Chapter 9 - Mechanical Properties of Solids

Solids and their mechanical properties

o Mechanical Properties of solids describe characteristics such as their
strength and resistance to deformation.
o It describes about the ability of an object to withstand the stress
applied to that object. Objects also resist changing their shape.
o For example:- Objects such as clay can be easily deformed so they
have less resistance to deformation but objects like iron don’t change
their shapes easily. When heated they change their shapes which
means they have very high resistance to deformation.

Clay can be moulded in the shape of an earthen pot.

Mechanical properties:-
1. Elasticity: - Elasticity is a property by virtue of which original shape is
regained once the external force is removed.
o This means it tells us how much elastic a body is.

o For example:- A spring .If we stretch a spring it changes its shape

and when the external force is removed spring comes back to its
original position.

Spring Rubber Band

2. Plasticity: - Plasticity is reverse of elasticity.
o Property means permanent deformation.

o The object never regains its original shape even when the external
force is removed. These types of objects are called as plastics.
o For example:- Toys, Buckets made up of plastics.
Plastic bucket Toy made of plastic.
3. Ductility: - Property of being drawn into thin wires or sheets.
o For Example: - Small chains of gold and silver.

Chain made of gold.

4. Strength: - Ability to withstand applied stress without failure.
Stress:-
o Stress is the restoring force per unit area.
o Whenever we apply an external force on the body to change its
shape there is a restoring force that develops in the body in the
opposite direction.
o For example:-

o When we apply an external force to a rubber ball at the same

instant of time some force develops in the ball which acts in the
opposite direction.
o This opposite force which develops in the ball when an
external force is applied is known as restoring force.
o Both the forces are equal in magnitude.

o Mathematically:- Stress = F/A

o Where F= restoring force develops in the body because of force we

apply. A=area S.I. Unit :- N/m2 or Pascal(Pa) Dimensional formula is
[ML–1T–2].
Types of Stress: Longitudinal stress
o Longitudinal stress is defined as restoring force per unit area when the force is
applied to the cross-sectional area of the cylindrical body.
 o Consider a cylinder which we have to deform. If we apply the force
perpendicular to the cross-sectional area, there will be a restoring force that
develops in the cylinder in the opposite direction.
o This restoring force per unit area is known as longitudinal stress.
o Experimentally we can observe the increase in length.
o If we tie a heavy object to the cylinder with the help of threads.
o Let Initial length of the cylinder is L.
o After it gets stretched its length increases by ΔL due to the stress.
o As there is change in the length therefore this type of stress is known as
longitudinal stress.
o In the below figure if we attach a box to the cylinder, a force is applied on the
cross-sectional area of cylinder due to which it gets stretched and as a result
there is change in the length of the cylinder.

Problem:- A 14.5 kg mass, fastened to the end of a steel wire of unstretched length
1.0 m, is whirled in a vertical circle with an angular velocity of 2 rev/s at the bottom of
the circle. The cross-sectional area of the wire is 0.065 cm2. Calculate the elongation of
the wire when the mass is at the lowest point of its path.
Answer:- Mass, m = 14.5 kg
Length of the steel wire, l = 1.0 m Angular velocity, ω = 2 rev/s
Cross-sectional area of the wire, a = 0.065 cm2
Let Δl be the elongation of the wire when the mass is at the lowest point of its path.
When the mass is placed at the position of the vertical circle, the total force on the mass
is: F = mg + mlω2 = 14.5 × 9.8 + 14.5 × 1 × (2)2 = 200.1 N
Young’s modulus =Stress/Strain
Y = (F/A)/ Δl/l = (F l)/A Δl Therefore Δl = F l/A Y
Young’s modulus for steel = 2 × 1011 Pa
Therefore Δl = 200.1/0.065x10-4x2x1011 = 1539.23x107 =1.539x10-4m
Hence, the elongation of the wire is 1.539 × 10–4 m.
Types of Longitudinal Stress:-
1. Tensile Stress
2. Compressive Stress
Tensile Stress: Tensile stress is a longitudinal stress when the length of the cylinder
increases.
For example:- When the force is applied to both sides of the cylinder, the cylinder gets
stretched. As a result there will be increase in its length.

Force is applied on both the sides as a result length of

cylinder increases

Compressive Stress: : Compressive stress is a longitudinal stress where the force is

applied to compress the cylinder.

Compressing the cylinder

Tangential or Shearing Stress

Restoring force per unit area when the force applied is parallel to the cross
sectional area of the body.
Relative displacement occurs between the opposite faces of the body.
For example:- Consider a cube. If we apply force parallel to the cross sectional
area there will be movement which takes place between the opposite faces of
the cube as they have relative motion with each other.
This type of stress is known as tangential or shearing stress.

Hydraulic Stress: Hydraulic stress is the restoring force per unit area when force is
applied by a fluid on the body.
1. For example:- Consider a rubber ball and if it is dipped in the pond .Due to the
pressure of water from all directions force acts on the ball as a result, the ball
seems to be slightly contracted.
2. Because of the force exerted by the water there is restoring force which develops
in the ball which is equal in magnitude to the force applied by the water but in
opposite direction.
 3. This type of stress is known as hydraulic stress.

Ball under the water

Strain
Strain is a measure of deformation representing the displacement between
particles in the body to a reference length.
It tells us how and what changes takes place when a body is subjected to
strain. Mathematically:- Strain = ΔL/L , where ΔL=change in length L=
original length
It is dimensionless quantity because it is a ratio of two quantities.
For example: - If we have a metal beam and we apply force from both sides the
shape of the metal beam will get deformed.
This change in length or the deformation is known as Strain.

Types of Strain: Longitudinal Strain

Change in length to the original length of the body due to the longitudinal stress.
If we apply longitudinal stress to a body either the body elongates or it compresses this
change along the length of the body. This change in length is measured by Longitudinal
Strain.
Longitudinal Strain = ΔL/L
Mathematically Consider a rod whose initial length is L after elongation length becomes
L’. So the change in length is ΔL= L’ – L, So Strain= ΔL/L
o Strain occurs as a result of stress.
Shearing Strain
o Shearing strain is the measure of the relative displacement of the
opposite faces of the body as a result of shearing stress.
o If we apply force parallel to the cross - sectional area because of
which there was relative displacement between the opposite faces of
the body.
o Shearing strain measures to what extent the two opposite faces got
displaced relative to each other.
o Mathematically:-

o Consider a cube whose initial length was L which is at some

position and when it gets displaced by an angle θ.
o Let the small relative displacement be x.

o Shearing strain= x/L

o In terms of tan θ,

o Shearing strain = tan θ = x/L

o tan θ is equal to θ (as θ is very small)

o Therefore, x/L = θ

Volume Strain
o Volume strain is defined as ratio of change in volume to the original volume as
a result of the hydraulic stress.
o When the stress is applied by a fluid on a body there is change in the volume of
body without changing the shape of the body.
o Volume strain = ΔV/V

o For example:- Consider a ball initially at volume V.

o Because of hydraulic stress there is change in volume V’

o Therefore, Change in the volume ΔV= V’ – V
 o Conclusion: - Deformation is measured using strain.
o Consider a cube whose initial volume is V.

o When the cube is subjected to stress there will be a change in the volume but
the shape will not change.
Problem:- Four identical hollow cylindrical columns of mild steel support a big
structure of mass 50,000 kg. The inner and outer radii of each column are 30 cm and
compressional strain of each column.
Answer:
Mass of the big structure, M = 50,000 kg
Inner radius of the column, r = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Outer radius of the column, R = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Young’s modulus of steel, Y = 2 × 1011 Pa
Total force exerted, F = Mg = 50000 × 9.8 N
Stress = Force exerted on a single column = 122500 N
Young’s modulus, Y =𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠/𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Where, Area, A = π (R2 – r2) = π ((0.6)2 – (0.3)2)
Strain = 122500/ (π [0.6)2 – (0.3)2] x 2x1011) = 7.22 × 10–7
Hence, the compressional strain of each column is 7.22 × 10–7
Hooke’s Law

o Robert Hooke was the scientist who gave Hooke’s law.

o Hooke’s law states that within the elastic limit, stress developed is
directly proportional to the strain produced in a body.
o Consider a scenario where we apply external force to the body. As a
result stress develops in the body due to this stress there will be a
strain produced in the body which implies that there will be some
deformation in the body.
o Because of stress, strain is produced.
o According to Hooke’s law, if strain increases the stress will increase
and vice-versa.
o The Hooke’s law is applicable to all elastic substances.
o It does not apply to plastic deformation.
 o Mathematically : stress ∝ strain ➔ stress = k × strain
o Where k is the proportionality constant and is known as modulus of
elasticity.
Stress- Strain Curve

o It is a curve between stress and strain.

o A graph is plotted between the stress (which is equal in magnitude to the
applied force per unit area) and the strain produced.
o The graph helps us to understand how a given material deforms with
increasing loads.
o The curve between O and A, is a straight line. This means stress is directly ∝ to
strain. In this region Hooke’s Law is applicable.
o In this region the material behaves like an elastic body.
o In the region from A to B, stress and strain are not directly ∝. But still the
material returns to its original dimension after the force is removed. They
exhibit elastic properties.
o The point B in the curve is known as yield point (also known as elastic limit)
which means till this point the material will be elastic in behaviour and the
stress corresponding to point B is known as yield strength (Sy) of the material.
o The region between O and B is called as Elastic region.
o From point B to point D we can see that strain increases rapidly even for small
change in stress.
o Even if we remove the force the material does not come back to its original
position. At this point stress is zero but strain is not zero as body has changed
its shape.
o The material has undergone plastic deformation.
o The material is said to be permanent set.
o The point D on the graph is known as ultimate tensile strength (Su) of the
material.
o From D to E we can see that stress decreases even if strain increases.
o Finally at point E fracture occurs. This means the body breaks.
Conclusion:- An object is brittle if D and E are very close. This means fracture point
is near to tensile strength.
o For example:-Glass which is brittle.

Glass Jar If Glass jar is dropped it will easily break into pieces.
An object is ductile if D and E are very far apart from each other. This means fracture
point is far away from tensile strength.
For example:-Metals, Gold and silver etc.

Elastic substances like rubber have larger elastic region.

For example:-spring, catapult, tissue of aorta etc.
Below is the graph between stress-strain for the elastic tissue of aorta, present in the
heart. We can see from the graph even though elastic region is very large, the material
does not obey Hooke’s law over most of the region.

Elastic Modulus
o Elastic modulus is ratio of stress and strain.

o Elastic modulus is a characteristic value of each material. This means gold will
have specific value of elastic modulus and rubber will have specific value of
elastic modulus etc.
o k=Stress/Strain where k= Elastic modulus.

Problem: - A piece of copper having a rectangular cross-section of 15.2 mm × 19.1

mm is pulled in tension with 44,500 N forces, producing only elastic deformation.
Calculate the resulting strain?
Answer:
Length of the piece of copper, l = 19.1 mm = 19.1 × 10–3 m
Breadth of the piece of copper, b = 15.2 mm = 15.2 × 10–3 m
Area of the copper piece: A = l × b = 19.1 × 10–3 × 15.2 × 10–3 = 2.9 × 10–4 m2
Tension force applied on the piece of copper, F = 44500 N
Modulus of elasticity of copper, η = 42 × 109 N/m2
Modulus of elasticity, η = Stress/Strain = (F/A)/Strain
Strain = F/ (A η) =44500/2.9x10–4x42x109 = 3.65 × 10–3
Types of Elastic Modulus
1. Young’s Modulus
2. Shear Modulus
3. Bulk Modulus
Young’s Modulus
o Young’s modulus is derived from the name of the scientist who defined it.

o It is the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain.

o It is denoted by Y.

o Mathematically: Y= longitudinal stress/ longitudinal strain = σ/ ε

o = (F/A)/ (ΔL/L)

o Y=FL/ΔL

o If Young’s modulus is more, to produce a small change in length more force

required. S.I. Unit is N m–2 or Pascal (Pa).
o Metals have comparatively greater Young’s Modulus. To change the length of
metals, greater force is required.

Problem: - A copper wire of length 2.2 m and a steel wire of length 1.6 m, both of
diameter 3.0 mm, are connected end to end. When stretched by a load, the net
elongation is found to be 0.70 mm. Obtain the load applied.
Answer:- The copper and steel wires are under a tensile stress because they have the
same tension (equal to the load W) and the same area of cross-section A.
Stress = strain × Young’s modulus. Therefore
W/A = Yc × (ΔLc/Lc) = Ys × (ΔLs/Ls) where
The subscripts c and s refer to copper and stainless steel respectively. Or,
ΔLc /ΔLs = (Ys/Yc) × (Lc /Ls)
Given Lc = 2.2 m, Ls = 1.6 m, Yc = 1.1 × 1011 Nm–2, and Ys = 2.0 × 1011 Nm–2.
ΔLc/ΔLs = (2.0 × 1011/1.1 × 1011) × (2.2/1.6) = 2.5.
The total elongation is given to be ΔLc + ΔLs = 7.0 × 10-4 m
Solving the above equations, ΔLc = 5.0 × 10-4 m, and ΔLs = 2.0 × 10-4 m.
Therefore W = (A × Yc × ΔLc)/Lc = π (1.5 × 10-3)2 × [(5.0 × 10-4 × 1.1 × 1011)/2.2]
= 1.8 × 102 N
Problem: A structural steel rod has a radius of 10 mm and a length of 1.0 m. A 100 kN
force stretches it along its length. Calculate (a) stress, (b) elongation, and (c) strain on
the rod. Young’s modulus, of structural steel is 2.0 × 1011 N m-2.
Answer: We assume that the rod is held by a clamp at one end, and the force F is
applied at the other end, parallel to the length of the rod.
Then the stress on the rod is given by Stress =F/A = F/πr2 =100 103 N/3.14 102 m2
= 3.18 × 108 N m–2
The elongation, ΔL = (F/A) Y = (3.18 108 N m-2 1m)/ (2 1011 N m-2)
= 1.59 × 10–3 m = 1.59 mm
The strain is given by Strain = ΔL/L= (1.59 × 10–3 m)/ (1m) = 1.59 × 10–3 = 0.16 %

Young’s Modulus: Application

o In industrial constructions steel is preferred over copper. The reason behind
this is steel is more elastic than copper.
o If there is slight deformation in steel due to contraction and expansion it will
come back to its original position.
o Steel is preferred over copper to construct bridges.

Problem:- A steel wire of length 4.7 m and cross-sectional area 3.0 × 10-5 m2 stretches
by the same amount as a copper wire of length 3.5 m and cross-sectional area of 4.0 ×
10–5m2, under a given load. What is the ratio of the Young’s modulus of steel to that of
copper?
Answer:- Length of the steel wire, L1 = 4.7 m
Area of cross-section of the steel wire, A1 = 3.0 × 10–5m2
Length of the copper wire, L2 = 3.5 m
Area of cross-section of the copper wire, A2 = 4.0 × 10–5m2
Change in length = ΔL1 = ΔL2 = ΔL
Force applied in both the cases = F
Young’s modulus of the steel wire:
Y1 = (F1/A1) (L1/ ΔL) =F x 4.7/ (3.0 × 10–5x ΔL) … (i)
Young’s modulus of the copper wire:
Y2 = (F2/A2) (L2/ ΔL) = F x3.5/ (4.0 × 10–5x ΔL) … (ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get:
Y1/Y2 = (4.7x4.0 × 10–5)/ (3.0 × 10–5x3.5) =1.79:1
The ratio of Young’s modulus of steel to that of copper is 1.79: 1.

Determination of Young’s Modulus of the material of the wire

Experimental set up:-

o Two strings were hung from a support and two pans were attached to both the
strings.
o Weights are kept on both the pans.

o When the number of weights in second pan was increased, the string got
stretched and moved in downward direction.
o The change in length was measured by the metre scale which was kept on
reference wire.
o Using this experiment, the Young’s modulus value was calculated

o Y= longitudinal stress/ longitudinal strain = σ/ ε= (F/A)/ (ΔL/L)

o Where original length = L and ΔL = change in length, F=mg (acting downwards)

and A (area of cross-section of wire) = πr2 = (mg/ πr2)/ (ΔL/L)
o Y= mgL/ πr2 ΔL

o This is the way to calculate the Young’s modulus.

Problem:- Read the following two statements below carefully and state, with reasons,
if it is true or false.
1. a) The Young’s modulus of rubber is greater than that of steel;
2. b) The stretching of a coil is determined by its shear modulus.
Answer:
(a) False (b) True

For a given stress, the strain in rubber is more than it is in steel.

Young’s modulus, Y = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠/𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
For a constant stress: 𝑌 ∝ 1/𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Hence, Young’s modulus for rubber is less than it is for steel.
Shear modulus is the ratio of the applied stress to the change in the shape of a body.
The stretching of a coil changes its shape. Hence, shear modulus of elasticity is
involved in this process.
Problem:- A rigid bar of mass 15 kg is supported symmetrically by three wires each 2.0
m long. Those at each end are of copper and the middle one is of iron. Determine the
ratio of their diameters if each is to have the same tension.
Answer:- The tension force acting on each wire is the same.
Thus, the extension in each case is the same. Since the wires are of the same length, the
strain will also be the same.
The relation for Young’s modulus is given as:
Y =𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠/𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (F/A)/Strain = (4F/ πd2)/Strain Equation (i)
Where, F = Tension force, , A = Area of cross-section, D=Diameter of the wire
From equation (i) Y ∝ 1/d2
Young’s Modulus for iron, Y1 =190x109 Pa, Diameter of the iron wire =d1
Young’s Modulus for copper, Y2 = 110x109 Pa, Diameter of the copper wire =d2
Therefore the ratios of their diameters are given as:
d1/ d2 =√ Y1/ Y2 =√190x109/110x109 = √19/11 =1.31:1
Shear Modulus (Modulus of Rigidity)
o Shear modulus is defined as shearing stress to shearing strain.

o It is also known as Modulus of Rigidity.

o It is denoted by ‘G’. S.I. Unit: N/m2 or Pascal(Pa)

o Mathematically

o G=shearing stress/shearing strain = (F/A)/( Δx/L) = FL/A Δx

o By the definition of shearing strain 1/ θ =(L/ Δx)

o G=F/A θ

Relation between Young’s Modulus and Shear Modulus

o Shear modulus is less than Young’s modulus.

o For most materials G = Y/3.

Problem:- A box shaped piece of wax has a top area of 10cm2 and height of 2cm.When
a shearing force of 0.5N is applied to the upper surface, displaces 4mm relative to the
bottom surface. What are the shearing stress, shearing strain and shear modulus for
wax?
Answer:- Area = 10cm2, height =2cm, (displacement) x=4mm
1. Shearing stress = tangential force/Area =0.5/10x10-4 = 500Pa
2. Shearing strain = small displacement/initial length = x/L
= (4x10-3)/ (2x10-2) = 0.2
3. Shear Modulus = Shearing stress/ Shearing strain =500/0.2 = 2500 Pa.
Problem:- A square lead slab of side 50 cm and thickness 10 cm is subject to a
shearing force (on its narrow face) of 9.0 × 104 N. The lower edge is riveted to the floor.
How much will the upper edge are displaced?

Answer: - The lead slab is fixed and the force is applied parallel to the narrow face as
shown in Fig. The area of the face parallel to which this force is applied is
A = 50 cm × 10 cm = 0.5 m × 0.1 m = 0.05 m2
Therefore, the stress applied is = (9.4 × 104 N/0.05 m2) = 1.80 × 106Nm–2
We know that shearing strain = (Δx/L) = Stress /G. Therefore the displacement Δx =
(Stress × L)/G = (1.8 × 106 N m–2 × 0.5m)/ (5.6 × 109 N m–2)
= 1.6 × 10–4 m = 0.16 mm
Problem:- The edge of an aluminium cube is 10 cm long. One face of the cube is firmly
fixed to a vertical wall. A mass of 100 kg is then attached to the opposite face of the
cube. The shear modulus of aluminium is 25 GPa. What is the vertical deflection of this
face?
Answer:
Edge of the aluminium cube, L = 10 cm = 0.1 m
The mass attached to the cube, m = 100 kg
Shear modulus (η) of aluminium = 25 GPa = 25 × 109 Pa
Shear modulus, η = Shear stress/Shear Strain = (F/A)/L/ ΔL
Where, F = Applied force = mg = 100 × 9.8 = 980 N
A = Area of one of the faces of the cube = 0.1 × 0.1 = 0.01 m2
ΔL = Vertical deflection of the cube
ΔL = FL/A η = (980x0.1)/10-2x (25x109) = 3.92 × 10–7 m
The vertical deflection of this face of the cube is 3.92 ×10–7 m.
Bulk Modulus
o Bulk modulus is the ratio of hydraulic stress to the corresponding hydraulic
strain. Denoted by ‘B’, B = -p/(ΔV/V)
o Where p =hydraulic stress, ΔV/V = hydraulic strain

(-) ive signs show that the increase in pressure results in decrease in volume.
o S.I. Unit :- N/m2 or Pascal(Pa) B(solids) > B(liquids) >B(gases)
Compressibility
o Compressibility is the measure of compression of a substance.

o Reciprocal of bulk modulus is termed as ‘Compressibility’.

o Mathematically: k=1/B = - (1/p) (ΔV/V), It is denoted by ‘k’.

o k(solids)<k(liquids)<k(gases)
Problem:-The average depth of Indian Ocean is about 3000 m.
Calculate the fractional compression, ΔV/V, of water at the bottom of the ocean, given
that the bulk modulus of water is 2.2 × 109 N m–2. (Take g = 10 m s–2)
Answer: - The pressure exerted by a 3000 m column of water on the bottom layer
p = hρ g = 3000 m × 1000 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 = 3 × 107 kg m–1 s-2 = 3 × 107 N m–2
Fractional compression ΔV/V, is
ΔV/V = stress/B = (3 × 107 N m-2)/ (2.2 × 109 N m–2) = 1.36 × 10-2 or 1.36 %
Problem: The bulk modulus for water is 2.1GPa.Calculate the contraction in volume of
200ml of water is subjected to a pressure of 2MPa.
Answer:-
B=2.1GPa = 2.1 x109Pa.
V=200ml = 2x10-6ml.
P=2MPa = 200x106 Pa.
B=- (1/p) (ΔV/V) = ΔV = pV/B = (2x106x200x10-6)/ = 2.1 x109 B=0.19ml

Problem: - Compute the bulk modulus of water from the following data: Initial volume
= 100.0 litre, Pressure increase = 100.0 atm (1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa), Final volume =
100.5 litre. Compare the bulk modulus of water with that of air (at constant
temperature). Explain in simple terms why the ratio is so large.
Answer:
Initial volume, V1 = 100.0l = 100.0 × 10–3 m3
Final volume, V2 = 100.5 l = 100.5 ×10–3 m3
Increase in volume, ΔV = V2 – V1 = 0.5 × 10–3 m3
Increase in pressure, Δp = 100.0 atm = 100 × 1.013 × 105 Pa
Bulk Modulus = Δp / ΔV/ V1 = Δp x V1/ ΔV
= (100x1.013 × 105x100x10-3)/0.5x10-3 =2.026x106 Pa
Bulk modulus of air= 1.0x105Pa
Therefore, Bulk modulus of water/ Bulk modulus of air
=2.026x106/1.0x105 =2.026x104
This ratio is very high because air is more compressible than water.

Problem:-
What is the density of water at a depth where pressure is 80.0 atm, given that its density
at the surface is 1.03 × 103 kg m–3?
Answer:-
Let the given depth be h.
Pressure at the given depth, p = 80.0 atm = 80 × 1.01 × 105 Pa
Density of water at the surface, ρ1 = 1.03 × 103 kg m–3
Let ρ2 be the density of water at the depth h.
Let V1 be the volume of water of mass m at the surface.
Let V2 be the volume of water of mass m at the depth h.
Let ΔV be the change in volume.
ΔV = V1 - V2 =m (1/ ρ1 – 1/ ρ2)
Therefore, Volumetric strain = ΔV/ V1
=m (1/ ρ1 – 1/ ρ2) x ρ1/m
Therefore, ΔV/ V1 = (1- ρ1/ ρ2) … (i)
Bulk modulus, B = p V1/ ΔV, ΔV/ V1 = p/B
Compressibility of water =1/B =45.8x10-11 Pa-1
Therefore, ΔV/ V1= 80x1.013x105x45.8x10-11 = 3.71x10-3 … (ii)
For equations (i) and (ii), we get: 1- ρ1 / ρ2 = 3.71 x10-3 ρ2 = 1.03x103/(1-(3.71x10-3)
=1.034x103kgm-3
Therefore, the density of water at the given depth (h) is 1.034 × 103 kg m–3.
Problem: - Compute the fractional change in volume of a glass slab, when subjected to
a hydraulic pressure of 10 atm.
Answer:-
Hydraulic pressure exerted on the glass slab, p = 10 atm = 10 × 1.013 × 105 Pa
Bulk modulus of glass, B = 37 × 109 Nm–2
Bulk modulus, B= p/ (ΔV/V) Where,
ΔV/V = Fractional change in volume
Therefore, ΔV/ V = p/B =10x1.013x105 =2.73x10-5
Hence, the fractional change in the volume of the glass slab is 2.73 × 10–5.
Problem: - How much should the pressure on a litre of water is changed to compress it
by 0.10%?
Answer:
Volume of water, V = 1 L
It is given that water is to be compressed by 0.10%.
Fractional change = ΔV/V =0.1/100x1 = 10-3
Bulk modulus, B= ρ/ ΔV/V, p=B x ΔV/V
Bulk Modulus of water, B = 2.2x109Nm-2
p=2.2x109x10-3 =2.2x106Nm-2
Therefore, the pressure on water should be 2.2 ×106 Nm–2.
Problem: - The average depth of Indian Ocean is about 3000 m. Calculate the
fractional compression, ΔV/V, of water at the bottom of the ocean, given that the bulk
modulus of water is 2.2 × 109 N m–2. (Take g = 10 m s–2)
Answer:- The pressure exerted by a 3000 m column of water on the bottom layer
p = hρ g = 3000 m × 1000 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 = 3 × 107 kg m–1 s-2 = 3 × 107 N m–2
Fractional compression ΔV/V, is
ΔV/V = stress/B = (3 × 107 N m-2)/ (2.2 × 109 N m–2) = 1.36 × 10-2 or 1.36 %