  City  Centre  Master  Plan  also  explores  the  tropical  climate  
–  encouraging  substantial  tree  plantings  to  cool  the  city’s  microclimates  –  but  places  
more  emphasis  on  the  lifestyle  and  identity  of  tropical  Queensland.  This  is  particularly  
evident  in  the  conceptual  images  throughout  the  Plan,  creating  new  typologies  such  
as   ‘verandahs’   and   outdoor   ‘tropical   urban   living   rooms’   which   emphasise   how   the  
Cairns  lifestyle  can  be  reflected  in,  but  also  enhanced  by,  urban  design.      
 
Figure  3  Design  responses  for  the  Mount  Peter  Master  Plan  

 
Design  responses  include  ventilation  corridors,  interweaving  buildings  with  greens,  
block   orientation,   breezy   streets,   lot   disposition,   wide   streets,   wide   sidewalks,  
hierarchy  of  streets  and  short  walkabout  streets  (Source:  DPZ  Pacific,  2011)    
 
The  Mount  Peter  Master  Plan  strongly  emphasises  the  climatic  aspect  of  tropical  urban  
design,  with  associated  documents  detailing  a  ‘catalogue’  of  appropriate  urban  design  
principles   and   techniques   for   use   in   Cairns.   These   were   categorised   into:   urban  
planning   techniques,   building   design   techniques,   and   building   materials   and  
components.  Also  included  were  various  climatology  charts  and  graphs  detailing  sun  
paths,  wind  behaviours,  and  temperature  and  humidity  conditions.  These  equate  to  
specific  techniques  that  can  be  incorporated  within  all  levels  of  tropical  urban  design,  
from  the  building  itself  to  its  context  and  neighbourhood.  The  Mount  Peter  Master  Plan  
also  considered  the  social  realm,  particularly  in  terms  of  the  incorporation  of  green,  
public  spaces,  and  efforts  to  enhance  senses  of  place  and  identity  of  the  area.  
 

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   eTropic  19.2  (2020)  Special  Issue:  Sustainable  Tropical  Urbanism    

 
 
Neither  Plan  defines  Tropical  Urbanism  explicitly,  instead  they  use  case  studies  and  
examples  to  demonstrate  the  concept.  For  example,  the  Cairns  City  Centre  Master  
Plan  features  a  section  titled  Tropical  Urbanism:  Verandas,  Colonnades,  the  Green  
City,   which   describes   how   the   tropical   climate   can   be   integrated   within   the   built  
environment   while   harnessing   “local   architecture   to   express   tropicality   and   unique  
qualities  of  the  locale”  (Architectus,  2011,  p.50).  The  plan  develops  a  ‘tropical  urban  
living  room’  concept  featuring  amply  shaded  gathering  spaces  to  represent  new  ways  
of  being  outside  in  the  city  (Architectus,  2011,  p.46).  In  addition  to  the  plantings  and  
shaded  spaces  recommended  for  particular  nodes,  the  Cairns  City  Centre  Master  Plan  
also  recommends  that  “Tropical  Urbanism  provisions  to  encourage  use  of  green  walls,  
roofs,  sky  gardens,  planted  courtyards  and  gardens  at  street  level”  are  integrated  into  
future  planning  scheme  amendments  (Architectus,  2011,  p.51).  What  the  Plan  aims  to  
achieve   is   a   lush,   cool   city,   with   a   vibrant,   pedestrian-­oriented   town   centre.   This  
encourages  people  to  enjoy  outside  spaces  rather  than  shelter  from  them.  Therefore,  
the   Cairns   City   Centre   Master   Plan   tends   to   describe   Tropical  Urbanism   in   lifestyle  
terms,  while  the  Mount  Peter  Master  Plan  emphasises  the  design  principles  required  
to  achieve  such  an  outcome.  
 
A  content  analysis  of  the  master  plans  and  associated  documentation  revealed  twelve  
key  principles  aligned  with  Tropical  Urbanism:  
 
•   Walkability    
•   Connectivity  and  legibility  
•   Mixed-­use  spaces  and  buildings  
•   Diversity  of  housing  types  
•   ‘Quality’  tropical  urban  design  
•   Increased  density  (with  fragmentation  to  enable  breeze  permeation)  
•   Quality  public  transit  networks,  transit-­oriented  development  
•   Sustainability  and  local  environment  considerations  
•   Quality  public  spaces,  including  extensive  open  space  
•   Sense  of  place  and  tropical  identity  
•   Climatically  responsive  urban  design  (across  all  scales)  
•   Regionally  appropriate  urban  design  (incorporating  key  local  qualities  such  
as  rainforest  elements,  vistas,  local  fauna,  cultural  heritage,  etc.)  
 
These  principles  bear  resemblance  to  the  tenants  of  New  Urbanism,  but  also  stress  
the   need   for   specific   design   measures   to   enhance   the   tropical   built   environment.    
Incorporating   elements   like   rainforest   vistas   and   harnessing   the   existing   pre-­air-­
conditioning  architecture  (which  feature  shade  and  sheltering  elements)  and  cool  ‘in-­
between’  spaces,  will  help  to  “create  a  rich,  tropically  unique  architecture”  (Architectus,  
2011).  

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Planning  Scheme  Provisions  –  CairnsPlan2016  
 
The   final   example   where   the   language   of   Tropical   Urbanism   is   articulated   and  
reworked   is   the   recent   planning   scheme   of   the   Cairns   Regional   Council.   New  
provisions  added  to  the  local  planning  scheme  were  based  on  research  conducted  by  
Council  along  with  a  team  of  consultants  and  was  titled  Tropical  Urbanism  –  Cairns  
City  Image  Study  (Cairns  Regional  Council  2016).  The  study  was  a  critical  appraisal  
of  the  city’s  policies  on  the  height,  density  and  design  of  tall  buildings  and  attempted  
to   define   the   concept   of   Tropical   Urbanism   as   the   integration   of   landscaping   and  
tropical   design   elements   into   the   built   environment.   The   research   outcomes,  
incorporated  within  the  CairnsPlan  2016,  give  examples  of  development  that  explicitly  
express  the  idea  of  Tropical  Urbanism,  including:    
 
•   Shelter  from  sun  and  rain  
•   A  contrast  of  light  and  shade  
•   Sufficient  spaces  around  and  between  buildings  
•   Minimisation  of  radiant  heat  and  heat  island  effects  
•   Air  circulation,  breeze  permeation  and  passive  cooling  
•   Generous  outdoor  living  spaces  with  large  window  and  balcony  openings  
•   Floor-­to-­ceiling  heights  
•   High-­quality  landscaping  
•   Quality  public  and  private  spaces  that  proliferate  and  enliven  the  urban  form  
•   Passive  design  that  responds  to  the  tropical  climate  
•   Vertical  landscaping  is  one  method  of  achieving  tropical  urbanism  
 
To   achieve   Tropical   Urbanism,   the   CairnsPlan   2016   suggests   that   any   proposed  
development  must  meet  several  outcomes:  
 
•   Articulation  and  façade  treatments  
•   Separation  and  setbacks  
•   Building  width  
•   Walls  on  boundaries  
•   Views  and  vistas  
•   Horizontal  landscaping  
•   Vertical  landscaping  
•   Street  canopy  
•   Car  parking  sleeving  
•   Human  scale  
•   Mid-­block  connections  
 

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Two  elements  of  the  provisions  are  worth  detailing  here.  First  is  the  ‘street  canopy’,  
which  is  an  “architectural  expression  of  the  natural  rainforest  canopy  which  takes  the  
humble  street  awning  to  a  new  paradigm”  (Cairns  Regional  Council,  2016).  Second  is  
‘vertical   landscaping’   which   encourages   plant   growth   as   part   of   building   façade  
coverage  to  contribute  to  the  city’s  public  realm.  Together  these  provisions  embrace  
shade  and  greenery  to  produce  streetscapes  that  reflect  the  Cairns  environment  as  
well  as  a  sense  of  identity  and  lifestyle  (Figure  4).  As  expressed  on  the  Cairns  Regional  
Council   website:   “One   of   the   key   outcomes   was   a   focus   on   integrating   lush  
landscaping   and   rainforest-­like   canopies   into   urban   street   frontages,   to   create   cool  
shaded   public   spaces.   These   signature   design   elements   aim   to   promote   tropical  
streetscapes   that   celebrate,   preserve   and   promote   the   city’s   much-­loved   character  
and  identity”  (Cairns  Regional  Council  2016).  
 
Figure  4  Illustrations  from  the  Tropical  Urbanism  provisions  in  the  CairnsPlan  2016  
 
 

 
Illustrations  to  demonstrate  podium-­style  verandahs,  vertical  landscaping  and  
street  canopies  (Source:    CairnsPlan  2016,  Cairns  Regional  Council  2016)    
 
Green  facades  in  the  tropics  are  of  course  not  new,  and  one  only  needs  to  consider  
some  of  the  ground  breaking  projects  of  WOHA  in  Singapore,  for  example  Parkroyal  
and   Oasia   Novena   (Schröpfer   and   Menz   2019).   Green   facades   have   also   been  

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incorporated  across  larger  urban  centres  in  Australia  such  as  in  Brisbane,  Sydney  and  
Melbourne.  Architectural  street  canopies  are  perhaps  more  novel  in  terms  of  how  they  
articulate  a  new  urban  vernacular,  especially  for  taller  buildings,  but  it  is  also  important  
to   note   that   the   research   for   these   provisions   took   place   against   a   background   of  
proposed  developments,  including  designs  by  international  architectural  firms,  which  
would  see  the  building  height  of  the  city  generally  increase  (see  Figure  5).  Nova  City,  
a   large   and   mixed-­use   set   of   glass   towers   proposed   by   Singapore’s   Aspial  
Corporation,  including  one  commercial  tower  and  six  residential  blocks  providing  1250  
apartments  in  the  city  centre,  was  being  proposed  as  a  new  destination  and  lifestyle  
experience  in  parallel  with  Council  discussion.  The  nearby  C3  proposal  was  also  being  
touted  as  the  highest  building  permitted  in  the  city  and  included  rooftop  penthouses,  
sky  lounges,  almost  800  boutique  style  apartments  and  commercial/retail  space  at  the  
bottom  for  street  level  activation.  Syrian  Ghassan  Aboud’s  Crystalbrook  Collection  of  
luxury  hotels  were  similarly  transforming  the  hotel  landscape  of  Cairns  to  encourage  
and   accommodate   high-­end   tourism.   All   these   developments   are   unprecedented   in  
the   regional   city   and   would   change   the   look   and   feel   of   Cairns,   with   many   fearing  
developers   were   pressuring   the   city   to   be   more   like   the   Gold   Coast,   the   high   rise  
holiday  destination  of  Australia’s  warm  south.  Large  towers  also  have  the  potential  to  
block  breezeways  and  views  to  the  unique  rainforest-­clad  hills  that  surround  the  city.  
In   this   sense   Tropical   Urbanism   in   CairnsPlan   2016   was   always   bound   up   with  
conversations  about  the  future  height  of  buildings,  their  design  features  and  how  high-­
density  buildings  would  articulate  with  the  public  realm.  So  does  this  urban  language  
really  reflect  a  new  approach  to  the  tropical  built  environment?  Or  is  it,  as  Swyngedouw  
(2013)   suggests   in   a   different   context,   a   greening   strategy   that   merely   reflects   the  
status  quo?  
   
Figure  5  The  changing  urban  landscape  of  Cairns  (Nova  and  C3  proposals)    
 
 

Source:    http://www.c3cairns.com.au/location.php  

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   eTropic  19.2  (2020)  Special  Issue:  Sustainable  Tropical  Urbanism    

 
 
 
Tropical  Urbanism  as  Critical  Regionalism  
 
In   their   analysis   of   shaded   walkways   and   greenery   in   defining   what   is   meant   by  
tropicality,   Harun   and   Abdullah   (2018)   suggest   that   these   urban   forms   represent  
important   cultural   tropes   in   defining   a   regional   framework   for   tropical   design   in  
Southeast  Asia.    This  is  also  true  for  the  Cairns  version  of  Tropical  Urbanism  and  could  
be  a  mimicking  of  advances  in  green  infrastructure  as  articulated  in  other  places  like  
Singapore.  As  one  architect  interviewed  for  this  research  claimed:  
 
At  the  moment  the  term  Tropical  Urbanism  is  more  a  construct  of  a  
group   of   eager   professionals   scattered   across   the   globe   (planners,  
architects,  environmentalists)  looking  to  brand  a  new  field  in  which  to  
differentiate  their  skills  and  generate  work....  This  may  sound  cynical,  
but   it   does   appear   to   have   ‘popped   up’   as   a   phrase   on   everyone's  
tongue  rather  recently....  If  you  pause  and  think  a  moment,  there  has  
been   no   clamouring   to   parse   the   urbanisms   of   other   climate   zones  
such   as   Mediterranean,   Marine,   Continental,   Semi-­arid   Sub-­arctic.    
People  who  are  using  the  term  are  trying  to  copy  the  New  Urbanist  
approach  of  categorizing  place  but  have  done  so  before  assessing  the  
real  issues  that  underlay  the  place.        
–  Architect  
 
There   is   also   the   question   of   whether   the   tall   glass   towers   initiated   by   Singapore’s  
Aspial  Corporation  are  bound  up  with  planning  scheme  amendments  in  parallel  with  
Council  discussions,  and  whether  they  have  a  place  in  the  tropics.  In  this  regard  the  
Cairns  variety  of  Tropical  Urbanism  might  fall  short  of  late  20th  century  approaches  in  
architecture   that   counter   the   placelessness   of   much   contemporary   building   design.  
The   evolving   Cairns   vernacular   should   ideally   consider   the   uniqueness   of   site   and  
location,   be   inspired   by   local   climate   and   cultures,   reflect   regionalist   approaches   to  
design   and   perhaps   learn   from   other   tropical   locations   internationally   (Lefaivre   &  
Tzonis,  2001).  In  this  sense  Tropical  Urbanism  can  articulate  with  notions  of  regionally  
responsive  architecture  as  expressed  by  Australian  architects  such  as  Glen  Murcutt  
and   firms   such   as   Troppo   Architects   (Goad,   1999).   A   tropical   regionalist   approach  
means   an   architecture   that   connects   the   indoors   and   outdoors,   responds   to   the  
seasons,   the   heat,   the   rain,   but   also   the   informality   of   life   in   Australia   (Anderson   &  
Law,  2013).  Troppo  Architects  have  evolved  a  particularly  distinctive  architecture  that  
responds   to   the   tropical   environment   through   adjustable   skins   and   porous   building  
envelopes  and  embraces  the  informality  of  the  Australian  lifestyle.      
 

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Cairns-­based   architects   and   planners   interviewed   for   this   research   had   their   own  
interpretations  of  Tropical  Urbanism.  The  definitions  and  principles  they  offered  were  
similar,  often  reflecting  on  the  tropical  lifestyle:    
 
[Tropical  Urbanism  is]  an  urbanism  which  responds  very  strongly  to  
climate  and  place  …  [with  a]  connected  series  of  places  and  buildings,  
probably  at  a  higher  density,  that  responds  to  a  tropical  setting  …  [it  
is]   where   the   public   spaces   are   places   of   public   exchange   and  
interaction  and  there  is  a  lot  of  life  between  the  buildings.  
–  Architect  
 
In  its  simplest  form  [Tropical  Urbanism]  is  protection  from  the  weather  
(from   the   sun   or   the   rain),   through   awnings   in   streets   or   trees   in  
streets,   and   that   protected   journey   for   cyclists   or   pedestrians   …  
[Tropical   Urbanism]   makes   it   walkable,   it   makes   it   bearable   from   a  
climatic   perspective,   makes   it   interesting   and   connects   you   and  
makes  you  active.      
–  Planner  
 
…if   nothing   else   we   should   have   [Tropical   Urbanism]   for   sense   of  
place,   and   ownership,   identity,   and   that   thing   that   distinguishes   us  
from  …  somewhere  else.  It’s  for  the  point  of  difference  as  much  as  
anything.  How  we  design  is  different.  Branding  it,  owning  it,  and  being  
proud  of  it  is  important.  
–  Planner  
 
There  were  many  similarities  in  terms  of  how  Cairns  architects  and  planners  depicted  
the  key  principles  of  Tropical  Urbanism.  Their  focus  on  density  and  liveability  are  both  
important  components  of  New  Urbanism,  while  the  need  for  local  relevance  and  an  
engagement  with  place  are  important  to  regionalist  approaches  to  design.  One  of  the  
architects  combined  both  of  these  perspectives  suggesting  that  the  master  planning  
processes  were  “a  platform  to  talk  about  the  principles  of  New  Urbanism,  applied  in  a  
tropical   climate,   with   specific   reference   to   traditional   urban   approaches   to   climatic-­
sensitive  planning  and  design”.  This  architect  went  on  to  suggest:  
 
[The]  really  interesting  thing  about  working  in  the  tropics  is,  if  you  want  
to  make  cities  that  are  more  sociable  and  that  are  higher  density  and  
more   sustainable,   you   have   to   be   able   to   invite   people   into   the  
outdoors.  And  to  invite  people  into  the  outdoors  …  means  you  must  
be   very   clever   about   designing   for   climate   and   making   sure   those  
spaces   …   are   climatically   comfortable   and   inviting.   So   [architecture  

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and  planning]  really  go  hand  in  hand;;  you  cannot  do  one  without  the  
other.  
–  Architect  
 
While  the  architects  and  planners  highlighted  the  need  for  a  multi-­scale  approach  to  
climate   consideration   in   tropical   urban   design,   they   also   highlighted   extensive   and  
complex   political   and   economic   barriers   to   this.   Two   key   political   barriers   to   good  
tropical  city  design  relate  to  leadership  and  the  standardisation  of  policy.  One  planner  
highlighted  the  challenge  of  electoral  swings:  “it  comes  back  to  leadership  –  you  can’t  
have  that  if  with  every  change  of  local,  state  or  federal  government  there’s  a  polarized  
swing.  It  has  to  be  understood  and  owned  by  the  leadership  for  time”.  Another  architect  
suggested:      
 
First,  the  city  needs  to  be  a  priority.  So,  in  the  minds  of  politicians  and  
citizens,  the  city  needs  to  be  a  priority.  There  needs  to  be  a  desire  and  
a  general  political  will  to  invest  in  the  public  realm  and  see  that  as  a  
worthwhile   thing   to   do.   And   developers   need   to   be   able   to   see   that  
there  is  a  dividend  for  them  in  having  a  great  public  realm  and  having  
more  people  who  want  to  be  outside  [in]  a  more  compact  city.  
–  Architect  
 
While  leadership  was  considered  important,  the  standardisation  of  policy  was  the  most  
referenced   barrier   to   tropical   planning.   One   planner   identified   project   homes   as   a  
particular  problem,  and  an  element  in  the  failure  of  the  vision  for  a  sustainable  Mount  
Peter  to  be  realised  in  final  construction.  While  architects  and  planners  spend  much  
time   considering   local   issues   to   generate   improvement,   standardised   policies   often  
resulted  in  unintended  consequences  which  were  detrimental  to  good  tropical  design.  
It  was  generally  perceived  that  state-­wide  policy,  typically  generated  from  South  East  
Queensland,   creates   barriers   to   achieving   more   appropriate   planning   in   Far   North  
Queensland:    
 
Everything  that  we’ve  seen  in  Queensland  has  been  very  subtropical  
and  that  presents  a  number  of  challenges.  Whether  that  was  coming  
from   state   policy   –   or   I   guess   even   consultant   expertise   –   it   wasn’t  
actually  coming  from  a  tropical  perspective.  
–  Planner  
 
Thus,  for  example,  the  small  block  sizes  and  urban  forms  influenced  by  New  Urbanism  
and  promoted  in  the  Next  Generation  Planning  handbook  (QDLGP,  2011)  produced  
by  the  Queensland  government,  might  not  be  appropriate  for  Cairns.  Further  barriers  
preventing   the   integration   of   climate   knowledge   in   tropical   urban   design   were  

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economic   and   included   cost   –   and   perception   of   cost.   These   are   often   the   same  
barriers  that  hinder  good  urban  design  elsewhere,  and  there  is  always  a  struggle  to  
find  money  to  invest  in  the  public  realm.  There  is  also  the  question  of  where  the  money  
should  come  from  (private  sector,  local/state  government)  and  where  the  community  
believes  the  money  should  be  spent.  As  one  architect  queried:  “Do  we  spend  lots  of  
money  on  new  roads?  Or  do  we  spend  it  making  cities  better  to  walk  around?  They’re  
big  choices.”  These  questions  and  the  larger  concerns  they  raise  alert  us  to  a  common  
theme  expressed  by  the  planners  and  architects  interviewed  for  this  research  –  that  
Tropical  Urbanism  is  bound  up  with  the  idea  of  a  better  city.  
 
Conclusion  
 
This  notion  of  Tropical  Urbanism  being  bound  up  with  the  idea  of  a  better  city,  in  turn,  
leads   to   further   thematic   questions   that   could   be   used   to   frame   the   city’s   projected  
development   over   the   next   few   decades.   Could   a   renewed   interest   in   Tropical  
Urbanism   provide   a   language   for   urban   transformation   in   Cairns?   Could   the  
relationship  between  built  form,  city  planning  and  landscaping  expressed  by  Tropical  
Urbanism  be  a  defining  characteristic  of  the  region’s  identity?  Could  renewing  the  city’s  
focus   on   climate-­responsiveness   and   tropical   lifestyle   help   produce   an   urban  
environment  that  reflects  the  city’s  UNESCO  World  Heritage  credentials:    A  City  in  a  
Rainforest?  
 
The   built   environment   should   reflect   the   aspirations   and   desires   of   the   people   of  
Cairns,   many   of   whom   choose   to   live   in   the   city   for   its   outstanding   environmental  
values.    Place-­based  climate  considerations  that  once  shaped  the  city  have  decreased  
over  time  for  many  reasons  including  the  rise  of  mechanical  cooling,  the  governance  
of   building   codes   and   catering   to   international   tourist   tastes   and   styles.   New   high-­
density  developments  might  also  compromise  the  character  of  the  low-­rise  city,  and  
urban  growth  has  the  potential  to  lack  tropical  identity.  Tropical  Urbanism  is  thus  an  
important   innovation   in   this   space:   a   climate   responsive   urban   design,   capable   of  
working  across  different  planning  scales  –  building,  street,  block  and  neighbourhood  
–   and   creating   new   vernacular   forms.   It   is   perhaps   for   these   reasons   that   the  
CairnsPlan   2016   policy   won   the   2017   National   Planning   Institute   of   Australia   (PIA)  
Award   for   Planning   Excellence,   followed   by   two   Queensland   PIA   awards.   Judges  
commented  that  it  “represents  a  significant  contribution  of  tropical  expertise  that  can  
be  offered,  transferred  and  adapted  to  suit  the  needs  of  other  tropical  cities,  with  Cairns  
defining  itself  as  a  leader  worldwide  in  the  area  of  Tropical  Urbanism”  (PIA  2017).      
 
Place-­based  initiatives  such  as  these  are  important  to  improving  the  design  outcomes  
and   sustainability   of   tropical,   regional   cities.   But   the   Cairns   variety   of   Tropical  
Urbanism  could  be  further  reinforced  by  social/cultural  and  political  nuances  of  a  more  

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progressive   Critical   Regionalist   approach.   These   approaches   could   further   open  
discussions   to   local   Indigenous   senses   of   place,   environment   and   climate   as   they  
pertain  to  urban  design  and  architectural  form  (Fantin  &  Fourmile,  2014).  To  retain  a  
progressive   edge,   a   progressive   Critical   Regionalist   approach   must   remain   a  
conversation   that   resists   design   from   elsewhere:   whether   that   be   importing   high  
density  glass  tower  designs  or  being  governed  from  distant  centres.  In  this  sense  we  
advocate   a   Tropical   Urbanism   that   embodies   the   progressive   aspects   of   New  
Urbanism   and   Critical   Regionalism   for   better   urban   outcomes:   ones   that   address   a  
more   compact   urban   form,   housing   diversity,   walkable   neighbourhoods   and   mixed-­
use   while   also   protecting   environmental   values.   Such   an   urbanism   would  
simultaneously   work   towards   a   more   regionally   responsive   built   environment   that  
expresses  the  distinctive  outdoor-­oriented  lifestyle  of  the  city.  Although  the  documents  
and   interviews   interrogated   here   do   not   articulate   critical   perspectives   in   and   of  
themselves,   they   do   suggest   a   concept   that   extends   beyond   urban   greenery   and  
beautification.  In  this  sense  Tropical  Urbanism  could  provide  an  important  precedent  
for  other  regional,  postcolonial,  tropical  cities.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Acknowledgements  
 
We  would  like  to  thank  two  reviewers  who  helped  us  refine  the  argument.  
 
 
Lisa  Law  is  an  interdisciplinary  researcher  with  a  background  in  geography  and  urban  
studies.   Her   research   focuses   on   urban   spaces   in   Southeast   Asia   and   tropical  
Australia,  and  crosses  a  wide  spectrum  including:    liveability  and  place-­based  urban  
design   for   the   tropics,   the   meanings   and   uses   of   public   space,   environmentally  
responsive  design  and  the  role  of  culture  and  the  arts  in  place  making.    She  is  founder  
of   James   Cook   University’s   Tropical   Urbanism   and   Design   Lab,   an   interdisciplinary  
team  of  geographers,  architects,  sociologists  and  planners  interested  in  urbanism  in  
the  tropics.  Prior  to  commencing  her  appointment  at  James  Cook  University,  she  was  
employed  at  the  Australian  National  University,  the  University  of  Western  Sydney,  the  
National  University  of  Singapore  and  the  University  of  St  Andrews  in  Scotland.  
 
Urbi  Musso   is  a  Senior  Planner  at  wildPLAN,  with  over  12  years’  experience  in  the  
property   and   development   sector,   spanning   real   estate,   property/planning   law,  
property  valuation  and  urban  planning.    Her  expertise  includes  master  planning,  land  
use   planning   in   remote   and   Indigenous   communities   and   community   engagement  
services.  Urbi  is  a  member  of  the  Planning  Institute  of  Australia,  receiving  recognition  
for   Planning   Excellence   as   Young   Planner   of   the   Year   (Tropical   North   Queensland  
Branch),  going  on  to  receive  the  Judge’s  commendation  for  the  State  award  in  2018.    
She   has   a   Bachelor   of   Planning   (Honours)   degree   from   James   Cook   University   in  
Cairns.    Her  Honours  thesis  was  an  early  exploration  of  Tropical  Urbanism  in  Cairns.  
 

eTropic: electronic journal of studies in the tropics