FD 502

Basic Statistics
Ronald E. Mocorro
Assistant Professor II
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University,Tacloban City
 CHAPTER 1
Introductory Concepts
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 Statistics and Statistical Methods

➢ Statistics is a body of knowledge that deals with the collection, presentation,

analysis and interpretation of numerical and categorical data

➢ Statistical methods refers to the procedures used in the collection, presentation,

analysis and interpretation of data

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Two Areas of Statistics

➢ Descriptive Statistics comprises statistical methods concerned with collecting and

describing a set of data so as to yield meaningful information

➢ Inferential Statistics comprises statistical methods concerned with the analysis of

a subset of data leading to predictions or inferences about the entire set of data

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Population and Sample

➢ Population consists of the totality of

observation which we are concerned
about ➢ Parameter refers to any numerical
value describing a characteristic of a
➢ Sample is a subset of a given
population
population
➢ Statistic refers to any numerical
value describing a characteristic of a
sample

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Example 1

Situation: What comprises the population?

Preferred bath soaps of each household in the
A survey is conducted in order to
Philippines / All household in the Philippines
know the preferred bath soap brand
of households in the Philippines. What comprises the sample?
20%of the total number of Preferred bath soaps of each randomly chosen
households in each Region were household / Randomly chosen households which
randomly chosen as respondents of comprise 20%of all households in the Philippines
the survey. It was found that 8 5 % of
all households in the Philippines What area of statistics is being shown?
preferred BrandA. Inferential Statistics

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Example 2

Situation: What comprises the population?

There are twenty major suppliers of Dragon fruits across Monthly amount of Dragon fruit supply for the past
Region 8. They were surveyed, and data on the amount ten years of each of the twenty major suppliers
of their monthly Dragon fruit supply for the past ten Give a sample mentioned in the given situation.
years were gathered from each supplier. The following Monthly amount of Dragon fruit supply for
were part of the results of the survey: the past ten years of Supplier A
a. The average monthly supply of the twenty major Give an example of parameter.
suppliers for the past ten years is 6.5 tons. Average monthly supply of the twenty
b. The top 1supplier is Supplier A whose average suppliers for the past ten years (6.5 tons)
monthly supply for the past ten years is1.2 tons. Give an example of statistic.
c. There will be an increase of Dragon fruit supply by Average monthly supply of Supplier A for
the major suppliers in the coming years. the past tenyears (1.2 tons)
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Example 2

Situation: Which result of the survey shows the use of

There are twenty major suppliers of Dragon fruits across descriptive statistics?
Region 8. They were surveyed, and data on the amount ▪ The average monthly supply of the twenty
of their monthly Dragon fruit supply for the past ten major suppliers for the past ten years is 6.5
years were gathered from each supplier. The following tons.
were part of the results of the survey: ▪ The top 1 supplier is Supplier A whose average
a. The average monthly supply of the twenty major monthly supply for the past ten years is1.2tons
suppliers for the past ten years is 6.5 tons.
Which result of the survey shows the use of
b. The top 1supplier is Supplier A whose average
inferential statistics?
monthly supply for the past ten years is1.2 tons.
▪ There will be an increase of Dragon fruit supply
c. There will be an increase of Dragon fruit supply by by the major suppliers in the coming years.
the major suppliers in the coming years.
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Example 3

Situation:
Internet connectivity information of all Graduate School
students enrolled during the first semester, A.Y. 2020- What comprises the population?
2021 in a particular university were gathered. The Internet connectivity information of each Graduate
following were part of the report presented by the School student enrolled during the first semester,
Dean of the Graduate School to its faculty regarding A.Y. 2020-2021 in the particular university
enrollment during the first semester, A.Y. 2020-2021:
a. 36%of the enrollees have no internet connection. Give a sample mentioned in the given situation.
Internet connectivity information of each Master in
b. 25%of the enrollees have unstable
Management student enrolled during the first
internet connection.
semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 in the particularuniversity
c. 18%of the Master in Management students
have stable internet connection.
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Example 3

Situation:
Give examples of parameter.
Internet connectivity information of all Graduate School
Portion of all the enrollees that have no internet
students enrolled during the first semester, A.Y. 2020-
connection (36% of the enrollees)
2021 in a particular university were gathered. The
following were part of the report presented by the Portion of all the enrollees that have unstable
Dean of the Graduate School to its faculty regarding internet connection (25%of the enrollees)
enrollment during the first semester, A.Y. 2020-2021: Give an example of statistic.
a. 36%of the enrollees have no internet connection. Portion of the Master in Management students that
have stable internet connection (18%of the MM
b. 25%of the enrollees have unstable
students)
internet connection.
What area of statistics is being shown?
c. 18%of the Master in Management students have
Descriptive Statistics
stable internet connection.
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Variable and Constant

➢ Variable is a characteristic of objects or individuals that can take on different

values for different members of the group under study
e.g. I.Q., height, and weight of all 5-year old female children in a particular
barangay

➢ Constant is a characteristic that assumes the same value for all members of
the group
e.g. Age, sex and home address of all 5-year old female children in a particular
barangay
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Types of Variables

➢ Quantitative Variable is a variable that takes only numerical values

e.g. I.Q., height, weight,income and age

➢ Qualitative Variable is a variable that takes only non-numerical values, and

numbers are used only ascategories
e.g. Gender, sex, religion, year level, educational attainment and occupation

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Types of Variables According to
Functional Relationships

➢ Independent Variable – thought to influence a dependent variable

➢ Dependent Variable – the prime interest of the researcher; presumed to be
influenced by some other variables

Independent Dependent
Variable Variable

Attitude Performance
towards Math in Math

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Types of Variables According to
Functional Relationships

➢ Intervening Variable – an intermediate variable that is produced by the main

independent variable which in turn influences the dependent variable

Independent Intervening Dependent

Variable Variable Variable

Attitude Performance
Study Habit
towards Math in Math

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Types of Variables According to
Functional Relationships

➢ Moderator Variable – an independent variable which influences (moderates) the

impact of an independent variable to a dependent variable

Moderator Economic
Variable Status

Independent Dependent Attitude Performance

Variable Variable towards Math in Math

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Types of Variables According to
Functional Relationships

➢ Control Variable – thought to influence a dependent variable but is not given

focus in the study, in which its effect on the dependent variable is eliminated or
neutralized by making it constant

*Economic
Status * Make Economic Status as a control variable by limiting
the group under study, such as including only those
whose economic status is “poor”. That is, the variable
Attitude Performance Economic Status becomes a constant now.
towards Math in Math

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Types of Variables According to
Functional Relationships

➢ Nuisance Variable – its influence on the dependent variable is assumed negligible

and hence is not focused or included in the study
e.g. Religion, family size, and educational attainment of parents maybe
considered nuisance variables for the study on the “Effect of Attitude
Towards Math to Performance in Math” because these variables are
assumed to have negligible effect to performance in math

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Types of Variables According to
Continuity of Scale

➢ Discrete Variable – a quantitative variable which takes on only designated values

(finite or countable)
e.g. family size, number of siblings, number of absences, and shoe size

➢ Continuous Variable – a quantitative variable that can take on any value on the
measurement scale
e.g. height, age, weight, income and temperature

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Types of Variables According to Level of
Measurement

➢ Nominal – numbers are used merely as labels of the categories of the variable
➢ Ordinal – have the same characteristic with a nominal variable and in addition,
the numbers can be meaningfullyranked
➢ Interval – have the same characteristic with an ordinal variable and in addition,
the categories in the interval scale are defined in terms of a “standard unit of
measurement” so that equality of differences between successive categories of
the scale isdefined
➢ Ratio – have the same characteristic with an interval variable and in addition, it
has a true zero point
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
Types of Variables According to Level of
Measurement

Ratio Variable
Scale
Variable
Interval Variable

Ordinal Variable
Categorical
Variable
Nominal Variable

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Examples of Variables According to Level of
Measurement

➢ Nominal – sex, religion, occupation, ID number,address

➢ Ordinal – economic status, year level, salary grade, highest educational
attainment, level of stress
➢ Interval – temperature in Degree Celsius, temperature in Fahrenheit,
achievement score, IQscore
➢ Ratio – age, height, number of siblings, distance, time

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Sampling

Sampling – the process of selecting entities or elements from a given population to

form a sample; its purpose is to ensure that the sample at hand is a representative of
the population

Sampling frame – list of all entities or elements in the population

Sampling unit – refers to any entity or element of the population

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Example 1

Situation:
A survey is conducted in order to
How to prepare for the sampling frame?
know the preferred bath soap brand
of households in the Philippines. 20% Make a list of all households per Region
of the total number of households in
each Region were randomly chosen What are the sampling units in this situation?
as respondents of the survey. It was Each household in the Philippines is a sampling unit
found that 85% of all households in
the Philippines preferredBrand A.

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Why sampling is needed?

➢ Lesser cost needed

➢ Shorter time spent

➢ Lesser chance of committing error in the encoding of data

➢ Makes studying large populationfeasible

➢ Gives opportunity to expand the scope of information

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Determining Sample Size

➢ There is no single formula in determining sample size

➢ Take small sample if the population is homogeneous

➢ Take large sample if the population is heterogeneous

➢ How small is small? How large is large?

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Determining Sample Size

Descriptive Correlation Experimental/Causal

Author
Research Research Comparative Research

5%, 10%, or
L.R Gay (1991) At least 30 At least 15 per group
15%, etc.

Fraenkle and
At least 100 At least 50 At least 30 per group
Wallen (1993)

Minimum number

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Determining Sample Size

Krejcie and Morgan (1970)

X 2NP(1− P)
s= 2
d (N − 1)+ X 2P(1 − P)
s = required sample size
X2 = the tabled value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at
the desired level of confidence(3.841 for 0.05 level of
significance)
P = the population proportion (assumed to be 0.50 since this
would provide the maximum samplesize)
d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion

Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City

 Determining Sample Size (On
Using Slovin’s Formula)

The following is an article regarding the use of Slovin’s Formula in determining

sample size. You may download the article through the given URL.

Title: On the Misuse of Slovin’s Formula

Authors: Jeffry J. Tejada and Joyce Raymond B.Punzalan
URL: https://www.psai.ph/tps_details.php?p=1&id=26

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Methods of Sampling

Probability Sampling – each element in the population has a nonzero chance of

being included in the sample; a requirement for inferential statistics

Non-probability Sampling – not all elements are given the chance of being included
in the sample

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Methods of Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling – each element in the population has equal chance of
being included in the sample; appropriate when the population is homogeneous

Method:
1. Prepare the samplingframe.
2. Select the elements of the sample using ‘fishbowl’ or lottery technique, or by
utilizing the table of random numbers or any digital random number generators

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Methods of Probability Sampling

Systematic Sampling with aRandom Start – the sample is drawn by taking every 𝑘𝑡ℎ
element of the population; appropriate when the population is homogeneous

Method:
1. Prepare the samplingframe.
N
2. Solve for the sampling fraction 𝑘 = , where 𝑁 is the population size and 𝑛
𝑛
the sample size. is
3. Pick the random start 𝑟 where 𝑟 = 1,2,…,𝑘 using lottery technique
4. Pick every 𝑘𝑡ℎ element in the sampling frame starting from 𝑟𝑡ℎ element
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Methods of Probability Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling – appropriate when the population isheterogeneous

Method:

1. Divide the population into homogeneous groups called strata

2. Draw a proportional number 𝑛 𝑘 of sample from each stratum by simple random sampling or by
systematic sampling with a random start

𝑛𝑘 = 𝑛 ( 𝑁 𝑘), where

𝑛 𝑘 is the number of sample to be drawn from the 𝑘𝑡ℎ stratum; 𝑛 is the sample size; 𝑁 is the
population size; and 𝑁 𝑘 is the number of elements in the 𝑘𝑡ℎ stratum
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Stratified Random Sampling

Example: Suppose a researcher would like to study about the Math Anxiety Level of all non-Math major
College students in a particular university, which totaled to 5800 students. Also, suppose that the
researcher found out from literature review that Math Anxiety is associated with Year Level.

In this situation, utilizing Stratified Random Sampling is most appropriate, taking different Year Levels as
strata. Stratified random sampling will allow a proportional representation of each year level in the sample.

N = 5800 1600 + 1450 + 1400 + 1300 + 50 = 5800

Year I Year II Year III Year IV Others

1600 1450 1400 1300 50

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Determining Sample Size

Krejcie and Morgan (1970)

X 2NP(1− P)
s= 2
d (N − 1)+ X 2P(1 − P)
Sample size
s = required sample size
X2 = the tabled value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at
the desired level of confidence(3.841 for 0.05 level of
significance)
P = the population proportion (assumed to be 0.50 since this
would provide the maximum samplesize)
d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Stratified Random Sampling

5800 is nearer to 6000, so take sample size corresponding to 6000

N = 5800 ; n = 361 361
× 50 = 3.11
100 + 90 + 87 + 81 + 3 = 361 5800
Year I 1600 Year II 1450 Year III 1400 Year IV 1300 Others
50
100 90 87 81 3

361 361 361 361

× 1600 = 99.59 × 1450 = 90.25 × 1400 = 87.14 × 1300 = 80.91
5800 5800 5800 5800

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Stratified Random Sampling

Exceeding the suggested sample size by Krecjie and Morgan (1970)

N = 5800 ; n = 370 (sometimes done in surveys to give allowance for possible retrieval failure)
370
× 50 = 3.19
102 + 93 + 89 + 83 + 3 = 370 5800
Year I 1600 Year II 1450 Year III 1400 Year IV 1300 Others
50
102 93 89 83 3

370 370 370 370

× 1600 = 102.07 × 1450 = 92.5 × 1400 = 89.31 × 1300 = 82.93
5800 5800 5800 5800

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Methods of Probability Sampling

Cluster Random Sampling – appropriate when the population is heterogeneous or

when the sampling frame is not available

Method:

1. Divide the population into heterogeneous groups called clusters

2. Decide on the number of clusters to be taken to comprise the sample

3. Draw the clusters using simple random sampling

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Cluster Random Sampling

Example: Suppose a student taking up a degree in Biology would like to conduct an inferential study
regarding the side effects of CoVid-19 vaccines to people in Province A. Also, suppose that it is not possible
for the student to get the list of all people in Province Athat have been vaccinated by CoVid-19 vaccines.

In this situation, Cluster Random Sampling is appropriate to use. The student may take the different
Municipalities as clusters, and decide on the number of municipalities to be taken randomly to comprise
the sample of the study.

Let us say, Province A has 40 municipalities. The researcher may take, say 4 municipalities (10% of 40),
using fishbowl technique. All the people vaccinated by CoVid-19 vaccines from these 4 randomly chosen
municipalities will now comprise the sample of the study.

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Methods of Probability Sampling

Multi-Stage Random Sampling – appropriate when the population is heterogeneous or when

sampling frame is not available

Method: Similar to cluster sampling but is done in several stages

1. Divide the population into heterogeneous groups called clusters.
2. Decide on the number of clusters to be taken, and draw the clusters using simple random
sampling.
3. Divide each cluster into subclusters.
4. Decide on the number of subclusters to be taken in each cluster as part of the sample, and draw
thesubclusters using simple random sampling.
5. The process can be continued, ifneeded.

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Multi-Stage Random Sampling

Example: Suppose a student taking up a degree in Biology would like to conduct an inferential study regarding the side
effects of CoVid-19 vaccines to people in Province A. Also, suppose that it is not possible for the student to get the list of
all people in ProvinceA that have been vaccinated by CoVid-19vaccines.

In this situation, Multi-Stage Random Sampling is also appropriate to use.

Stage 1.The student may take the different Congressional Districts as clusters. Let us say, Province A has 5
Congressional districts. The researcher may take 2 districts using fishbowl technique.

Stage 2. From these 2 randomly chosen districts, the student may take the different municipalities as subclusters. Let
us say, District 1has 9 municipalities and District 2 has 10 municipalities. The researcher may take, say 2 municipalities
in each district using fishbowl technique. All the people vaccinated by CoVid-19 vaccines from these 4 randomly
chosen municipalities will now comprise the sample of the study.

Note: The process maybe continued if necessary, taking different barangays as subclusters.
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Methods of Non-Probability Sampling

➢ Convenience (Accidental) Sampling – the investigator simply reaches out and

takes the cases that are at hand, continuing the process until the sample reaches
a designated size; convenience and availability are the primary criteria for sample
selection

➢ Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling – the representativeness of the sample is

based on a set of criteria set by the researcher

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Methods of Non-Probability Sampling

➢ Quota Sampling – usually practiced in market researches wherein field

interviewers are given a “quota” of the number of samples to be interviewed,
and the selection of samples usually stops once the quota is reached

➢ Snowball (Referral) Sampling – research participants are asked to assist

researchers in identifying other potential subjects

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
 Reference

Petilos, Gabino. (2014). Statistics (Chapter 1). Printed for Leyte

Normal Use Only.

Walpole, Ronald E. (1982). Introduction to statistics. Pearson

Education South Asia PteLtd.

Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City
Thank you.
Mathematics Unit
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City