UNIT 1:

THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING. CONTEMPORARY

TRENDS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN
LANGUAGE. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

0. INTRODUCTION 1
1. THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING 2
1.1. THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD 2
1.2. THE REFORM MOVEMENT 2
1.3. THE DIRECT METHOD 3
1.4. THE ORAL/SITUATIONAL APPROACH 3
1.5. THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD 3
1.6. THE COGNITIVE-CODE APPROACH 4
2. CONTEMPORARY TRENDS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN
LANGUAGE (EFL) 4
2.1. CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES 5
3. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES 6
4. CONCLUSION: DIDACTIC IMPLICATIONS 7
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY 7
0. INTRODUCTION
According to our current legislation based on LOMLOE from 2020, the teaching of a foreign
language must be based on the communicative approach to make our students not only
knowing about language but knowing how to use it. Over time, many theories and models
have been proposed: from the Grammar-Translation Method to the focus on communication
and language use of Communicative Language Teaching. Thus, it is of paramount importance
for any foreign language teacher to be aware of history in order to make his/her personal
choices to create a personal teaching style.

In order to do so, the first section of this unit addresses the evolution of language teaching
and its methodologies until the 1960s. In the second section, a range of current trends in
language teaching is presented and finally, the focus is on the Communicative Approach to
language teaching which has become the central paradigm of language teaching in our times.

1. THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

The study of language has always been of great importance since the earliest stages of the
human race, especially the study of different languages as a means of establishing
communication with people from different cultures. For centuries, Latin was the most widely
foreign language studied. In the 16th century, however, French, Italian, Spanish and English
gained importance as a result of political changes in Europe, and Latin gradually became
displaced as a language of spoken and written communication. It was not until the 18th century
that the study of modern languages was introduced in education, but they were taught and
studied in the same way as the classics - Latin, Greek and Hebrew - through the exhaustive
study of grammar and translation, which came to be known as the Grammar-Translation
Method.

1.1. THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

The Grammar-Translation method was the dominant foreign language teaching method in
Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s. According to Richards and Rodgers (1986), their main
characteristics were:

- Its goal is reading and writing; little or no attention is paid to speaking or listening
- Lessons are conducted in the mother tongue (L1)
- Language is studied through the analysis of grammatical rules and translation of texts
- Grammar is taught deductively
- Accuracy is a priority
- It is teacher-centred: the teachers are actively involved in the teaching-learning
process while learners have a passive role
1.2. THE REFORM MOVEMENT

In the mid-19th century, increased opportunities for communication among Europeans created
a demand for oral proficiency in foreign languages, which contributed to rising criticism of the
Grammar-Translation method. As a result, the Reform Movement of the late 19th century
attempted to revolutionise methods in language teaching based on the following ideas:

- It stressed the relevance of phonetics; the goal of study is spoken language

- Learners should hear the language first, before seeing it in written form
- It uses conversation and oral methods in meaningful contexts
- Grammar should be taught inductively
- Translation should be avoided

This led to what have been termed natural methods and ultimately to the development of
what came to be known as the Direct method.

1.3. THE DIRECT METHOD

The previous principles of natural language learning laid the foundation for what became
known as the Direct method, which was developed by Sauveur and Berlitz around the 1900s.
In practice, it advocated the following procedures:
- It focuses exclusively on oral communication and listening skills in the target language
(L2)
- The linguistic goal is everyday vocabulary and sentences in communicative situations
- Grammar is taught inductively
- Correctness in pronunciation and grammar are emphasized

The Direct Method was quite successful in private schools, but it was difficult to apply in public
secondary schools since it did not take into account the reality of the average classroom.

1.4. THE ORAL/SITUATIONAL APPROACH

The Oral/Situational approach dates back to the 1920s and 1930s, heralded by Palmer and
Hornby, who attempted to develop a more scientific basis for an oral approach than that
evidenced in the Direct Method. The main features are:

- Its aim is spoken language. It is taught orally before being presented in the written
form.
- The language of instruction is the target language (L2)
- Grammar is gradually presented according to difficulty
- The lessons are highly teacher-centred

This method has been and still is, quite influential due to its oral practice, grammar and
sentence structures. However, in the mid-seventies, these principles began to be questioned.
1.5. THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD

The Audio-Lingual method appeared in the United States in the late 1950s and it is based on
structural linguistics (structuralism) and behavioural psychology (Skinner's behaviourism)
which hold that language is acquired by habit formation, that is, language learning is a
mechanical process carefully structured in drill sequences (memorisation). Thus, the quality
and permanence of learning are proportional to the amount of practice. The emphasis is on
oral proficiency as we learn to speak before we learn to read or write; language is primarily
spoken and only secondarily written. Its main features are:

- Rules are presented by the teacher and memorised by students. Then, they practise
and repeat mechanically.
- The activities are based on repetition (drills) for the formation of good language
habits
- It is teacher-centred; so, students have a passive role

In this method, the problem of transcending the formal study of language into real,
communicative situations is not solved.

1.6. THE COGNITIVE-CODE APPROACH

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as a reaction against the audio-lingual method, and taking
Chomsky's transformational generative grammar as a theoretical basis, the so-called
Cognitive-Code approach became popular. Noam Chomsky claimed all human beings are born
with an innate ability to learn languages. Language learning, therefore, is not based on habit
formation, but on a rational acquisition of the finite set of rules that can be applied to create
countless utterances. This mentalist conception of learning opened the way to cognitivism,
which considers that the student is an active participant in the learning process.

In terms of its implications for teaching, Chomsky argued that we learn through immersion,
rather than repeating structures or memorising rules.

2. CONTEMPORARY TRENDS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A

FOREIGN LANGUAGE (EFL)

As a reaction to the unsatisfactory results of traditional methods in modern language

teaching, some alternative methods appear in the 60s and 70s in the USA. The growing
importance of human relations and individualisation in the language class defines the
Humanistic Approach, in which the teacher pays special attention to human values and
relationships within the classroom. Its main feature is that the learner is the centre in the
teaching-learning process.
The interest in human relationships is also shared by the following methodologies included in
this approach:

 THE SILENT WAY

This method was developed by Gattegno in which teaching is carried out by means of physical
objects and gestures, provoking silent periods from the teacher. It is student-centred and
emphasises creativity on the part of the student. The philosophy of this method could be
summarised in the following maxim:

"Tell me and I forget, teach me and I remember, involve me and I learn"

 COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

Supported by Curran, this method aims at both cognitive and affective learning. Learning
takes place in a communicative situation where teachers and learners are involved in an
interaction. One of its main tenets is that the student develops their relationship with the
teacher.

 SUGGESTOPEDIA

Developed by Lozanov, this method uses yoga, rhythmic breathing and music in order to
make the student more relaxed and receptive. Teachers are specially trained to read the
dialogues, using voice quality, intonation, and rhythm.

 TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

This method developed by Asher is built around the combination of speech and action; it
attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity. For him, including movements
within the linguistic production reduces learner stress, creating a positive mood which
facilitates learning.

 THE NATURAL APPROACH

This approach presented by Krashen and Terell focuses on communication skills and language
exposure before rules and grammar, similar to how we learn our first language. Their theory of
second language acquisition is based on the following principles:

1. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis

2. The Monitor Hypothesis
3. The Natural Order Hypothesis
4. The Input Hypothesis
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

2.1. CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES

Since the late 1980s and early 1990s, a number of new methods have been proposed being
the most relevant ones:

● COMPUTER AIDED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL)

CALL has been made possible by the invention and subsequent development of the computer.
As a result, the nature of CALL is, to a large degree, a reflection on the level of development of
the technology.

● CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION (CBI)

CBI refers to an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is organised around
the content or information that students will acquire. Thus, students learn the language by
using it within that specific context.

● TASK-BASED LEARNING
It is a methodological idea which attempts to get away from the model Presentation-Practice-
Production (PPP) altogether; students solve a task that involves an authentic use of language
rather than complete simple questions about grammar or vocabulary.

3. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES

Our current education law is based on the communicative approach to foreign languages.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also called the 'Communicative Approach', is an
approach to second and foreign language teaching that emphasises interaction as the means
and ultimate goal of language learning. The communicative movement moved away the focus
from grammar as the core component of language to language as communication and the
creation of a classroom environment for authentic communication. Thus, communicative
competence is the goal of language teaching, in contrast to earlier views which tended to
prioritise grammatical competence. There has been a great range of new methodologies,
approaches and strategies in the 21st century within the context of communicative language
teaching. Some of them are:

● CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING

This approach involves learning subjects through an additional language (foreign or second)

● GAME-BASED LEARNING AND GAMIFICATION

By incorporating gaming in the classroom, students can become more engaged and retain
more knowledge. It is important to know that gamification is making a game out of the
classroom setting, whereas game-based learning is using games to teach.

● HARKNESS METHOD
In a Harkness class, learning takes place through discussions held around a circular “Harkness
Table”. Sitting at the table, students must question, contribute, and contemplate in order to
learn and succeed.

● COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Kagan was a pioneer in the cooperative learning movement. He developed what is called
Kagan Structures, which are instructional strategies designed to promote cooperation and
communication in the classroom, boost students’ confidence and retain their interest in
classroom interaction.
 ● FLIPPED CLASSROOM
It is a methodology that helps teachers to prioritize active learning during class time by
assigning students lecture materials and presentations to be viewed at home or outside of
class.

4. CONCLUSION: DIDACTIC IMPLICATIONS

The history of language teaching has heavily influenced contemporary teaching practices. A
lot has been learnt on how language learners acquire language and on how to enhance the
teaching learning process. It seems clear today that any type of effective language learning
should include communication and communicative competence as its core. However, other
aspects such as learners’ affective filter or strategy awareness in order to develop learner's
autonomy and motivation have also become central to common language teaching practice.
In short, the application of this unit must be shown in actual practice, in everyday classroom
techniques, in the materials used, in the syllabus design, in the focus on interaction and
communication in the classroom. By analysing the history of language teaching and learning
from its discoveries and faults, we may become better teachers and choose the road that best
suits us and our students.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Howatt, A. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984.

Krashen, S. and Terrell, T. The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom.
Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1983.

Nunan, D. Language Teaching Methodology. A textbook for Teachers. New York: Prentice Hall,
1991.

Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. (Third Edition).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.

Nunan, D. Practical English Language Teaching. New York: MacGraw-Hill , 2003.

Baugh, A. & Cable, T.. A History of the English Language. Prentice-Hall Editions. 1993