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131 viewsGeneral Topology
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math 466
Introduction to
General Topology
2002
LUTFI N. KALANTAN
‘The following was prepared from:
1. Paul Long,An Introduction to General topology,Charles B. Merrill Publishing Company, 1971
2. C, Wayne Patty, Foundations of Topology, PWS-KENT Publishing Company, 1993 1 BASIC NOTIONS CONCERNING SETS 3
1 Basic Notions Concerning Sets
A Set is a collection of objects. These objects are called points, numbers,
or elements. Sets are denoted by uppercase letters such as A,X,S,A,...,
and their elements by lowercase letters such as a, 2,8, @,3,.... The object
is a member of a set $ is symbolized by x € S. If x is not a member of a set
S, then we denote that by « ¢ S. The simplest two ways of representing a
set are by listing all of its elements and by characterize all of its elements.
1.1 Definition: A set X is a subset of another set Y, denoted by
X CY, if and only if Yr € X we haver € Y. X =Y ifand only if
X CY andY CX. We say that X isa proper subset of Y, denoted
by X CY, if X is asubset of Y and X 4 Y. The set which contains no
elements is called the empty set. and it is denoted by @. The set of all
possible subsets of a set X is called the power set of X and is denoted
by P(X). A set consists of only one element is called singleton.
For two sets X and Y, we define:
(a) X\¥ = {r:€ X and x ¢Y}, called the complement of Y with respect to X.
(b) XAY ={w:2€X andr Y}. called the intersection of X and Y.
(c) XUY = {2:2 € X orx€ Y}, called the union of X and Y.
Main Sets of Numbers
The Natural Numbers N = {1,2,3,...}
The Integers Z = {..., —3, —2,—1,0,1,2,3,...}
The Rational Numbers Q = {¢: a,b € Z and b 40}
There are numbers that cannot be expressed as fraction such as 7,2. If
q€Q, then q+ V2 cannot be expressed as fraction. Also, any root with
even order of a prime number cannot be expressed as a fraction. So, there
are infinitely many such numbers. The set of all those numbers is called
Trrationals and it is denoted by P.
The set of real numbers R =QUP.
For two distinct real numbers a and 6, the inequality a < b means b —a
is positive, i.c., b—a > 0. The set of real numbers has the property that for
any two distinct real numbers a and 6, either a
ot
X\ Uses Aa =Macal® \ Aa);
+ X\ Anes Aa = Unea(® \ Aa).
Problems
. Prove that if A and B are subsets of a set X, then
(a) AUO=A
(b) ANO=6
(c) AC X\ Bifand only if ANB=0
. For any two subsets A and B of X, prove
(a) ANB=Bifand only if BC A.
(b) (A\ B)UB = A if and only if BC A.
. For any two sets A and B, prove that AM Band A\ B are disjoint(i.e.,
their intersection is empty.), and that A =(AN.B)U(A\B).
(This gives a way of representing A as a disjoint union.)
Prove, or give a counterexample to disprove, each of the following state-
ments:
(a) If DC XxY, then there are subsets A C X and B CY such that
D=AxB.
(b) If X C Z, then for any set ¥, Xx VY CZxY.
. Prove that X x Y = Y x X if and only if X =Y. 1 BASIC NOTIONS CONCERNING SETS 7
6. Prove that for any four sets X,Y, Z and W,
(a) (Xx Y)A(Zx W) =(XNZ)x (YAW).
(b) (Xx Y)U(Zx W) C (XUZ) x (YUW).
c) Give an example to show the reverse inclusion in part (b) need not
P Pi
hold.
Nn
Let {Aq :a € A} be an indexed family of sets indexed by A. Prove
(a) Maca Aa © As GU nen Aas for each 6 € A.
(b) For any set B we have BUU je, 4a =Upeq(BU Aa):
. Let A, = (-4,4) = {ec € R: -4 < x < 4}, n €N bean indexed
family of subsets of R.
oo
(a) Find (\,ex) An and prove that your result is correct.
(a) Find Ucn An and prove that your result is correct.
©
. Give a decreasing family {A,, CR: n € N} of nonempty subsets of R
(decreasing means A, 4; C A, for each n EN) such that Aye An = 0
10. Let {Ay : & € A} and {By : k € A} be two families of sets each one
indexed by A= {1,2,...n}.
(a) Prove that if Ay © By for each k A, then JJ", Ay C [Ty Be.
(b) If Ay £ 0 for every k EA and PI, Ar © [IR Bp, then Ay C By
for every k € A.
(c) Why does part (b) fail if for some k € A, A, = 0?
11. Let {Aq :a€ A} be an indexed family of sets.
(a) Prove that BC (\e, Aa if and only if BC Ay for every @€ A.
(b) Prove that Une, Aa © B if and only if Ay © B for every ve A.
Functions
1.10 Definition: A function f froma nonempty set _X toa nonempty
set Y, denoted by f : X —> Y, is arule that assign to each element « in
X a unique element in Y denoted by f(x). In other words, f is a subset
of X x ¥ such that for each x € X there is a unique element y = f(x)
such that (x,y) € f. X is called the domain of f and ¥ is called the
codomain of f. The subset [(X) = {f(x) : 2 € X} of Y is called the
range of f. 1 BASIC NOTIONS CONCERNING SETS 8
Two functions f : X —+Y and g: X —+ ¥ are equal, denoted by f = 9,
if and only if f(x) = g(x), Vx € X.
Image and Pre image
If f : X —+ Y isa function, then f introduces a function from P(X) into
P(Y). Let AC X. The image of A under f, denoted by f(A),
is defined by f(A) = {f(a) € Y : a € A}. Now, for a subset B CY, the
subset of all members of X whose image under f lies in B is called the
preimage of B. That is, f-'(B) = {« €X: f(x) € B}.
Example: Let f : R —+ R be defined by f(«) =. Let A= [-2,2),
B=(0,9), and C =(-2,9). Then
f(A) = {a?:@ € [-2,2)} = [0,4].
f-\(B) = {a €R: 2? € (0,9)} =(—3,0)U (0,3).
f-(C) = (3,3).
From the above definitions we have:
) xe A=> f(x) € f(A).
) y € f(A) = dx € A such that f(x) =y.
0) @ € f'(B) => f(x) EB.
d) f(v) EB we f'(B).
1.11 Theorem***; (Image and Preimage Properties)
Let f : ¥ —Y bea function. A, Ag, CX and B, By, D CY. Then
LACS (P(A). [if f is 1-1, then equality holds]
2. f(f-(B)) CB. [if f is onto, then equality holds]
3. F(a Ae) = Unf (Ae):
4. f-(U, Ba) =Uaf (Ba):
5. F(Aa Ae) S Naf (Ae)-
6. f(A Ba) =Naf (Ba).
7. F(C\A) 2 F(C)\ F(A).
8. f(X\ f-(B)) CY\B.
9. f \(D\ B)=f-(D)\ f"(B).
Proof: We prove (1) and (8), and leave the rest as an exercise. 1 BASIC NOTIONS CONCERNING SETS 9
(1) Let A be an arbitrary subset of X. We have to show that A C
f'(s(A)). If A = 0, we are done as the empty set is a subset of
any set. So, assume that A # @) and pick an arbitrary element a € A.
By (a), we have that f(a) € f(A). Put f(A) = B. Then, by (d), we
get a € f-'(B)= f-'(f(A)). Therefore, A C f-(f(A)).
Now, assume that f is 1-1, see definition 1.13 below, and we have
to show that A = f-!(f(A)). Note that we just have to show that
f-(f(A)) © A. Let a € f-'(f(A)) be arbitrary. By (c), we have
that f(a) € f(A). Put y = f(a). Then, by (b), 3a’ € A such that
f(a’) = 4 = f(a). This implies that a= a! € Aas f is 1-1. Therefore
a € A and equality holds.
(8) ify ZY \B, then y € B. Thus 3 x € f-\(B) such that f(
Hence « ¢X \ f-1(B). Therefore, f(x) =y ¢ f(X\ f-(B)).m
1.12 Definition: Let Xx Xp x ... x X,, be the product of the family
{Xi : k = 1,2,....n}. For each k, 1 < k < n, there is a projection
, 2 XX XX w. X Xn —> Xp defined by
Pr (1,25 -0452n) = apy V (a1, 24-0509) € Xy xX Xp XX Xe
1.13 Definition:
Let f : ¥ —+Y bea function. f is injective or one-to-one, denoted
by 1-1, if and only ify A xp = f (01) ¢ f(s), Wer,r2 © X. Equivalently,
if f(21) = f(w2), then x1 =a. And f is surjective or onto ifand only
if ((X) =Y. That is, Vy €Y, J 2@X such that f(2)=
If f :X —+¥ isa 1-1 function, then f~': f(X) CY ty defined by
fy) =a f(z) =u, VrEXVYE F(X),
is also a function called the inverse function of f.
1.14 Definition: Let f : X —+ Y be a function and A C X. The
restriction of f to A is the function g : A — Y defined by g(x) =
f(x), Vx € A. Usually, we denote this restriction g by fl.
1.15 Definition:
Let f : X — Y and g:Y — Z be functions. The composition
function of f and g, denoted by go f, is a function from X into Z
defined by (90 f) (2x) = 9(f(2))-
For CC Z we have that (go f)(C) = f-(g-(C)). 1 BASIC NOTIONS CONCERNING SETS 10
r
N
s
>
on
a
Nn
Problems
Give an example of a function f : X —+ Y and two subsets A and B
of X which show that
(a) (ANB) 4 f(A) FB).
(b) (A\ B) 4 F(A)\ FB).
. Give examples of functions from the reals R to the non-negative reals.
Rt that are
(a) Injective (1-1).
(b) Injective but not surjective.
(c) Surjective (onto) but not injective.
Let X be the set of all two by two matrices whose elements are real
numbers. Define f : ¥ —>R by f(A) =det(A) for all A € X.(det(A)
is the determinant of A.) Prove or disprove that f is 1-1. Prove or
disprove that f is onto.
Prove that if []{_; Xx 4, then every projection function
jt Ip Xk — Xj, 1 <5 <1, is surjective
Give an example of a projection function that is injective and of one
that is not injective.
. Prove that the function f : X —+ Y is injective (1-1) if and only if for
every subset AC X we have f(X\ A) CY \ f(A).
Let X =¥ =R and consider the following functions:
(1) f:X —+Y given by f(x) = 20-1 for each x € X.
(2) JN N given by f(n) = 2n +3 foreach ne.
(3) f:X —+Y given by f(x) =e for each x € X,
(4) f:X —Y given by f(e) =
(5) f :X — Y given by
_f 1 ;ife>0
ne)={ 1, sife<0
(a) Describe f~! for those functions f having f~! as a function inverse,
(b) For those functions f not having f~! as a function inverse, restrict
f to some subset of the domain X so that f will be injective and
find the function inverse to your restricted function. 1 BASIC NOTIONS CONCERNING SETS il
(c) For the functions (1), (3) and (5), let B = [—1,1]. Find f-1(B) in
each case.
Let f : R? —> R? be given by f(x,y) = (x + y,y — 2x) for each
(x,y) € R?. Prove f is bijective (1-1 and onto) and find the function
inverse of f.
oo
9. If f : X —+ ¥Y is a function and B; and By are subsets of Y where
By C By, prove f- (Bi) C f-\(Ba).
10. If f : ¥ —+Y is a function and a,b € Y where a 4b,
prove f-'(a)N f-1(b) =
11. Let f: X —+Y bea function, AC X and BCY.
(a) Prove AC fi(f(A )
(b) Prove f is 1-1 iff f-'(f(A)) =A for each A CX.
(c) Prove f(f-'(B)) CB.
(d) Prove f is onto iff f(f-!(B)) = B for each BCY.
Finite and Infinite Sets
1.16 Definition: A set X is infinite if and only if there exists a 1-1
function f : X —y X such that 0 4 f(X) C X,ie. f(X) isa proper subset
of X. A set is finite if and only if it is not infinite.
From the definition it follows that every set is either infinite or finite, but
not both. Since the empty set and a set consisting of a single element have
no nonempty proper subset, both must be finite.
Examples:
1. Let X = {0,1,2}. Then any injective function f : X —.X must have
(0) A F(A); F() # F(2) and f(1) F F(2). So {F(0), F(1), F(2)} =X.
Therfore, it is impossible to find injective f : X —> X such that
{(X) CX. Thus X is finite.
2. N is infinite for the function g : N —+ N defined by g(n) = n+ Lis
1-1 and g(N) is a nonempty proper subset of N. (Another function is
g(n) = 2n.)
1.17 Theorem: If X C Y and Y is finite, then X is finite.
Proof: exercise.
Hint: If you assume X is infinite you will get a contradiction. 1 BASIC NOTIONS CONCERNING SETS 12
1.18 Theorem: If X is infinite and a € X, then X \ {a} is infinite.
Proof: exercise
Hint: Ja 1-1 function f : X —+ X such that f(X) is a proper subset of X.
There are only two cases for the point a:(1) a€ X \ f(X) or (2) a€ f(X).
In either case you must exhibit an injective function g : X \{a} — X \{a}
such that g(X \ {a}) is a proper subset of X \ {a}.
1.19 Definition: For each n € N, let J, = {k € N: k 2, is finite and we have to show that I,41 is finite.
Suppose not, then J,1\ {k-+1} = I; is infinite,(by theorem 1.18), which is
a contradiction. m=
1.21 Corollary: A subset A C N is finite if and only if there isan n € N
such that A C J,,.
1.22 Theorem: Let f : X —+Y bea function.
(1) If f is 1-1 and X is infinite, then Y is infinite.
(2) If f is onto and X is finite, then Y is finite.
Proof; exercise.
Countable and Uncountable Sets
1.23 Definition: A set X is countable if and only if X = 9 or there
is an onto function f : N—+ X. If X is not countable, then it is called
uncountable.
Examples:
1. X = {0,1,2} is countable, for define f : N—> X by f(1) =0, (2) =1
and f(n) =2Vn > 3, then f is onto.
. X = {0,1,2,3,4,...} is countable, for define f : N—+ X by f(n) =
n—-1neN, then f is onto.
N
Any finite set is countable. The converse is not always true as example(2)
above shows. Any uncountable set must be infinite. An infinite set could
be countable (as example (2) above) and could be uncountable as the next
theorem shows. 1 BASIC NOTIONS CONCERNING SETS 13
1.24 Theorem:
X = {x €R:0 Oandn €N, then
(1t+0)">1+ne.
(This fact is known as Bernoulli’s inequality.)
Proof: Let x € R be arbitrary with x > 0. For each natural number
n EN let P, be the statement that (1+2)" >1+nz. The statement P;
is true because when n = 1 we have (1+)! = (1+a) = 1+(1)(x) >
142. Now, suppose n is any natural number for which the statement
= r)" > 1+ nex happens to be true. Then we see that
(1+2)"!=(1+2)"(1+2)
>(1+ne)(1+2) by the inductive hypothesis
=14(n+)rtne? >1+(n+)e.
Which establishes the truth of the staement P,,1. Thus by mathematical
induction the enequality is true for any n € N. m=
1.33 Theore:
Ifx € Rwith « > 0, then there exists a natural number n € N sa
that 4< 2.
Proof: Let « € R be arbitrary with z > 0. Since the set of natural
number N is not bounded above, + is not an upper bound of N. Therefore
we can choose a member n € N such that n > 4 and we see at once that
iOand b> Owhere a,b € R, then for some natural number n, we have na > b.
‘This tells us that even if a is quite small and b is quite large, some natural multiple of a will exceed b, Or,
we can say, “Given enough time, one can empty a large bathtub with a small spoon.” 1 BASIC NOTIONS CONCERNING SETS 15
wn
o Now
©
Problems
. (a) If X and Y are both finite, prove that X UY is finite.
(b) Use part (a) and mathematical induction to prove that a finite
union of finite sets is a finite set. That is, if X; is finite for each
i € {1,2,...,n} where n EN, then Uj, X; isa finite set.
. If X is infinite and X = AUB, prove that A or B must be infinite.
. Prove that if X is infinite and A CX is finite, then X \ A is infinite.
Prove that the set of all integers is countable
(a) Give an example of a countable collection of sets each of which is
finite, but their union is infinite.
(b) Give an example of a countable infinite collection of countable sub-
sets of R such that each pair of these sets are disjoint.
. Prove that the union of two uncountable sets is uncountable,
. Prove that QxQ is countable.
. Prove that if X is countable and f : X —+ Y is onto, then Y is
countable.
. (a) Prove that any finite set is countable.
(b) Prove that any uncountable set is infinite.
. Prove that if there exists a 1-1 function f : N— X, then X is infinite.
10.
Use the mathematical induction to prove the following:
(a) For any n EN, we have 142434... $n = 2).
(b) For any n EN and a €R, we have |sinne| < n|sine.
(c) Allmumbers of the form 7" — 2" are divisible by 5. 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 16
2 Topological Spaces
2.1 Definition: Let X be a nonempty set. A topology on _X is a subset
T of P(X), the power set of X, sa ing the following conditions:
1. The ground set X and the empty set @ are in T;
2. The intersection of any two members of T is in T; and
3. Any union of members of T is in T.
In notations:
LX,OET;
2. Uy,U2 € T = UU 2 € T; and
3. Uy € Tae A = Une, Ua ET.
If T is a topology ona nonempty set X, then the order pairs (X,T) is
called a topological space’. If T is understood, we just say that X is
a topological space, or shortly, X is a space. Any member of the topology
is called an open subset, or shortly open set.
2.2 Examples:
1. Let X = {a,b,c}. Let Ti = {0,X, {a}, {a,b}}, T2 = {0,X, {a}, {0}, {a,c}},
Ts = {X, {a,b}, {a}}.
T, is a topology on X because and X € Ti (by the definition of Ti),
so the first condition holds. Since §MY = 0, where Y is any set,
and also if A C X, then AMX = A, then the intersection of any two
members of 7; is in J; if one of them is 0 or X. It remains to show
that {a} M {a,b} isin Tj. But, {a} {a,b} = {a} € Ti. Thus, the
second condition holds. Since the empty set does not affect any union
and since the union will be X (the ground set) if X is a member of the
union, it remains, to complete the proof of the third condition, to show
that {a} U {a,b} is in Ti. But, {a} U {a,b} = {a,b} € T. Thus any
union of members of 7; is in 7;, so the third condition holds. Thus Ti
is a topology on X.
Th is not a topology on X because {a}, {b} € J, but {a} U {b} =
{a,b} ¢ Ta. So, Tz does not satisfy the third condition. So, it is not a
topology on
Abstract spaces with a topological structure were first introduced by Fréchet in 1906
1907. The definition of a topological space was frst formulated by Kuratowski in 1922 in tet
operator
sof a closure 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 7
Tz is not a topology on X because 0 ¢ T3.
. Define T C P(R) as follows: For a subset U CR,
U€T ifand only if U=0@ or U =R or U =[a,b]
where a,b € R with a either U = 0, or Vx € UJ an open interval of the form
(a,b), where a,b € R with a A(a,b) such that x € (a,b) CU;
and x € U, €U = A(c,d) such that x € (c,d) C Uy. Thus the open
interval (max{a,c},min{b,d}) is containing x and contained in Uy
Thus Uj NU» € U. So, (2) is satisfied. Now, let {U,:a € A} CU. If
0, thenU,c\Ua EU. So, assume U,c,Ua £0. Let € Une, Ua
Then there exists a 8 € A such that 2 € Uy. But Us €U, thus
there exists an open interval (a,b) such that a € (a,b) C Us C UneaUa-
Thus U,¢,Ua € U. So (3) is also satisfied. Therefore U/ is a topology on
Rea
Some examples of open subsets of R in the usual topology U are: (1,3),
(v2.7), (1,2)U(5,6),R\{—1,3, 5}. Indeed, any open interval belongs to the
usual topology.
2.9 Definition: Let (X,7) be a topological space and let x € X. An
open neighborhood of x in X isany openset U € T such that 2 €U.
The family {U € T: « € U} is called the set of all open neighborhoods of x.
2.10 Theorem**: A nonempty subset V of a space X is open if and
only if V @ € V, 4 an open neighborhood U; of x such that U, CV.
Proof: (=+) Clear, as V itself works.
(<=) Suppose that Vax € V, J an open neighborhood U; of « such that
Uz CV. We need to show that V is open, ie., V € T where T denotes
the topology on X. For each x € V fix an open neighborhood U, € T of «
such that 2 € U, CV. We show that V = Ujey Us. First, VD User Ur
holds because U, C V for each « € V. Now, if a € V is arbitrary, then
@ € Ur © Use Urs thus V C Use Ur. So, equality holds. Therefore, V
is a union of members of T. Thus, by the definition of a topology, V € T.
Thus V is open. 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 20
2.11 Definition: Let 7; and T2 be two topologies for a set X. If
T, CT», ie., if each open set of T; is also an open set of T2, then Ty is
said to be smaller than 79. (or T2 is larger than T;.)
If neither T, C T2 nor Tz C 7; is true, then 7, and 72 are said to be
not comparable.
Note that if T is a topology on X, then it is always true that ZC T CD.
On R, we have £ CU
2.12 Theorem: A finite intersection of open sets is open. That is, if
Uj, Us, ...,Un are open, where n € N, then (Y!"_,U; is open.
Proof: By Mathematical Induction. For n = 1, there is nothing to prove.
For n = 2, Uy MU) is open from the definition of the topology. Assume now
the statement is true for n = k > 2, and we have to prove it forn=k+1.
Note that Uj U2N... WU gy = (Ui U2... Wg) VU p41 and Up VU 2M... AU,
is an open set by the inductive hypothesis. Thus Uj MU, 1... U, Up is
open by the definition of the topology. m
Exercise: Give an example of an infinite collection of open sets in a
topological space such that its intersection is not open.
2.13 The Cofinite Topology:
Let X be any infinite set. The cofinite topology CF on_X is defined
as follows:
UECF = (1)U=0, OR (2) (X\U) is finite,
Exercise:
1. Show that CF is indeed a topology on X.
2. If X isa finite set and we define the cofinite topology CF on it. What
will we get?
2.14 The Cocountable Topology:
Let X be any uncountable set. The cocountable topology CC on
X is defined as follows:
UE CC = (1) U=0, OR (2) (X\U) is countable.
Exercise:
1. Show that CC is indeed a topology on X. 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 21
N
Ne
>
ot
©
. For each n € N, define U,, = {n,n+1, n+:
. If X is a countable set and we define the cocountable topology CC on
it. What will we get?
Problems
. List all topologies for a set containing three distinct elements.
. Is there a set upon which the discrete and indiscrete topologies are
equal?
. Give an example of a topology on an infinite set which has only a finite
number of elements. (Do not use the indiscrete topology.)
Give an example of a set X and two topologies Ty and T» for X such
that T, UT» is not a topology for X.
. Prove that T is the discrete topology for X iff every subset consisting
of one point is open.
}. So, Ui = {1,2,3,4,..
Uy = {2,3,4,5,...}, os Vos = {98,99, 100, 101, ..}.
Let T = {U, : EN} U {0}. Prove that T is a topology on N.
Let X be any infinite set. Fix a point p € X. Define F C P(X) as
follows: U €F ifandonly if X\U isfinite or pe (X\U).
That is, a subset U of X isin F if and only if _ the complement of
U is finite or the complement of U contains the point p.
Prove that F is a topology on X. This topology is called the Fort
topology.
Hint: There are many ways to prove this. One of them is the following steps:
(1) Statewhy WEF. (2) Statewhy Xe F.
(3) Let U,V €F. To show that UV € F, there are four possible cases, two of them are similar
Case 1: X\U and X\ V areboth finite, ' Case 2: X \ U is finite and pe X \V.
Case 3: peX\U and X\Visfinite, Case d: pe X \U and pe X\V.
(4) Let (Ug EA} CF. To show Une Ua € F, there are only two cases:
either pEX\Uy,YaE AOR 39 Asuch that X\ Up is finite.
. Let X be a non-empty set. Fix an element gq € X. Define €, C P(X)
as follows: Ue€&, ifandonlyif either U
Prove that & isa topology on X.
This topology is called the excluded point topology.
X or g@U.
. For R, how does the cofinite topology compare with the usual topology?
With the left ray topology? With the co-countable topology? 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 22
Closed Sets
Now we are ready to begin investigating the structure of topological
spaces.
2.15 Definition: Let (X,T) be a topological space. A subset A C X is
called closed subset’, or shortly closed set, if and only if X \ A is
an open set.
From the definition we conclude that if a subset B in a space X is open,
then X \ B must be closed
Examples:
1. For any space X, the subsets X and @) are always closed. (Note that X
and 0 are also open.)
N
_ In (R, W), any closed interval is closed. But (0,1] is neither open nor
closed.
w
. Let us describe all closed sets in (IR, CF). Since a subset U of R is open
in the cofinite topology CF if and only if @ or the complement
R\U is finite, then a subset F of R is closed in (R, CF) if and only if
F=Ror F isa finite set.
Remark: A subset in a topological space could be only open, only closed,
closed-and-open (clopen), or neither open nor closed.
The most important observation is that if we know that a subset B in
a space X is not open, then this does not mean that B must be closed, as
example (2) above shows.
The closeness of a set depends on the topology. For example, [0,1] is
closed in (IR, ). But [0, 1] is not closed in (R, £).
2.16 Theorem: Let (X,T) be a topological space. Then
(1) The intersection of any family of closed sets is closed.
(2) The union of any finite number of closed sets is closed.
Proof: We prove (1) and lee
e (2) as an exercise. Let {Aq : a € A} be any
iotions of open and closed sets as well as those of closure and interior were introduced and studied
tor in the class of subsets of Euclidean spaces. Hausdorff generalized them to abstract spaces in 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 23
family of closed subsets of X. Need to show that (,<\ Aa is closed. So, we
have to show that X \ (\,¢, Aa is open in X.
But, X \ Mea Aa = Unea(X \ Aa). Since Aq is closed for each a € A,
then X \ A, is open for each a € A. Thus, by the definition of a topology,
their union is open. Therfore (\,c, 4a is closed. m
Exercise: Give an example of an infinite collection of closed sets such
that its union is not closed.
2.17 Definition:
Let (X,T) be a topological space, and A CX.
1. The interior of A in (X,7), denoted by int(A) or intA, is the set of
all points « € X such that there exists an open neighborhood U; of x
with U, C A. That is,
int(A) = {a € X: 3 open neighborhood U; of x with U; C A}.
From the definition we conclude that
a € int(A) => JU, €T such that x €U, C A.
. The Closure of A in (X,), denoted by A or CL(A), is the set of all
points x € X such that U,n A ¢ 0) for any open neighborhood U;, of
x. That is,
A={a€ X:U, NAO for any open neighborhood U, of x}.
From the definition we conclude that
rE ASU,NAZOVU; €T such that « € Uy.
. The boundary of A in (X,7), denoted by 0A, is the set of all points
x€ X such that U.N A404 U,M(X \ A) for any open neighborhood
U, of x. That is,
OA={e €X:U,NAZOFU_A(X \ A) for any open neighborhood
U; of }.
From the definition we conclude that
rE JAS U,NAFOAU,N(X\ A), VU, ET such that x €U;.
N
w
From definition 2.17, for any subset A of a space X, we always have that
int(A) CA CA. 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 24
Example:
Consider (R, W). Let A= [1,2).
Then int(A) = int([1,2)) = (1,2) because if € (1,2), then (1,2) is an
open neighborhood of x with (1,2) C [1,2). Since int(A) C A, it remains
to check the number 1. If U is an arbitrary open neighborhood of 1, then
there are a,b € R with a 2, let U = (2,e+1). Ife <1, let
U =(x—1,1). Then, in both cases, U is an open neighborhood of z with
UN[1,2) =0.
A[1,2) = {1,2}. (Check that)
Exercise: In (R,L), find int([1,2)), [1,2), and O[1,2).
2.18 Theorem: Let (X,T) be a topological space and A CX. Then
(i) I{U CA and U is open, then U C int(A);
(ii) ént(A) C A and int(A) is open.
Proof: (i) Suppose that U C A and U is open. Need to show that U C
int(A). So, let « € U be arbitrary. Then U is an open neighborhood of x
with U C A which is the definition of x € int(A). Therefore, U C int(A).
(ii) We have x € intA => JU, € T such that 2 € U, C A. So, it is
clear that int(A) C A. To show that int(A) is open, we use theorem 2.10.
First, if int(A) = 0, we are done. So, assume now that int(A) 4 0. Let
x € int(A) be arbitrary. Need an open neighborhood U, of x such that
U, C int(A). But x € intA =} JU, € T such that x EU, C A. By part
(i), Up C int(A). So int(A) is open.
2.19 Corollary:
(1) int(A) = U{U CX : U is open and U C A}. That is, int(A) is the
union ofall open sets which contained in A. Thus int(A) is the largest open
set contained in A.
(2) Ais open => A= int(A). 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 25
2.20 Theorem: Let (X,7) be a topological space and AC X. Then
(i) If AC F and F is closed, then AC F; (ii) AC Aand Ais closed.
Proof: (i) Suppose that A C F and F is closed. Need to show that AC F.
We do this by contradiction. Suppose that A ¢ F. Then there would
be an « € Asuch that x ¢ F, hence x € X \ F which is open. Now,
ACF &3X\FCX\A. Thus X\ FOA=G and this contradicts that
x €A. Therfore AC F.
(ii) Ifx € A, then for any open neighborhood U, of x we have that x € U,QA.
So, U, A #4. Thus « € A Therfore, A C A. Now, to show that A is
closed, we show that X \ A is open. We use theorem 2.10 to do that. Let
x € X \A be arbitrary (if X \ A =0, we are done). Then x ¢ A. So there
exists an open neighborhood U, of x such that U;:N A= (x).
Claim: U, A= 9. Proof of claim: Suppose not, i.e. Jy € UA. Then
y € U; which is open and y € A. Thus U, AA¢O which contradicts (+).
From the claim, we conclude that x € U, C X\A. So, X \ Ais open, hence
Ais closed.
2.21 Corollary:
1.4 =(\{F CX : Fis closed and A C F}. ie., A is the intersection
of all closed sets that containing A. So A is the smallest closed set
containing A.
2. Ais closed => A= A.
Examples:
1. Inany space X, we always have X =X = ini(X), AX =0
and § =O = int(0) = 00
2. If A CX where the topology on X is Z, the indiscrete topology, then
sf AANX
int(A) = {x hay
ES
_f 0 sifA=0
“Vx if AZO
0 ifA=0
OA=4 X if 04 AFX
0 ;ifA=X 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 26
Don’t forget that in an indiscrete space X, the only nonempty open set
is X itself.
w
. If A CX where the topology on X is D, the discrete topology, then
int(A)=A=A and 0:
Don’t forget that in a discrete space, any subset is clopen.
4. Let X be an infinite set and consider (X,CF), the cofinite topology.
Let A be an arbitrary subset of X.
Let us determine int(A). We will use the fact: if V and B are subsets
of aset X, then V C B if and only if X\ B C X\V. Now, for the
complement X \ A, there are only two cases. Hither X \ A is infinite
or it is finite. If X \ A is infinite, then for any a € A and any open
neighborhood U of a, we have that X\U is finite, hence X\ AZ X\U,
thus U ¢ A. Thus, in this case, int(A) = 0. Now, if X \ A is finite,
then A is open, hence int(A) = A. So, we have
_f 0 sif X\ Ais infinite
int(A) ={ Ay if X\ Ais finite
Let us, now, determine A. There are only two cases. Either A is finite
or A is infinite. If A is finite, then A is closed, hence A = A. If A is
infinite, we will show that A = X. (so, any infinite set in a cofinite
space is dense, see definition 2.23 below) It is clear that A C X. For
the reverse inclusion, let 2 € X be arbitrary. To show that x € A,
let U be any open neighborhood of x, then X \ U is finite. Since A is
infinite, then A Z_X\U. Thus ANU 46. Therefore, x € A. Thus
X =A. So, we have
a A ; if A is finite
~ |X 3; if A is infinite
Check that
A ;if Ais finite
OA=% X\A ;if X \ Ais finite
xX otherwise
Exercise: Prove that A \ int(A) = 0A. 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 7
2.22 Theorem: Let (X,7) be a space and A CX, then
(i) X\int(A)=X\A. (ii) X\ A= int(X\ A).
Proof: This is clear from the definitions.
(i) @ € int(A) => 3 U, € T such that « €U, C A. Thus
x ¢int(A) = VUET, reU = UN(X\ A) AO
(ii) We have x € A <=> VU €T with x € U we must have UNA # 0).
Thus c ¢ A <= 4U €T with 2 EU such that UNA=O0 =U CX\A.
Exercise: Write a complete proof.
2.23 Definition: A subset D of a topological space (X,T) is called
dense! in (X,7) if and only if D=X.
Example:
Qand P are both dense in (R,U/). So a subset and its complement could
be dense,
2.24 Theorem: Let (X,T) be a topological space and D C X. Then
D=X = VUET,U 4Owe haveUNDFA 6.
Proof: Exercise.
2.25 The Particular Point Topology:
Let X be any non-empty set. Fix a point p € X. Define Tp C P(X) as
follows: 7, ={O}U{U CX :peU}.
Exercise: Prove that T, is a topology on X. Then show that {p} is
dense in (X,T>)
2.26 Definition: A space X is called separable’ if it contains a
countable dense subset.
Examples:
1. (R, U) is separable, as Q is a countable dense subset.
2. Any particular point topological space is separable, as the singleton of
the particular point is a countable dense subset.
3. (R, £) is separable, as {—7n: n € N} is a countable dense subset.
4. If X is infinite, then (X,CF) is separable, as any countably infinite
subset of X will be dense, see example 4 above.
the derived set and of dense sets were introduced by Cantor
het in 1906,
*The notions of the boundary of
5Separable spaces were defined by 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 28
5. (R, CC) is not separable, because any countable subset of R cannot be
dense, To see this, let A C R be any countable subset. Then R \ A is
a nonempty open subset which is disjoint from A. Hence A cannot be
dense.
Problems
w
. Give an example of a collection of closed sets in a space (X,7) whose
union is not closed.
Exercises 2 to 7, A and B are subsets of a space X.
If ACB, then ACB.
. Prove AUB = AUB.
. Prove A
. Prove that ANB C ANB. Give an example to show that the reverse
inclusion is not always true.
. Prove int(AN B) = int(A) Nint(B).
Prove int(A) U int(B) C int(AU B). Give an example to show that
the reverse inclusion is not always true.
. (a) If A and B are subsets of a set X, prove that
A\ B= An(X\B)
(b) Let (X,T7) be a topological space, U C X is open and F C X is
closed. Use part (a) to prove that U\ F is open and F\U is closed.
wn
on
No
oo
©
. Consider (R, R), the real numbers with the right ray topology. So,
R={0,R} U{(a,c0) :a€ R}.
Let A=(1,2] and B= {3}U(4,5)U[6,00). Find the following:
(a) int(A). (6) A. (c) int(B).
= (0, 1)U{2} C R. Find int(A), A, and OA in the following
i) usual; (ii) cofinite; (iii) left ray; and (iv) discrete.
. Let U and V be open sets such that UNV =@. Prove that 7NV = 0.
1 2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 29
12. Prove that if A is dense in X, then for every open U C X we have
U=UNA.
13. Consider (I, 2/). Let A C R be any nonempty subset which is bounded
above. Prove that supA € A. Prove that the same is true with inf A,
if A is bounded below.
14. Definition: The exterior of a subset A of a space X, denoted by
ext(A), is defined by ext(A) = int(X \ A). By theorem 2.22(ii), we have
ext(A)=X\A.
(a) Prove that the three sets int(A), 2A and ext(A) are always pairwise
joint. (i.e., the intersection of any two distinct sets is empty.)
Hint: A short way to do this is by proving just two things: (1) If x € ert(A), then
ag int(A)UAA. (2) Ire int(A), then rg OA.
(b) Prove that X = int(A) UOAUert(A). 3 BASES FOR A TOPOLOGY 30
3 Bases for a topology
Some times, when we want to study a property of a topological space, it is
better to reduce the topology to a smaller collection of open sets such that
any open set is a union of some members of this new collection. If this can
be done, then the new collection will be called a base for the topological
space.
3.1 Definition: Let (X,7) be a topological space. A base or basis
for T is a collection B of subsets of X such that:
(1) each member of B is open.
(2) any non-empty open set is a union of members of B.
In notations:
(1) BCT.
(2) VU ET, U 40,4 CBsuch that U=UpegB.
Members of B are called basic open sets.
Examples:
(1) In any topological space (X,T), T is a base for T.
(2) B= {(a,b) : a,b € R,a ) This direction is clear. (Just use theorem 3.3)
(<=) Assume that B is a collection of subsets of X satisfying B1 and
B2. Need to define a topology T on X such that B is a base for it then
show that this topology is unique.
Let T be the set consisting of all possible unions of members of B togother
with 0. ice.,
T= {UU =Upes Ua, Ua € B, Var € ASLO}.
Now, we show that T is a topology on X. @ € T by its definition. From B1,
Ya €X,4U;, €B such that x €U;, and U, CX. Therefore, U,ey Ur =
X €T. Now, from the definition of T we have that any union of members
of T is again a member of T. It remains that the intersection of any two
members of T is again in T. So, let U =Uge, Var V =User Vi €T. Now
unva(Quya(Uw= YU Wav).
aéA ber ac, se
From B2, (Uj, V3) is a union of members of B for each @ € A and each
BET-.(Ifit is empty, omit it.) Thus, the intersection UNV € T. Therfore,
T is a topology on
Note that by theorem 3.3 and the definition of T, it is clear that Bis a
base for T. To show uniqueness, let S be any topology on X such that Bis
a base for S. Since B is a base for S, members of B are open in (X,S). Let
U be any open subset in (X,T), then U is a union of members of B. Thus,
U is open in (X,S). Therefore. T C S. Now, let V be open in (X,S). Then 3 BASES FOR A TOPOLOGY 32
V can be expressed as a union of members of B. (because B is a base for
S.) Thus, V is open in (X,7). Therefore, S CT. Hence S= T. Therefore,
T is unique. @
Theorem 3.4 gives us a very usefull tool to generate a topology on a
nonempty set X from any nonempty collection B of subsets of X provided
B satisfies B1 and B2, of the theorem even if B itself is not a topology on
X. Simply, take all possible unions and the empty set. (if Bis a topology on
X, then all possible union will give the same B.) This will give the smallest
topology on X having B as a base. That is, if B and C are satisfying B1
and B2 such that BC C, then Ts C Te.
3.5 The Sorgenfrey Topology:
Consider the set of real numbers R. Let B= {[r,y) :2,y € Randa < y}.
For each x € R we have that x € [r,2+1) C R. So, B1 is satisfied by
B. B2 is also satisfied by B because for any two members of B, if their
intersection is not empty, then it must be in B. (Check that.)
The topology on R generated by B is called the Sorgenfrey topology
on R andis denoted by S. The topological space (R, S) is called, sometimes,
The Sorgenfrey Line.
So in the Sorgenfrey line S, a basic open neighborhood for any x € R is
of the form [x,2 +e), where € > 0. Any open bounded interval (x,y), which
is open in (R, 2/), is also open in the Sorgenfrey line S because for each
2z€ (x,y), we have z € [z,y) C (x,y). In fact, any open interval is open in
S. Since the bounded open intervals form a base for (R, /), we conclude
that U CS. Any basic open set [,y) in S is clopen. It is closed because
its complement is open.
3.6 Definition: A topological space is called second countable
space if it has a countable base.
Example: (R, U/) is second countable. To prove this, we must present a
countable base for (R, U). Let B= {(a,b) CR: a,b € Q witha K defined by f ((a,b)) = (a,b), V (a,b) €
Bis 1-1 and onto, hence by theorem 1.30, B is countable.
Now, we show that B is a base for (IR, U). We will use theorem 3.3
to do that. Let U be an arbitrary nonempty open set. Let x € U be 3 BASES FOR A TOPOLOGY 33.
arbitrary. By the definition of U, there are two real numbers c,d € R such
that x € (c,d) CU. Thus c < x < d thus (c,) and (x,d) are nonempty
open sets. Since Q is dense in (IR, U/), then there are two rational numbers
a,b € Qsuch thate }. The product topology on X x ¥
is the topology T that has B as a base. (X x Y,T) is called the product
topology of X and Y. If U € 7; and V € To, then U x V is called a basic
open set and sometimes called also open rectangle.
Example: R? = R x R, cach is with the usual topology, let us denote
this space, from now on, by (R?,U/). An open rectangle is of the form
(a,b) x (c,d). (sketch)
Important Remarks:
Let (X’, 7) and (¥’, Ts) be topological spaces.
1. From the definition of a base, we conclude that a subset G CX x Y is
open if and only if for each (x,y) € G, J open neighborhood U; of a in
X, J open neighborhood V, of y in Y, such that (x,y) €U; x Vy CG.
. If U € T and V € Ty, then U x V is open in X x Y, in fact, it is a
basic open set. BUT, if G C X x ¥ is open, then this does NOT mean
that there must be an open set U C X and an open set V CY such
that G=U xV.
Example: Consider (R?, U4). Let G={(z,y) €R?: fe +y? <1}.
Then G, which is the set of all of the interior points of the unit circle
centered at the origin, is open in (R?, U/). BUT, there do not exist two
open sets U and V of RwithG=U x V.
3. If E C X and F C ¥ are closed, then E x F is closed in X x Y
(WHY?). BUT, if K C X x Y is closed, then this does NOT mean
that there must be a closed set Z C X and a closed set F C Y such
that K= Ex F.
N 4 NEW SPACES FROM OLD ONES 36
Example: Consider (R?, /). Let K = {(«,y) €R?: Ve? Fy? <1}.
Then I, which is the set of all points of the unit circle centered at
the origin (the interior and the boundary points), is closed in (R?, W/).
BUT, there do not exist two closed sets B and F of R with K = Ex F.
4.5 Theorem: Let (X,T;) and (Y,T2) be topological spaces, By is a
base for Ty, and By is a base for T2, Then B= {U x V : U € By and
V € Bo} is a base for the product topology on X x Y.
Proof: Exercise.
We can extend definition 4.4 to a finite number of products.
Exercise: give the definition of the product topology on Xj x Xy x X3,
and on X) xX... x X,,n EN.
4.6 Theorem: If AC X and BCY, then
(1) xB =4°xB
(2) intyxy(A x B) = inty(A) x inty(B).
Proof: We prove part (1) and leave part (2) as an exercise.
Let (x,y) € Ax B be arbitrary. Need to show that («,y) € Ax B. That
is, « € A and y € B. Let U be any open neighborhood of x and V be any
open neighborhood of y. Then U x V is an open neighborhood of (x,y).
Thus 0 4 (Ux V) (Ax B) = (UN A)x (VB). Hence UNA ZO
and VNB #9. Thus « € Aandy € B. Therfore, (x,y) € Ax B. Thus
AxXBCAxB.
Now, let (x,y) € Ax B be arbitrary. Let W be any open neighborhood
of (x,y) in X x Y, then there exists an open set U in X and V in Y such
that (x,y) € U x V CW. So, U is an open neighborhood of x in X and
V is an open neighborhood of y in Y. Thus (U x V)N(Ax B) 0. Thus
Wa(AxB) #0. Thus (x,y) € AX B. Therefor A x BC AX B. Thus
AXxB=AxB. a
Problems
1. Give an example of a topological space X and a subspace A of X and
an open subset B of A which is not open in X.
2. Give an example of a topological space X and a subspace A of X and
a closed subset B of A which is not closed in X. 4 NEW SPACES FROM OLD ONES 37
3. Let J = [0,1] and B= {1-+4:n © N}. Find int(B), B and OB in
(I, £1), (1, Ur), and (I, Th,)-
. Consider A= {1 : n € N}U {0} as a subspace of (R, W). In (4,4),
find the following:
(i) {Bm eEN}. (ii) (OF. (ili) int({ 4g sn EN}).
. Let (X, T) be a space and A CX.
(a) If Ais open and BC A, then B € Ty if and only if BET.
Definition: If A is openin X, we say that A is an open subspace
of X.
(b) If A is closed and B C A, then B is closed in (A, Ta) if and only
if B is closed in (X, T).
Definition: If A is closed in X, we say that A is a closed sub-
space of X.
-
on
o
. Let M be a subspace of a space (X , T) and let N be a subspace of the
space M. Prove that the two topologies defined on N, as a subspace of
M andas a subspace of X, are coincide. i.e., (Tis) y = Tyv-
Nn
Let (A,T,) be a subspace of a topological space (X, T), and let B be
a subset of A. Prove that the closure of B in (4,71) is ANB, where
Bis the closure of Bin X. ie. BY = ANB*.
. Give an example of a topological space (X’, 7) and two subsets B C
ACX such that intiy,7(B) # intyy .n(B)NA.
. Let A be an open subset of a separable space (X,7). Prove that
(A,T4) is separable. Give an example to show that a subspace of
a separable space need not be separable. Hint: Look in a suitable
particular point space.
oo
©
10. Let X be a topological space that contains a sequence of separable
subspaces whose union is dense in X. Prove that X is separable.
. Let (X1, Tj) and (X3, J) be topological spaces such that X19. X» = 0.
Define a topology Ti @ Tp on the set Xy @ Xp = X,U_X2 as follows:
UET @T ifandonly if UNX, ET and UNX,€ Tr.
1
Prove that T; © 7p is indeed a topology on X; @ Xo, called the free
sum of (X1, Ti) and (Xp, 72). 4 NEW SPACES FROM OLD ONES 38
12.
13.
14.
Let X and Y be infinite sets. Consider (XD) and (Y, Z). Describe
the product topology on X x Y.
Let A= {—1:n€N} and B=[2,3)U(3,5) as subsets of R.
Without proof, find in the product space (R, S) x (R,W), where S is
the Sorgenfrey topology and U/ is the usual topology, the following:
(a) The closure Ax B;
(b) The interior int(A x B).
Let X and Y be separable spaces. Prove that the product space X x Y
is separable.
5. Let X and Y be second countable spaces. Prove that the product space
X x Y is second countable. 5 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 39
5 Continuous Functions
Functions are one of the most powerful tool in all branches of Mathematics.
The continuous functions played a major role in the study of Calculus. The
continuity of a function f : X — ¥ does not make sense if X or Y is not
a topological space. Note that when studied the continuity of a real-valued
function f : A C R—> R in Calculus, the usual topology on the domain
and the codomain were considered even though they were not mentioned
explictly. The definition was:
f:ACR—+ BCR iscontinuons at a € A if and only if Ve > 0,46 > 0 such that if
0< |e—a| <6, then | f(x) = f(a)|0) Given any open neighborhood V of f(a)
(26>0) There exists an open neighborhood U of a
(such that if 0<|r—a| <6) such that ifreU\ {a}
(then |f(e) = f(a)| <6) then f(x) €V which means f(U) CV.
5.1 Definition:
Let (X,T) and (Y,S) be topological spaces and f : ¥ —+¥ bea function.
fis continuous at a point a € X if and only if given any open
neighborhood V CY of f(a), there exists an open neighborhood U C X of
asuch that f(U) CV.
f:X —+Y iscontinuous on _X if and only if it is continuous at
each point of X.
Discontinuity Criterion:
The function f : X —>+ Y is discontinuous at a € X if and
only if 3V C Y open neighborhood containing f(a) such that V open
neighborhood U C X of a we have that f(U) ZV.
Examples:
1. Let f: (R,U)— (RB, U) defined by f(x) =2,¥2 ER. f is continuous
onR becauseif a € Ris arbitrary and V C Ris any open set containing
f(a), then let U =V, so a= f(a) €V =U and f(U) =U CV. 5 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 40
2.
w
>
Let f : (R, CF) (R, U) defined by f(x) =2,Vx € R. Then f is
not continuous on R. In fact, f is not continuous at each a € R. For
example, f is not continuous at 1 because 1 = f(1) € (0,2) € U and
if U is any open set in CF containing 1, then R\U is finite. Hence
FU)=0E (0,2).
. Any function from a discrete space is continuous and any function into
an indiscrete space is continuous.
Let f : [0,2]U[3,10] — (R, W), where [0,2]U [3,10] has the subspace
topology of the usual topology, defined by
Qe; ifx € [0,2]
sof s ifr € [3,8]
10 ; if € (8,10)
Then f is continuous at each point in its domain except 8 for let V =
(5,7) which is open containing f(8) =6. Any open neighborhood of 8
containing an open interval of the form (8—€,8+¢) where e > 0. Thus
containing 8 + § and f(8 + §) = 10¢ (5,7).
Exercise: Prove that f is continuous at 2.
Proof: Let A = [0,2] U[3, 10]. Let V be any open set in (R, 2/) that
contains f(2) = (2).(2) =4.
Now, what do we need? We need an open set U, (open in A), such
that 2 € U and f(U) CV. By the definition of (R, /), there exists an
€ with 1 > € > 0 such that (4—¢,4+¢) CV. Now, since € > 0, then
§ > 0. Consider (2—§,2+§) which is an open neighborhood of 2,(open
in (R, U)). Let U = (2—§,2+§)NA=(2—§,2]. Then U is open in
Aand2€U. Toshow f(U) CV, let x € U = (2—§,2] be arbitrary.
(ie. f(a) € f(U) and our goal now is to show that f(x) €V.)
If x =2, we are done as f(2) =4 €V. So, assume that x #2, then
2 = 2-§ -e <2r-A4 (I= [0,1], Ur) defined by
0 ;ife<0
f(w)= 4 @ 5if01
Then f is closed but not open. [f((2,3)) = {1}]
2. Consider p; : (R?, U)— (R, UW), see definition 1.12. That is , p: is
the first projection which is defined by pi(z,y) = @, V (x,y) € R2. pi
is open but not closed. For take A = {(z,1) : x > 0} C R? which is
closed in R?. But p(A) = (0,00) which is not closed in R.
"The notion of an open mapping was defined by Aronszajn in 1931
"The notion of a closed mapping was introduced by Hurewicz in 1926, 5 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 43
3. The function f : (R,S)—> ({0,1},D) defined by
0 ;ife<0
ne={4 sife>0
is both closed and open.
5.6 Definition:
A function f from a topological space X into a topological space Y is
called a homeomorphism if and only if
1) f is injective (1-1);
2) f is surjective (onto);
3) f is continuous; and
4) f-! as a function from Y into X is also continuous.
If f is a homeomorphism from X into Y, then X and Y are said to be
homeomorphic and denoted by X 2 Y.
Note that for any space X we have X =X. If X =Y, then Y =X.
And if X = Y and Y = Z, then X = Z. Therefore the relation ”X and Y
are homeomorphic” is an equivalence relation.
(
(
(
(
Example 1: (0,1] © [1,00) as subspaces of (IR, UW).
Proof: Define f : (0,1] —+[1,00) by f(x) =4, ¥ x € (0,1). We prove now
that f is a homeomorphism
1. fisl-1:
Suppose that f\ = f (x2) where r1,72 € (0,1), then x = te hence
2 = 2. Thus f is 1-1.
. f is onto:
Let y € [1,00) be arbitrary. Then y > 1 > 0, hence 0 < } < 1, thus
x=} (0,1) and
N
Thus f is onto.
. f is continuous :
To show the continuity of f, we will use theorem 5.2, part 3. Let W
be any basic open set in [1,00). Note that a basic open set in [1, 00)
is exactly a basic open set in (IR, U/) intersected with [1, 00). So it has
exactly two forms: either (a,b) where 1 B is closed in Y. 5 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 45
6. f(A) is open in Y + Ais open in X.
7. f-1(B) is open in X + Bis open in Y
Proof: Exercise.
Note that sence f is 1-1 and onto, then we do have that A = f~'(f(A))
and (f-!)"1(A) = f(A). Also, from the above theorem we conclude an
other way to define a homeomorphism from X to Y,, is to say it is a bijection
f:X —3Y such that f(U) is open + U isopen. Thus, a homeomorphism
is not only a bijection between X and Y but also between the topologies on
X and Y. Therefore any property of X that can be expressed exclusively
in terms of the topology on X yeilds, via the homeomoephism, the same
property for Y.
5.8 Definition: A topological property is a property that if
possessed by a topological space X, is also possessed by every homeomorphic
image of X. That is, P is a topological property <= if X has P and
ff: X —+Y isa homeomorphism, then Y has P.
5.9 Theorem:
Separibility is a topological property.
Proof:
Let X be a separable space and let f : X —+ Y be a homeomorphism
Need to show that Y is separable. Pick D = {di,d2,d3,...} a countable
dense subset of X. We show now that f(D) = {f (di), f(d2), f(ds),...} is a
countable dense subset of Y. It is clear that f(D) is countable, Let V CY
be any nonempty open subset. Then f~!(V) is a nonempty open subset
of X. Thus f(V) MD # 0. Hence there exists x € f-'(V) 1D. Thus
f(v) €V0 f(D), which means VN f(D) 40
Therefore, Y is separable. m
Problems
w
. Let Z be the integers as a subspace of (R ,U). Let f :Z—> Z begiven
by f() = 22 for each x € Z. Prove or disprove that f is continuous.
. Give an example of a function f : X —+ Y and a subset A C X such
that f|4 is continuous but f is not continuous at any point of A.
3. Let f : X —+ Y be continuous. If A C X has a as a limit (cluster)
point, prove that f(a) is either a limit point of f(A) or belongs to f(A).
N 5 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 46
4.
on
a
a
~
©
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
16.
17.
Give an example to show that if a is a limit point of A, then f(a) need
not be a limit point of f(A).
. Prove or disprove:
(a) Allconstant functions are continuous.
(b) If the domain of the function has the discrete topology, then the
function is continuous.
(c) All injective (1-1) functions are continuous.
. Prove that f : (IR, ¢) —> (R, U) defined by f(«) = 2? is continuous.
. Let (X,T) be a topological space. Prove that f : X —> (R,U) is
continuous if and only if for each real number a € R, both of the sets
{ve X: f(x) >a} and {x € X: f(x) X is not continuous.
Prove that f : X — Y isa homeomorphism if and only if f-!: Y —
X is a homeomorphism.
Prove that (R, £) & (R, R)-
Prove that [1,3) & [7,9), as subspaces of R with the usual topology U
Let X and Y be spaces. Let x € X andy €Y. Prove that {2}xY &Y
and X x {y} =X.
Prove that the Sorgenfrey line is homeomorphic to R with the right
interval topology.
5. Prove that a continuous function f : X — Y is open if there is some
base B of X with f(B) is open in Y for each B € B.
Prove that any projection function is continuous (open).
Let f :X —+Y and g:Y — Z be continuous functions. Prove
(a) If go f is open (closed) and if f is onto, then g is open (closed).
(b) If go f is open (closed) and if g is 1-1, then f is open (closed). 6 SEPARATION AXIOMS 47
6 Separation Axioms
Separation axioms give a way of classifying topological spaces according to
the topological distinguishability of points and subsets of the space.
6.1 Definition: Let (X,T) be a topological space. Then
1. The space (X,T) is called a Ty-space’ if and only if for each pair of
distinct points «,y € X, there is either an open set containing x but
not y or an open set containing y but not 2.
. The space (X,T) is called a T;-space? if and only if for each pair
of distinct points x,y € X, there exist open sets U and V such that
re U,y¢U andyeV.r€¢V.
. The space (X,T) is called a T>-space"’ or Hausdorff space if
and only if for each pair of distinct points x,y € X, there exist open
sets U and V such that x €U, y€ V and UNV =O.
The space (XT) is called a regular space"! if and only if for each
closed subset F C X and each point x ¢ F, there exist open sets U
and V such that r €U, F CV andUNV =9.
. The space (X,7) is called a T3-space if and only if it is T; and
regular.
. The space (X,T) is called a normal space’? if and only if for each
pair of closed disjoint subsets F; and Fy of X, there exist open sets U
and V such that F) CU, Fy CV and UNV = 90)
The space (X,T) is called a Ty-space if and only if it is Ty and
normal.
WARNING:
When reading any book in Topology, you must first check the
auther’s definition of the separation axioms because some auther
defines a 7y-space as our definition of regularity and say that a
regular space space is T;-+ Tj, «.. etc.
In our study of this course, we will follow our definitions.
Kolmogoroff in 1935
n 1907
N
w
>
o
o
Nn
aces were introduced by
°T,-spaces were introduced by Ries
2©Hlausclorff introduced the Ty-spa
“Regular spaces were introduced
"27 he class of normal spaces was defined by Tietze in 1923 and by Alexandroff and Urysohn in 1924 6 SEPARATION AXIOMS 48
It is clear from the definition that
6.2 Theorem: T; => T; => Th.
The converse of theorem 6.2 is not always true.
6.3 Example: (R,£), the left ray topology on R, see example 2.6, is
Tp, for if « < y, then (—oo, $4) is an open set containing x but not y.
But, (R,£) is not Ty, for if x < y, there is no way of getting an open set
containing y but not «.
6.4 Example: Let X be any infinite set. Then (X,CF), the cofinite
topology, see example 2.13, is T; but not Ty. It is T, because if x,y € X are
any two distinct points, then U =X \ {y}, V =X \ {a} are open because
the complement of each is finite and « € U,y ¢ U andy € Vix ¢ V.
(X,CF) is not Ty because any two distinct points cannot be separated. For
ifa,y € X with x ¥ y and if we assume that there were two open sets U
and V such that x €U, y€ V and UNV =9, we would get the following:
U # asx EU, so X\U is finite. Similarly, X \ V is finite. Now,
X=X\0=X\(UNV)=(X\U)U(X\V). Thus X is finite, which is
a contradiction.
6.5 Example: Let X = {a,b,c} and let T= {0, X, {a}, {b,c}}. Then
(X,T) is regular but not Hausdorff. It is not T, because b # ¢ cannot be
separated by disjoint open sets. It is regular because the only closed sets
are 0, X, {a}, and {b,c}.(Observe that all of them are also open.) Take
any closed set and any point not in it, we can (after considering all cases)
separate them by disjoint open sets.
Note that (X,7) is not 7), thus it is not T3.
6.6 Example: Let X be any set having more than one point. Consider
the indiscrete topology Z on X. The only disjoint closed sets are () and X,
which are open. Thus it is normal. But X is not T;, hence X is not Ty.
6.7 Theorem: X is 7; if and only if Vw € X, the subset {7} is closed
in X.
Proof:
(=>) Suppose X is Ti. Let a € X be arbitrary. Need to show that {«} is
closed in X. If {c} =X, we are done. So, assume that {x} # X. We show
{a} is closed by showing that X \ {x} is open in X, We use theorem 2.10 6 SEPARATION AXIOMS 49
to do this. Let y € X \ {x} be arbitrary. Then « # y. By 7}, there exist
two open sets U and V such that 2 € U,y ¢ U andy € V,« ¢ V. Now,
yEVCX\ {x}. Hence X \ {x} is open. Thus {ir} is closed.
(<=) Suppose that {2} is closed in X for any « € X. Need to show that X
is T). So, let 2 4 y, 2,y €X. (if X contains only one point, we are done).
Let U=X\ {x} and V =X \{y}. Then U and V satisfy the condition of
qT. 7
6.8 Corollary: Ina 7; space, all finite subsets are closed.
6.9 Corollary: T; => T; => T, => T; => Th.
Problems
1. Let X be an infinite set. Consider (X , CF) and ({0,1}, Z), X with the
cofinite topology and {0,1} with the indiscrete topology. Prove that
the product space X x {0, 1} does not satisfy any separation axiom.
Hint: First prove that X x {0,1} is not To. Then prove that no two nonempty
open subsets of X x {0,1} are disjoint. Now, complete the proof
N
. Prove that any subspace of a T; space is aT; space for ¢ € {0,1,2,3}.
w
- Prove that closed subspaces of a normal space are normal.
Prove that X x Y is aT; space if and only if both X and Y are T;
space, where i € {0,1,2}
>
. Prove that T; is a topological property for ¢ € {0,1,2,3,4}.-
. Verify T;, 4 € {0, 1,2, 3,4}, of all spaces we have studied so far.
. Let (X,T) be a Hausdorff space. If S is a topology on X such that
T CS, then prove that (X,S) is also Hausdorff.
8. Let f : X —+ Y be a continuous and injective function where Y is
Hausdorff, Prove that X is Hausdorff.
Noa
©
. Let {21,272,...,n} be a finite subset of a Hausdorff space. Prove that
there exist n open pairwise disjoint sets U;,U2,...,Un such that 2; €
, 2 {1,2,...,.n}. (pairwise disjoint means that U;NU; = 0 whenever
i,j €{1,2,....n} with i# 3.)
10. Let X be a finite set. Prove that the only Hausdorff topology on X is
the discrete topology. 7 METRIC SPACES 30
7 Metric Spaces
Metric spaces were defined by Fréchet in 1906. Topological spaces were
defined in about 1920. We will see that any metric space is a topological
space, but the converse is not always true. The class of metric spaces was the
first class of abstract spaces to which several notions and results discovered
in the infancy of general topology in the study of subsets of the real line and
of Buclidean spaces, were successfully generalized. The class of metric spaces
is sufficiently large to include many objects studied in various branches of
mathematics and thus describe them in geometric language, and, at the
same time, the spaces in this class seem to be sufficiently simple to permit
the use of geometric intuition.
7.1 Definition: A metric on a nonempty set X is a function
d:X x X —+R that satisfies the following four conditions: (to make our
notations simple, we will write d(x,y) instead of d((,y)).)
L.d(z,y) >0, Va,yeX;
2. d(x,y) =0 if and only if x=y;
3. d(x,y) =d(y,2), V2,y €X; and
4. d(x,2) R defined by d(x,y) =|e—y|, V x,y € Risa metric on
R, (CHECK THAT), called the usual metric on R.
2. d: Rx? —+ Rdefined by d((1,y1), (22,42) = V(@i — 2) + (w= we),
V (x1, y1), (v2, yo) € R? is a metric on R®, called the usual metric
on R?.
Let us prove that d is indeed a metric on R?. First, let (1,1), (72,42)
and (r3,ys) be arbitrary points in R2. Since the coordinates are real
numbers, then we have that («1 — «2)? > 0 and (yi — y)? > 0, thus
(x1 — 22)? + (y1 — yp)? > 0, thus /(@i — #2)? + (yi — 2)” = 0, hence
(21,41), (254) = 0
ee inane
<= V@i— m+ (im) 7 METRIC SPACES Sk
= (01-22)? + (yi — ye)? =0
(01-22)? =0 and (yi — 2)? =0
0, then for each x ER
B(v,€) = (t-€,2 +6). 7 METRIC SPACES 52
2. If dis the usual metric on R? and € > 0, then for each (x,y) € R?
B((v,y),6) = {(u,v) € B® uw + (vy) < €}, which is the
set of all “interior” points of the cercle of radius € centered at the point
(2,4).
3. If dis the discrete metric on a set X, then for any « € X
B(2,1) = {y Xz d(e,y) <1} ={v}. Ie > 1, then B(e,e) =X.
7.7 Definition:
A subset U of a metric space (X,d) is said to be Open if and only if for
each a € U, there is an open ball Ba(x,«) such that Ba(w,e) CU.
7.8 Theorem:
The open subsets of a metric space (X,d) have the following properties:
1. X and (are open;
2. The union of any collection of open sets is open; and
3. The intersection of any two open sets is open.
Proof:
1. For each x € X and for any € > 0, we have that B(r,e) CX. Thus X
is open. ) is open because there is no x €0
2. Let {Uy : a@ € A} be any collection of open sets. Need to show that
Une Ua is open. If UneyUa = 0, we are done. So, assume now
UnerUa #0. Let « € Une,Ua be arbitrary. Then there exists 6 € A
such that « € Uy. Since Uy is open, then there exists an € > 0 such
that B(x,¢) C Us. But Uy C Une, Ua Thus Ue) Ua is open.
3. Let U and V be any two open sets. Need to show that U()V is
open. If Uf\V = 9, we are done. So, assume that UV #0. Let
a €UP\V be arbitrary. Then € U and x € V. Since U is open and
x €U, then there exists an € > 0 such that B(x,¢) C U. Since V is
open and x € V, then there exists a 6 > 0 such that B(x,d) CV. Let
7 = min{e,5}, then B(x,7) C B(x,e) CU and B(2,7) C B(z,6) CV.
Thus B(x,7) CUP\V. Therefore, UV is open. m
Now, let (X,d) be any metric space. d will generate a topology on X as
follows: Let T, be the set of all open sets in (X,d), (open in the sense of
definition 7.7). Then theorem 7.8 assures that Ty is a topology on X. This
topology, Tu, is called the topology induced by the metric d. 7 METRIC SPACES 53
So, we have the following corollary:
7.9 Corollary: Any metric space is a topological space.
7.10 Definition: Two topologies T and S ona same set. X are said to
be coincide if and only if 7 CS andS CT. ic, VET = UES.
7.11 Definition: A topological space (X,7) is called metrizable if
and only if there exists a metric d on X such that the topology Tg induced
by d coincide with the original topology T. ie., T=Ta-
7.12 Examples:
1. (R, U), the real numbers with the usual topology, is merizable. Check.
2. R? = R x R, where each R is considered with the usual topology, is
metrizable. Check.
3. Any discrete space is metrizable. Check.
Exercise: Prove that in a metric space, any open ball is open. Conclude
that the set of all open balls forms a base for a metrizable space.
7.13 Theorem: Any merizable space is Hausdorff.
Proof: Let (X,7) be any merizable space. Then there exists a metric d on
X such that Ta = 7. We show that (X,7,) is Hausdorff. Let x and y be
any distinct points in X. By the definition of a metric, we have d(z,y) > 0.
ie., the distance between « and y is positive. Let € = d(x,y), then § > 0.
Let U = By(e,§) and V = By(y,§), then U is open and a € U and V is
open and y € V. To see that UNV = 0, suppose that UNV A. We will
get a contradiction as follows: Pick z € UAV = Bi(z,$) MBaly, §), then
2 € By(e,§) and z € Ba(y,§). Thus d(e,z) < $ and d(y,z) = d(z,y) <§
Now, we have € = d(x,y) < d(w,2) +d(z,y) < §+§=§, ie. €<§, which
is a contradiction because € > 0. Thus UM V = 9. Thus any metrizable
space is Hausdorff. =
7.14 Corollary: Any metrizable space is T; and hence Tp.
It is natural to ask about regularity and normality of a metrizable space.
We will see that any metrizable space has alll of the separation axioms.
7.15 Theorem: Any metrizable space is Ty.
Proof: We have to show the normality. So, let A and B be any closed 7 METRIC SPACES a4
nonempty disjoint subsets of a metric space (X , d). For each a € A, there
exists an ry > 0 such that B(a,ra) CX \ B and for each b € B there exists
ann, > 0 such that B(b,r)) C _X\ A. Let U = U{B(a,4rq) : @ € A}
and V = U{B(b,4r) 6 € B}. Then U and V are open with AC U and
B CV. Suppose that there were exist an 2 € UNV. Then there would
exist a € A and b € B such that x € B(a,4rq) 0 B(b,4r). Then, by the
triangle inequality, we would have
(a,b) R by
fs. a)lde. ¥ f(2),g(2) EX
Prove that d is a metric on X.
Let €1, €2: R? x R? —+ R be defined by
ex((2,y),(2,w))
e2((a,y),(2,w)) = max{|r —2],|y—w)}, V (#,y), (zw) ER?
>
le-2|+ly-wl, V (0,y),(2,w) ER?
Prove that €; and e are metric on R?. 7 METRIC SPACES
55
5. Let ddenote the usual metric on R?. Let e; and €2 be as in the previous
exercise. Describe graphically the sets By((0,0),2), B,,((0,0),2), and
B.,((0,0),2).
6. Show that R with the topologies £, CF, Ty are not metrizable. 8 COMPACT SPACES 56
8 Compact Spaces
8.1 Definition: Let {Aq : a € A} bea family of subsets of the space X and
BCX. We say that the family {A, :a@ € A} isa Cover of B (or that the
family {Aq : @ € A} COVErsS B) if and only if BC Ue) Aa. If Ais finite
and {Aq : a € A} covers B, then {Aq : a € A} is called a finite cover
of B. Ifeach Aq, a € A is open (closed) in X and {A, : a € A} covers B,
then {Aj :@ € A} is called an open cover (closed cover) of B.
8.2 Example: Consider (R, U/). Let B = (0,1) and for each n € N let
A, = (4,2). Then A, is an open set in (R, 4) for each n € N. Also,
B=(0,1)C U4 =UG2)
nen neN
Thus, {An :n € N} is an open cover of B.
Now, for each n € N, let U, = (=n,n). Then U; is open in (IR, U) for
each n EN, and RC Une Un- Thus {U, :n € N} is an open cover of R.
8.3 Definition: Let {Aq : a € A} be a cover of a subset B of a space
X. Let QC A. Then the family {Aq : a € 2} iscalled a subcover of the
cover {Aq :a@ € A} for B if and only if {Aq : @ € Q} is a cover of B.
8.4 Example: Let E= {n : nis even} CN. Then {A, : 7 € E} is an
open subcover of {A,:7 € N} for B= (0,1] of example 8.2.
8.5 Definition: A topological space X is called compact: if and only
if any open cover for X has a finite subcover for X. A subset B of a space
X is compact if and only if B is a compact topological space with the
subspace topology.
8.6 Example: (R, U/) is not compact because {U,, = (—n,n):n € N} is
an open cover for R that does not havea finite subcover. For if D is any finite
subset of N, then let m = max D. Then we have U,,¢p Un = (—m,m) DR.
B = (0,1] as a subset of (R, 2/) is not compact because {V, : n € N},
where V, = (4,1] = (4,2) 9 (0,1), Vn € N is an open (in the subspace
topology) cover for B which does not have a finite subcover. (check)
The genesis of the notion of compactuess is connected with the Borel theorem (proved in 1894) stating
that every countable open cover of a closed bounded interval has a finite subcover, and with the Lebesgue
observation that the same holds for every open cover of a closed bounded interval. The concept of a
compact space Was introduced by Vietoris in 1921. 8 COMPACT SPACES 37
8.7 Example: Let X be any infinite set. Then (X,CF), the cofinite
topology, is compact.
Proof: Let {U :@ € A} be an arbitrary open cover of X. Recall that U is
open in the cofinite topology if and only if U = @ or X \ U is finite. Note
that since X C Ue, Ua, We may assume, without loss of generality, that
U. 40, Va € A. To show that (X,CF) is compact, we must find a finite
subcover of {Ua 1a € A}.
Take any ap € A. Then Ug, covers all X except possibly a finite set of
points {2r1, 22, ...,2}-(as X \ Ua, is finite) Since {U, : a € A} isa cover of
X, then for each i € {1,2,...,n}, there exists an @; € A such that a; € Ua,-
Thus {Uag,Ua,;Uos---sUa,} isa finite subcover of {Ua : « € A} which covers
Xia
8.8 Theorem: A subset A of a topological space X is compact if and only
if for any family {U, : s € S} of open subsets of X such that A C Uses Uss
there exist {51, 52,...,8n} CS with A C U}_,U,,. That is, any open cover
of subsets of X has a finite subcover.
Proof: Exercise. (Recall that U C A is open in A if and only if there exist
V CX which is open in X such that U =V NA.)
8.9 Theorem: If X is compact and B C X is closed, then B is compact.
That is, closed subsets of compact spaces are compact.
Proof: Let {Ua :a@ € A} be any open cover of B, where Ua © X is open in
X, for each a € A. Need finite 1,09,...,0, € A such that BCU, Ua,.
Since B is closed in X, then X \ B is open in X. Thus {Uy : a €
A}U{X \ B} is an open cover for X. Since X is compact, then there exist
0,03; +,Q € A such that X C (Uf, U,,) UX \ B. Thus BC UN Ua,-
Thus B is compact. =
Remarks:
1. 0,00) is a closed subset of (R, U/). But it isnot compact. Observe that
(R, U) is not compact.
2. [0, 00) is not closed in (R, CF). But it is compact with respect to the
cofinite topology.
8.10 Theorem: Let X be a Hausdorff space and A C X be a compact
subspace. Then for each x ¢ A there exist open subsets U and V of X such
that ACU,©€V,andUNV =0. 8 COMPACT SPACES 58
Proof: By Ty we have V a € A, 3 open disjoint U, and V, such that a € Us
and a € V, and UNV, =O. (we cannot take U = Uge Uy and V = NacaVas
WHY?)
Since A CU, _4Vaand A is compact, then thereexist finite a),a2,-..,an €
A such that ACU" ,U;,. Now, let U =U", Uy, and V =(y"_,V,,. Then
ACU and a € V where both U and V are open in X. (V is open because
it is a finite intersection of open sets.) To show that UNV = @, assume
not. i.e., assume that UNV £0. Pick y € UNV = (U8 Ua) Ma Va):
then y € V,,Vé and Jj € {1,2,...,n} such that y € U;,. Thus y € Ua, and
y€Va,, thus Uz, Va, #0, which is a contradiction, Thus UNV =0. m
8.11 Corollary: A compact subset of a T-space is closed.
Proof: Let A be a compact subset of a Hausdorff space X. Need to show
that A is closed in X. If A =X, we are done. Assume that A 4 X. Pick
an arbitrary @ € X\ A. So, « ¢ A. By theorem 8.10, there exist two open
sets U and V such that ACU, 2 € V, and UNV =6. Thus Vn A=0
therefore, « € V CX \ A. Thus X \ Ais open. Hence A is closed. m
8.12 Corollary: Let X be a T) compact topological space and A CX.
Then
A is compact if and only if A is closed.
8.13 Theorem: Every T; compact space is Ty.
Proof; Let X be any T; compact space. To show that X is T;, we have to
show that X is T; and X is normal. Since X is Ty, then it is T). To show
normality of X, let A and B be any closed disjoint nonempty subsets of X.
Need two open sets U and V such that ACU, BCV,and UNV =0
Since X is Ty compact and both A and B are closed, then, by corollary
8.12, both A and B are compact. Now, by theorem 8.10, for each a € A
there exist open sets U, and V,, such that a € U,, BC Va, and UVa = 0.
Thus A C Uje4Ua. By compactness of A, there exist a1,...,¢, € A such
that A C Uf, U,,. Let U = Uf, Us, and V = VV, Then A CU,
B CV, and both U and V are open (WHY?). Also, UNV = @ (Check
that). Thus X is normal and Ty. Hence X is T). =
8.14 Theorem:
If there exists a continuous function f : X — Y of a compact space X
onto a space Y, then Y is compact.
Proof: Let {Ua : a € A} be any open cover of Y. Since f is continuous, 8 COMPACT SPACES 59
then f~!(Ua) is open in X’ for each a € A. Since ¥ C Une Ua then we
have X = f'MY) © fF (UnexUa) = User f (Ua), which means that
{f-1(U,) 1 @ € A} is an open cover of X. So, by the compactness of X,
oe exist a1,09,-.0 € A such that
L'a) UF") UU f""(Wa,) =X
= FIP 'Ta)U fF Wag) Ur OS" a,)]
= F(a) VFL" Wa) UU FF
= Ua, U Up, Un UU, =Y (Note that f(X) = ood F(F"Wa)) = Ua. Vi E
{1, 2,...,n} because f is an onto function.) Thus Y is compact. m
fw)
.))
8.15 Corollary: Compactness is a topological property.
8.16 Corollary: Continuous image of a compact space is compact. That
is, If X is compact and f : X —> Y is continuous, then f(X) is compact
as a subspace of Y.
Problems
w
. Consider (IR,£), the real numbers with the left ray topology.
(a) Prove that (IR,L) is not compact.
(b) Prove that (00,0) is not compact in (R,L).
(c) Prove that (—o0,0] is compact in (,£).
. Prove that R? is not compact, where each coordinate is considered with
the usual topology UW.
N
w
. Suppose A and B are compact subspaces of a space X.
(a) Prove or disprove that ANB is compact.
(b) Prove or disprove that AU B is compact.
. (a) Prove that if (X,T) is compact and T C T, then (X,71) is
compact.
(b) Give an example to show that TC T; need not imply (X,T1) is
compact.
-
a
Is (R,S), the Sorgenfrey line, compact?
Is (R, CC) compact?
Is (R, F), the Fort topology on R where the consideration point is 5,
compact?
no 8 COMPACT SPACES 60
8. Prove that if f : (X , 7) —+ (IR, U) is continuous and X is compact,
then there exist a,b € X such that f(a) < f(x) < f(b), Ve EX.
9. Prove that if f : X — Y is a continuous function, X is compact, and
Y is Th, then f is a closed function. 9 CONNECTED SPACES 61
9 Connected Spaces
9.1 Definition: A topological space X is connected" if and only if it
cannot be expressed as a union of two nonempty disjoint open subsets.
A topological space X is disconnected if and only if it is not connected.
That is, X is disconnected if and only if there exist two nonempty open
sets U and V such that UN V = @ and UUV =X. If the sets U and V
satisfy the previous conditions (i.e., if U and V are both nonempty open
sets such that UNV =0 and UUV = X,), then we say that U and V form
a separation of X. Note that if U and V form a separation of X, then
both U and V are also closed.
9.2 Examples:
1. Let X = {a,b,c}. Let T= {0,X, {a}, {b,c}} and let S= {0,X, {a}, {a.b}}.
Then (X,T) is disconnected, while (X,S) is connected.
So, connectedness depends on the topology and the ground set
itself.
. Any singleton space is connected.
. Any indiscrete space is connected.
. Any discrete space having more than one point is disconnected.
. Consider A = (1,5]U [7,10] as a subspace of (IR, W/). Then (4,4) is
disconnected, as (1,5] and [7,10] form a separation of A. (1,5] is open
in A because (1,5] = (1,6) A where (1,6) € U, and [7,10] is open in
A because [7, 10] = (6, 11) M.A where (6,11) EU.
So, in the usual topology think about a connected set as the
set consists of “one piece”.
oR WN
9.3 Theorem: For a space X, the following are equivalent:
1. X is connected.
2. The only clopen (closed-and-open) subsets of X are X and 0
3. There is no onto continuous function f : ¥ —> {a,b} where {a,b} has
the discrete topology.
Phe present definition of connectedness was introduced by Jordan in 1893 for the class of compact
subsets of the plane; generalization to abstract spaces is due to Riesz in 1907, Lennes in 1911, and Hausdorff
in 1914. 9 CONNECTED SPACES 62
Proof:
(1) = (2)
If there exists a clopen set A such that 4 A # X, then A and X \ A would
form a separation of X.
(2) => (3)
If there exists a continuous function f from X onto {a,b}, where {a,b} has
the discrete topology, then f-'({a}) would be a clopen subset of X such
that 04 f-"({a}) AX.
(3) = ()
Suppose that X is disconnected. Then there exist two open nonempty
disjoint subsets A and B of X which form a separation of X. Define
f : X —+ {a,b}, where {a,b} has the discrete topology, by f(x) = a
for all « € A and f(x) =b for all a € B. Then f is continuous and onto,
which isa contradiction. m
9.4 Theorem: If f : X — Y is a continuous and onto function and X
is connected, then Y is connected.
Proof:
Suppose Y is disconnected. Then there exist two open nonempty disjoint
open sets U and V of Y which form a separation of Y. Consider f-'(U)
and f-1(V). Both of them are open in X (by continuity of f) nonempty (as
both U and V are nonempty and f is onto), and disjoint(why?). Also, X =
f°) = (UU) = fP()U f-UV). Thus f-'(U) and f-!(V) form
a separation of X, which is a contradiction. Therefore, Y is connected. m
9.5 Corollary: Connectedness is a topological property.
9.6 Corollary: If f : X —> Y is a continuous function and X is
connected, then f(X), as a subspace of Y, is connected.
The most important topological spaces regarding the applications are
(R, U) and all of its subspaces.
9.7 Theorem: Let A C R which contains more than one point. A is an
interval if and only if given any a,b € A with a < 6, then for any « € R
with a ACV or
ANV=0= ACU. «
9.13 Theorem: If A is a connected subspace of X and B C X with
AC BCA, then B is connected.
Proof: Suppose U and V form a separation of B. Then, by theorem
9.12, we have that either A C U or A C V. With out loss of generality,
assume that A CU, then ACU. Since UNV =6, then ANV =0. Thus
BoV =90. Hence V =, which is a contradiction. Thus B is connected. =
9.14 Corollary: If A is connected, then J is connected.
Problems
. Prove that the empty set is connected.
. Prove that singletons are connected.
. Prove that Q, as a subspace of (IR, U), is disconnected.
. Prove that (R, £) is connected.
. Is Q, as a subspace of (R, £), connected?
. Prove that (IR, CF) is connected.
Is Q, as a subspace of (R, CF), connected?
. Let X’ be an infinite set. Is (X, F), where F is the Fort topology on
X, connected?
Rwne
w~rIran
©
. Is the Sorgenfrey line connected?
10. Let A be a connected subset of a space X. If B C X is clopen and
ANB#9, prove that A CB. 9 CONNECTED SPACES 64
11. Let {Cy : @ € A} be a collection of connected subsets of a space X
such that (\,c,Ca # 0. Prove that U,¢\ Ca is connected.
12. Use the previous problem to show the following:
Let X be a space such that each pair of points in X is contained in a
connected subset of X. Prove that X is connected.
13. Use the previous problem and theorem 9.4 to show the following:
Let X and Y be spaces. Prove that X x Y is connected if and only if
both X and Y are connected. 10 PREVIOUS EXAMS 65,
10
Previous Exams
math 466
First Exam
Wednesday 22/12/1422.
Answer all of the following problems:
1.
on
(3 points)
Let f : X —+Y bea function and let Ey C Y, Va € A. Prove that
L'(() Ba) = (VP (Ea):
ae\ acl
(2 points)
Let X be a non-empty set. State the definition of a topology T on X.
(3 points)
Let (X,, T) be a topological space and let A CX. State the defintion
of each of the following:
(a) The closure of A. (b) The interior of A. (c) A is closed.
(6 points)
Let X be a non-empty set. Fix an element q € X. Define €, C P(X)
as follows:
U€E, ifandonlyif either U=X or ZU.
Prove that & is a topology on X.
(6 points)
Consider (IR, R), the real numbers with the right ray topology. So,
R={0,R} U{(a,00) :a€ R}.
Let A=(1,2] and B= {3}U(4,5)U [6,00). Find, without proof,
the following:
(a) int(A). (b+) A. (ce) int(B). 10 PREVIOUS EXAMS 66
math 466
Second Exam
Wednesday 13/1/1423.
Answer all of the following problems:
1. (4points)
Let U and V be open sets such that UNV =. Prove that UNV =0
2. (2+4 points)
(a) State the definition of:* a topological space (X , T) is separable”
(b) Prove that (IR, CC), the set of real numbers with the cocountable
topology, is not separable
3. (4 points)
Let (X,T) be a topological space and Y be a nonempty subset of X.
Let B be a base for T. Prove that By = {BNY : B € B} is a base for
the subspace (Y, Ty).
)
4. (3+3 points
Let A= {-1:n€N} and B= [2,3)U(3,5) as subsets of R.
Without proof, find in the product space (R, S) x (R, UW), where S is
the Sorgenfrey topology and U/ is the usual topology, the following:
(a) The closure AX B;
(b) The interior int(A x B). 10 PREVIOUS EXAMS 67
math 466
Third Exam
Wednesday 4/2/1423.
Answer all of the following problems:
1. (points)
Let (X, T) be a topological space, A C X, and B C P(X). State
the definition of the following:
(a) OA, the boundary of A. —_(b) Bisa base for T.
(c) (X, T) is second countable. (d) (X , T) is not Hausdorff.
(ec) (X, T) is regular. (f) (X, T) is normal.
2. (4 points)
Prove that (R,£) © (R, R).
3. (points)
Define e: R? x R? —3 R by
e((21, 91), (w2,y2)) = marf{lex—22|,|yr—yal}, V (wry), (w2,y2) € R
Prove that ¢ is a metric on R?.
4. (6 points)
Prove that X x Y is a Tp space if and only if both X and Y are T,
space. 10 PREVIOUS EXAMS 68
math 466 Final Exam
Sunday 21/3/1423. From 10:15 am to 12:15 pm.
Answer all of the following problems:
1. (10 points)
Let (X,T) be a topological space, A C X, and {Aq :a € A} C
P(X). State the definition of the following:
(a) 2A, the boundary of A. (b) A, the closure of A.
(c) Ais not dense in(X,T7). (a) (X, T) is separable
(c) {Aa :@ € A} isa base for X.(£) (XT) is second countable.
(g) (X, T) is not Tp. (h) (X, 7) is regular.
(i) A separation for (XT). (j) (X, T) is connected.
2. (6 points)
Prove that if A is dense in a space X, then for all open U C X, we
have _
U = UNA
3. (6 points)
Let X and Y be spaces and let x € X. Prove that {4} x Y = Y.
4. (6 points)
Prove that any metrizable space is Ty.
5. (6+6 points)
Let X be any infinite set. Fix a point p € X. Define F c P(X) as
follows:
U€F ifandonly if X\U isfinite or pe (X\U).
That is, a subset U of X isin F if and only if _ the complement of
U is finite or the complement of U contains the point p.(so, p ¢ U.)
(a) Prove that F is a topology on X.
(b) Prove that (X , F ) is compact. 10 PREVIOUS EXAMS 69
math 466 First Exam
Wednesday 7/5/1423. From 9:20 am to 10:20 am.
Answer all of the following problems:
1. (6 points)
Let X be a non-empty set. Fix an element q € X. Define T C P(X)
as follows:
UéT ifandonlyif either U=X or q ¢U.
Prove that T is a topology on X.
2. (8 points)
Let (X, T) bea topological space. Let x € X, AC X, and
{Ay :a€ A} C P(X). State the definition of the following:
(a). (b) x gint(A).
(c) Ais dense in (XT) (d) {Ania € A} is a base for X.
3. (10 points)
Consider (R, Tyg), the real numbers with the particular point topology
where the consideration point is ¥2. Let A = (0,1 and B = { V2, V3}.
Find, without proof, the following:
(2) int(). (3) a(A).
4. (6 points)
Let A be an open subset of a separable space (X,T). Prove that
(A,T4) is separable 10 PREVIOUS EXAMS 70
math 466 Second Exam. (Takehome exam)
Due date Wednesday 21/5/1423 at 9:20 am
1. (545 points)
Let X beany uncountable set. The cocountable topology CC on X is defined
as follows
Uece = (1) U=0, OR (2) (X\U) is countable,
(a) Show that CC is indeed a topology on X.
(b) Prove that (R, CC) is not second countable
2. (545 points)
(a) Prove that (R, £) © (R,R).
(b) Let A= {—4:n EN} and B=[1,3)U (3,5) as subsets of R.
Without proof, find in the product space (R, £) x (IR, Ty), where L is the left
ray topology and T,q is the particular point topology where the consideration
point is V2, the following:
i. The closure TXB;
ii, The interior int(A x B).
3. (446 points)
(a) Let (X, T) be a topological space. State the definition of the following:
(1) (X, 7) is not T}. (2) (X, T) is not To.
(3) (X, 7) isnot regular. (4) (X, 7) is not Ts.
(b) Define T C P(R) as follows: For a subset U CR,
UT ifand only if U=0 or U=R or (2EU and 3¢U).
i. Prove that T isa topology on R.
ii. Prove that (R, 7) is not T,. 10 PREVIOUS EXAMS 7
math 466 First Exam
Monday 28/5/1424. From 9:20 am to 10:20 am.
Answer all of the following problems:
1. (24+24+242+2=10 points)
Let (X, T)) bea topological space and A be an index set. Let a € X, AC X, and
{Agia € A} C P(X), State the definition of the following:
(a) {Agi@€ A} isa base for X.
(b) @ Z int(A), x is not an interior point of A
d) Ais dense in (X, 7)
» T) is second countable.
)
)
(c) « ¢A, xis not in the closure of A.
(d)
(e) (
2. (44458 points)
Let A= {—1:n€ N} and B=[2,3)U (4,00) as subsets of R. Without proof, find
inthe wate R), where R is the Right Ray Topology, the following:
(a) 7. (b) int(B)
3. (6+44+2=12 points)
Let X bea set and A be a nonempty proper subset of X. Define TC P(X) as
follows:
U €T ifand only if U=0 or ACU
(a) Prove that T isa topology on X.
(b) Prove that (X, T) is separable
(c) If we take A =X, what will we get? 10 PREVIOUS EXAMS 72
math 466 Final Exam
Wednesday 22/6/1424. From 9:20 am to 11:20 am.
Answer all of the following problems:
1. (2x 5=10 points)
Let (X', T) be a topological space, {Aq :a.€ A} © P(X), and A CX. State the
definition of the following:
(a) 2A, the boundary of A.
{is not dense in (XT).
(b) A, the closure of A
(d) {A
ae ‘psa base for Xx. (f
(h)
G
|
1) {Aq za € A} is not an open cover for A.
) (X,, T) is second countable.
n)
)
(X, T) is regular.
(X, T) is connected
2. (545 points)
(a) Let d:R? x R? + R be defined by
(1, 91)s (82, 42)) = V1 = a2 + = Wa)Y (1.41): (72,42) € R?
Prove that dis a metric on R®.
(b) Prove that any metric space (X’ d) is Hausdorff.
3. (6+8+6=20 points)
Let J = (0,1), the open unit interval. Define T C P(/) as follows:
T ={0, JUO1=4) in€N\{1}}
(a) Verify that T isa topology on J.
(b) Prove that (J, T) is not regular, but it is normal.
(
©) Is (J, T) compact? justify your answer.
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