14 - MAPPING

14.1. INTRODUCTION
Almost all mapping today is produced in digital form and all aspects of map making use computers and automated routines to assist map production. The process always starts with the data capture, either by field survey using a theodolite or total station, or collecting data from existing maps, etc.. The data is transformed into digital format for easy manipulation in the computer, then edited for mistakes. An important part of the mapping process is the conversion of old maps to digital form. Sometimes the old map is scanned and then graphical image is computer-enhanced and forms the basis of the digital map. The lines on the map are automatically digitized by the software and difficult line intersections are manually edited using a mouse. This is called a semiautomatic process. However, aerial photographs play the most important role in mapping and aerial photomaps or digital orthophotos are used as a backdrop to a line map. Aerial photos covering the entire US are scanned and transformed to digital orthophotos. In a few years time you will be able to purchase from the USGS a very precise image map of any map sheet at a scale of 1 "=2000ft (the quad map scale).

14.2. PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Photogrammetry is the technique that allows the visualization, modeling and data collection in 3D using aerial photographs or satellite imagery. With recent developments in technology, even non-optical sensors data are being used for map production and revision using photogrammetric techniques of analysis and measurement over such data. The most common form of mapping - the topo map - is compiled from aerial photos using a stereoplotter. This type of data capture is called photogrammetric mapping. All large engineering projects are mapped in this fashion. The cameras used are special photogrammetric cameras (usually) placed in the bottom of planes, that take photos of the earths surface. Areas of interest are thus archived at a scale that reminds of a giant and a mountain.
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The photographs used for photogrammetric mapping show the objects distorted relative to the center of the photograph (radial distortion) due to relief.

But for the human eye and brain, if two photographs are combined properly, we can see the Earth in 3D, and make measurements in that 3D model. This allows us to find the coordinates XYZ of every and all points of the model, making a very efficient and accurate way of producing maps. In order to create a 3D stereo model of a large area, the flight needs to be properly planned, ground control needs to be setup, etc. For this purpose we need to use some fundamental definitions to determine the number of photos to take, the scale, flying height, etc. From the figure:

The basic formulae are:

Scale ?

f d ? H ?h D
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Where f is the focal length of the camera, d is the size of the photograph, H is the flying height above sea level, and h is the mean height of the ground being photographed. The C-Factor is a very important formula that represents an easy way to calculate the flying height in relation to the stereo instrument used during the orientation process, and the contour interval, or resolution necessary for the project.
C ? factor ? H?h ContouInte rval

Once the flying height is defined, the focal length of the camera is known and the size of the negative is also known, t e scale can be calculated, as well as the area size covered by each h photograph. In order to obtain stereoscopy though, photographs need to show a common area. This is called the overlap between two consequent photographs. For orientation purposes, the central point (ground) of each photograph must be in the other pair. The overlap along the flight line is called the overlap, and is usually 60%. Two flight lines should overlap about 20%, to ensure that all terrain will be stereo modeled. Once the sidelap and the overlap are known, the remaining overlaping area that can be stereo-reconstructed is known as the neat model.

14.3. THE MAP MAKING PROCESS

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height we need lines of elevation points running across the block at right angles to the flight lines. These points will have to be marked on the ground and must show up on the photos. ?? Aerial Photography is flown in the winter when the trees are bare. Parallel strips are flown with a 30% side overlap until. the whole mapping are is covered. The photo scale is usually computed from the contour interval using the C-Factor. From this we can get the flying height for the pilot. ?? Photo Processing and Checking The negative rolls are developed and quick check prints are made (paper positives) to check the alignment and accuracy of the flying. If everything is acceptable, film positives are made which will be used for the mapping in the stereoplotters. ?? Aerial Triangulation This is a measuring and computing process which allows the photogrammetrist to place artificially marked points (small drill holes in the emulsion) which will have state plane coordinates at the end of the computational process. It is a highly complex set of mathematical transformations, using measured coordinates of each drill hole. There are usually 9 holes in each photo. ?? Block Adjustment This is a large computer program that can solve in excess of 15,000 linear equations. The measured drill hole coordinates, together with the measured photo coordinates of the ground control crosses are input to the block adjustment. After the transformations, State Plane coordinate are available for all the drill holes. ?? Compilation At this stage the film positives are placed in the stereoplotter two at a time. The operator sees a three-dimensional model of the ground. He/she then proceeds to digitize (in 3D) all the topo features (road centerlines - rivers - poles - buildings etc.). The digitized points and lines are output to an on-line PC. The operator is able to relate all the topo detail to the ground control system because he sees the drill holes and knows their coordinates. ?? Editing The digitized files are transferred to another PC and the digital map data is displayed on the monitor. Special software allows the computer operator to edit the data. Building corners must be squared, roads and rivers must join smoothly where two photos meet etc. Also Place Names must be added. ?? Map Checking The edited digital map files are now plotted out and a map checker studies the photos under a microscope and checks that all the detail has been digitized. Missing data means that photos must be returned to the stereoplotter operator for addition of the data. ?? Map Sheet Creation A CADD package is now used (Microstation or Autocad) to prepare a map sheet. The title, grid lines, true north, client's logo, etc are added to the map sheet. The map area within the sheet is cut out of the digital files and fitted into the map sheet. Delivery of the Map The final map data is stored on a floppy disk and compressed using PKZIP. This, together with a final plot is delivered to the client - who then proceeds to field check your mapping.

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