PSYCHOLOGY

What is mathematics
Is deals with the interactive Action -oriented subject
which is learned through active interaction with a
source

Mathema means ……
learning
knowledge
Study of quantity ,structure ,space and change

How do we learn mathematics

* interaction with the source
* Joint activity between learner and teacher
* Home and school
* When teacher assist learners
* Through Interactive action oriented subject

WHAT CONSTITUTE MATH ABILITY

When maths skills and been performed with ease
and understanding are developed
What is psychology in learning
mathematics
It deals with how learner thinks , learn ,feel
,responses to external stimuli,perform task and
developed their intellectuals.

Importance of psychology in learning

mathematics
* Helps to understand why children behave the way
they do
* Know the strength and weakness of learners
* Know the methodology to be use in teaching
* Help to select appropriate learning objective
* Help to select appropriate learning materials
* Help teachers to manage classroom emotions and
behaviours

Learners
* Help learner to make effective decision
* Help learner to solve misconceptions they have
about mathematics
* improve learners interest in learning mathematics
* Help learners to be critical thinkers
* It speed up learners understanding of
mathematics
HOW PSYCHOLOGY IN LEARNING MATHEMATICS
CAME ABOUT OR THE BEGINNING OF PLM.

According to fischbein (1990) the creation of

psychology in learning mathematics came into being
following the suggestion made by E.G begle in 1969
on the need to turn mathematics into experimental
science to avoid reliance on the philosophical
discussion based on UNFOUNDED ASSUMPTIONS
This suggestion triggered off discussions on the
psychological problems of mathematics education.
Plans were made and an international conference
held in Exeter in 1972'
It was at this conference that many people became
aware that the psychological problems of
mathematics learning and reasoning are
scientifically exciting and relevant for effective
mathematics education.

CHAPTER 2
A mathematics learning environment is one created
as a result of the interaction between the teacher,
pupils and the school.

Psychological Factors that influence

mathematics learning or Education
* Mathematics learning environment
* Motivation
* Altitude
* Emotional state of a learner
* interest in mathematics
* Individual difference

A good mathematics-learning classroom is one that

is * free from all forms of intimidation
* opportunities are provided for children to develop
their own ideas;
* teachers and pupils exchange views freely
* the children feel accepted in their relationships;
* children are encouraged to explore with materials
to come out with their own ideas;
* children are made to have confidence in their
abilities; and
* children can realize their own mistakes and correct
them without assisted by the teacher
* It is where children feel safe to learn.
Hostile mathematics classroom or one in
which children are humiliated created tension that
affect teaching and learning

Tensions may arise from teacher's actions such as

throwing objects at, beating, or especially scolding
learners for poor performance, inattention, faulty
thinking, late submission of exercise and many
others. Such assaults can also cause physical
damage or trauma in learners or create panic in
children as soon the teacher is on sight.

Motivation
A way of sustaining and arousing the interest of
learners during teaching and learning

Type of motivation
Intrinsic
the motivation that arouses within the learner

Extrinsic
The motivation that comes from outside the
environment or the external motivation
Clap 👏 Praise
 Chapter 3

CONCEPT FORMATION
Is the process whereby a learner learned
through perception,Abstraction and
generalisation of ideas.

The process of classifying object or ideas

into meaningful category is concept
formation

Concept :
Define as the abstract and general idea and
shorthand description of phenomena ,mathematical
object or fact.

Processes in concept formation

There are three processes in concept formation
1. Perception
2. Abstraction
3. Generalisation

PERCEPTION is forming mental and picture images

of what is seen
ABSTRACTION :Is the process of mental
representation of an object or fact
Generalisation
forming a general ideas about condition or
classification

Mathematics concept are based on Classification

Noise in teaching Concept

Noise is important in concept formation
They are the distractors /Distraction
Beginning examples in teaching concept should have
little noise

Role of Language in Teaching concepts

• Without Language:
Individual will have to form their own concepts from
the environment (Primary Concepts)
Primary concepts cannot be brought together to
form higher order concepts
• With Language:
Speeds up (1) and makes (Il) possible
Concepts are made available to generations and
new one formed.
• We direct the thoughts of others to discover new
ones
Two guiding principles for teaching concepts
1. Concepts of a higher order than those a person
already have cannot be communicated to
him/her by definition, but only by arranging for
him/her to encounter suitable collection of
examples.
2. Since in mathematics these examples are
it must first almost invariably other concepts, it
must first be ensured that they are already formed in
the Mind of a learner (skimp)

Difference between DISCRIMINATION AND

LEARNING CONCEPT

Discrimination learning- Distinguishes objects

according to their different characteristics
While
Concept learning Classifying objects according to
common characteristics

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE FORMATION OF

MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
1. EXPERIENCE / ENCOUNTERS : The interaction
between a learner and external condition in the
environment as a learning experience .learners
should have relevant and well sequences
experience about the concept. Materials should
be manipulated to aids extension of knowledge
and facilitate generalisation
2. SOCIAL TRANSMISSION: It is when a learner
gain experience in social collaboration. It’s the
interaction with friends , family , friends ,books
and peers . Through reading the child get
experience on concept. It is where a child also
discuss mathematical situations,Questions and
problems with his or her peers
3. NERVOUS MATURATION :when there is an
impairment , it’s limits the quality and quantity
of the formation of concept. Learning is a
mental process ,when one learned it goes
straight to the brain and processed through the
sensory organs of sight , touch and hearing. The
brain then analyse, link ,modify and create new
information of what is learnt . It is a limitive
factor in the cognitive development of a learner
and it’s the engine of all learning process

4. Equilibration :Here, It is not a state of rest of

the mind but a state of balance. The mind go
through self regulatory process in other to be
balanced. The brain of a learner needs to adjust
itself so that there will be a balance. It is the
compensation for an external balance. With
equilibration, there is an acceptance of new
ideas and the modification of existing structures
necessary to take in a new ideas this is referred
to us ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION

A schema is a cognitive structure that

serves as a framework for one's
knowledge about people, places,
objects, and events.
ASSIMILATION is the process of understanding a
new concept in terms of existing schemes /idea

Accommodation is also the process of modifying

existing schemes to fit new concept

Classifications of concept
Concept can be classified into four main parts ,Thus
1. ORDER
2. RULES
3. NAMING
4. FUNCTION

ORDER
ORDER has be classified into three
PRIMARY ORDER CONCEPT
They are the concept that is derived from our
sensory and motor experience

SECONDARY ORDER CONCEPT

They are the concept that is derived from the
primary order concept

HIGH ORDER CONCEPT

They are the order concept from the primary and
secondary order concept combined to form the high
order concept

2. RULE
> Varying rule structure
> Rule structure in addictive manner eg POLYGON
>Rule structure depending on relationship eg
Distance and time
Naming

Functions

Mathematics concept
is the greater understanding of ideas and
satisfaction result from one’s own effort of learning
mathematics

Iconic representation (bruner 1964)

When a child establishes concept as image or
mental picture

CONCEPT LEARNING PROCESS

It is made up of the discrimination and learning
concept

A. Discrimination
Discrimination learning- Distinguishes objects
according to their different Characteristics.
Is the process of selecting relevant attributes and
rejecting irrelevant ones
Example matching
Sorting
Grouping

B. LEARNING CONCEPT /CONCEPT LEARNING : Is the

process of classifying object according to their
common characteristics.
It involves observation , discrimination, analysis ,
organisation etc of properties of an object ,
comparing and describing concrete example of
related concepts

Concept Acceleration
The interactive process of children concept learning
may be presented as

CONCRETE - SEMI CONCRETE -ABSTRACT

Type of learning in concept

formation

* Verbalisation as stimuli response learning

* Verbal association
* Observation
* Discrimination
* Classifications

CHAPTER 5
THEORIES OF LEARNING
WHAT IS A LEARNING THEORY?

A SET OF PRINCIPLES THAT EXPLAINS HOW WE

ACQUIRE, RETAIN, AND RECALL KNOWLEDGE

THERE ARE THREE LEARNING THEORY

- BEHAVIOURISM
-COGNITIVE
- CONSTRUCTIVIST

1.Behaviourism
Is the study of external behaviour
It talk about how learner behaves during concept
formation.
* It is objective and observable
* It see the mind as a black spot or blind (what goes
on in one’s mind can never really be known or
measured.)
* It is the response of an organism to stimuli
* It developed out of experiment in stimulus theory
* Learning occurs through gradual strengthening
and reinforcement
*learning occurs by repeatedly exposing a person to
a given stimulus

A. Classical conditioning
It was brought out by pavlov (1927)A Russia
(behaviourist and psychologist )Explain classical
conditioning in Dogs
• Explains some learning of involuntary
emotional and physiological responses.
-Dog drooling when it smells food and later when it
hears a bell
• It's important for us as teachers to understand
since school is often the cause of unintentional
learning through classical conditioning,especially
anxiety.
-Test anxiety conditions us to have general school
anxiety Examples of classical conditioning
Children and sweet ,
Child and injection and
child and learning

the STIMULI after The response

Classical conditioning can face extinction if

what we keep doing is stop after
sometime the response is likely to stop

STIMULUS
It something that excites
It is anything that can trigger a physical or
behavioural change.
The mechanism that living things

Stimuli Response - A mechanism by which an animal

adapts

-Central to the principle of conditioning Focus: On

observable behaviours , Ways to increase positive
behaviours and Ways to decrease negative
behaviours
Mind as a muscle
- Mental exercise and training
Grounding for drill and practice
B. OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning was propounded by a man
called B.F skinner (American psychologist)
He was an Educationalist
It was believes that behaviours are sustained by
Reinforcement or REWARD but not FREE WILL
He uses Skinner box
In the operant conditioning ,
The response comes before the STIMULI

RS -operant

In Operant , conditioning involves

conditioning voluntary, Controllable
behaviours

There is three operant

conditioning reinforcement
1.The positive reinforcement
2.The negative reinforcement
3. Punishment

The positive reinforcement

They are the reinforcement given to a learner
to encourage them continue with a certain
behaviour. There is a presence of pleasant
stimuli which increase learners behaviour.

The negative reinforcement

There is an absent or removal unpleasant
stimuli which increase learners behaviour
Example of this unpleasant stimuli are the
insulting pupils as a teacher , canning etc

NB. The two positive and Negative

reinforcement turns to increase behaviour

PUNISHMENT : There is a present of

unpleasant stimuli to the learner thereby
Decreasing learners behaviour

Differences between negative reinforcement

& punishment
• Negative reinforcement: something
unpleasant is removed & as a result you are
more likely to do it again
Something happened that was "good"

• Punishment: A consequence happens that

you don't like and you are less likely to do it
again.
The punishment can add something or
take something away.
• Something happened that was "bad"

Behaviourist classroom
What we can see most in behaviourist
classroom is :
1. Emphasis on drill and practice
exercise
2. Clearly defined isolated skills
3. Positive and negative reinforcement
provided
4. Behaviour is linked to knowledge
 5. ~No distinction between
memorisation and conceptual
understanding

Behaviourism challenged : Human beings

can create new meanings from
experiences ( discovery learning

2.Cognitivism
Is a learning theory that focus on the processes
of learning, how information is received,
stored and retrieved from the mind

Ø It also Refers to a course of intellectual

development in child
Ø It Recognises learners as thinking
beings and active processors of information
*It Focus on the mind: the mental processes
(thinking, knowing, memory, Perception etc).

Behaviourism challenged mental discipline

theory of learning.(1930s)
The Sensory Response theory challenged as
simplistic
- If all learning is based on Sensory Response,
how do we create or invent new things / ideas?
Human beings can create new meaning from
experience
• Beginning of cognitivism, Mental process
occur between Sensory Response which is Not
observable

Some cognitive theorists:

- Jean Piaget,
- Richard Skemp,
- Jerome Bruner,
- Paul Bloom : interested in the development
and nature of our common-sense
understanding of ourselves and other people.

- David Paul Ausubel: learning was on the

development and research on "advance
organizers"

-William Brownell
(Kennedy, et al
Meaning theory"Children must understand
whatever they are learning if the learning is to
be permanent")

Zoltan P.Dienes
It focus on meaning with his Multi base
Arithmetic block .
Dienes theory combine some ideas of Piaget
and Bruner.

Dienes was the architect of the

'multiple embodiment or multi embodiment
principle which states that each mathematical
concept should be taught using as many
different examples and situations as possible;
that is, using perceptually different models to
teach one particular concept. The principle rests
on the value of experiencing a mathematical
concept in a variety of different settings.
Dienes Theory of mathematics learning has
four basic components or principles that have a
lot of similarities to the work of Piaget.
These are the
1.dynamic principle,
2.perceptual variability principle,
3.mathematical variability principle
4.The constructivity principle.

Cognitive theories
cognitive theory
• An attempt to explain human behaviour by
understanding the thought processes

• It is also Interested in how people

understand material; and Focused on the
individual's thoughts as the determinant of
his or her emotions, behaviours and
personality
• Compares the human mind to a computer.
• Describe mental process as information
processing
• The brain as the most incredible information
processor and interpreter of all the things we
learn.

Cognitive theories of learning

»Cognitive theories of learning focuses on the
Inner mental actions.

They include :
• Constructivism- emphasises the role of the
learner in constructing his own view or
Knowledge

• Discovery learning
• Social constructivism
• Developmental theories

Constructivism in general
It state that learning is an active process
in which the learner construct new ideas
or concept based upon their past
knowledge.
There is an interaction between the
learner and the teacher.
And everyone’s point of view is respect
• The world is an organism that adapts
and changes
• Knowledge is never permanent;
• Learning depends on each person's
unique experience or prior knowledge

social constructivism
• Knowledge depends on culture,
history, social learning situations.
• Learning is a process of active
construction that occurs by
reflecting social actions

Constructivist classroom
v Opportunities for students to
actively construct knowledge
v No single right way or best way to
solve a problem
v Activities allow for a range of
responses
v Mathematical algorithms arise out
learners invented strategies
v Opportunities for students to
develop strategies that are personally
meaningful, share strategies, and
discuss ideas
v Teacher questions and listens to
students explanations to gain
understanding of how the make sense of
the topic
v Teacher employs probabilistic rather
than prescriptive thinking
v Children acquire a variety of
experiences
v Tools and manipulative material are
available for different representations of
concepts (models, pictures,diagrams,
graphs, etc)
v Opportunities to describe, clarify,
justify reasoning and thinking strategies
BEHAVIOURIST CONSTRUCTIVIST

Lecturer Facilitator

Dictates material Guides Students to the

material

Tells Asks/Involved in dialogue

with Students

Teaches from the Supports by walking

front around

Learner is passive Learner is active

Gives answers Provides guidelines

Focus on the material Focus on the student

Stimulus Response Theory is a concept in

psychology that refers to the belief that
behaviour manifests as a result of the
interplay between stimulus and response.
Stimulus-response (S-R) theories are central
to the principles of conditioning. They are
based on the assumption that human
behaviour is learned.

LECTURER 6
Developmental Theories
-Piaget's cognitive development stage
theory.
-Bruner's theory

• Child is a developing organism

• Cognition grow in stages
• Ability to abstract is a function of
mental development
• Child can learn a concept when
cognitively ready
• Presentation of learning material
according the stage.

Piaget's Stage theory

Jean William Fritz Piaget was a Swiss,
biologist and psychologist known for his
work on child development.
Theory of cognitive development and
epistemological view are together called
"genetic epistemology".

Piaget placed great importance on the

education of children.
All normal human beings develop structures
of thinking.
His interest was in the physical structures
that characterised organism
• Cognitive structures could not be
observed directly as with physical
structures
He reveal that by interviewing young
children based on their activities
• He claimed that learning occurs through
Adaptation (forms of adaptation are
Assimilation and accommodation)

• ASSIMILATION is the process of understanding a

new concept in terms of existing schemes
• Accommodation is also the process of modifying
existing schemes to fit new concept

Why is cognitive development analogous

Because they are built in stages .

Learning takes place through three processes

1. Formation of mental concepts
2. Adaptation of concepts resulting from
Experience
3. Relating concepts to form network or idea
•What is cognitive development?
-A process of not knowing to knowing

Cognitive development is Analogous (similar

function but having a different origin) to
physical development as it develops in stages
Piaget(1962) proposed Four stages of cognitive
development
1. Sensori-motor (0-2)
2. Pre-operational(2-7)
3. Concrete operational (7-11)
4. Formal operational 11+

SENSORI MOTOR STAGE

• Children learn through the sensory
experience and manipulation of object.
• Children use ability and skills they were
born with ( sucking ,listening and looking )
to learn more about the environment.
• Children provide linking numbers and object

CIRCULAR REACTION
When a child do things repeatedly to explore
Child begins to use imitation, memory and
thought
 PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7)
Operational is a thinking based on rules
1. Children learn through play
2. They are skilful at using object
3. They also struggle with logic and accepting
people views
4. children are egocentric (selfish )and engage in
interaction
5. They concentrate on one attribute at a time
6. Do not understand concrete logic

Distorting reasoning
centration is the tendency to focus on one salient
aspect of a situation and neglect other, possibly
relevant aspects.
centration is a behaviour often demonstrated in the
pre-operational stage.

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE 7-11

At this stage children
•begin do think more logically;
•thinking is rigid;
•dominance of perceptual influence;
• tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical
concepts;
•become Less egocentric and begin to think about
how others might think and feei
•become more sociocentric;
• begin to understand that their thoughts are
unique to them; and to share their thoughts,
feelings , and opinions.
•Towards the end of this stage children:begin think
logically in concrete terms, but have difficulty
understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts
• Use inductive logic but find it difficult to
Use deductive logic.
•reversibility is the most important developments in
this stage
• conservation is another key development
at this stage.
• able to engage in "decentration"
(concentrate on many different aspects)

FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

1. children are able to plan an organized approach
to solving a problem
2. capable of thinking about abstract and
hypothetical ideas
3. think of alternatives: "what-if type situations,
questions, and multiple solutions or possible
outcomes.
4. Their thinking becomes more scientific,
5. They develop concerns about social issues and
about identity : Children are capable of:
Making inferences, clarifying, Understanding
complex relationships , Evaluating, Applying
Adult thinking and doing maths

v Deductive reasoning is a logical approach

where you progress from general ideas to
specific conclusions.

v Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing

conclusions by going from the specific to the
general.

Jerome Seymour BRUNER

Jerome Seymour Bruner was an American
psychologist who made significant
contributions to human cognitive
psychology and cognitive learning theory in
educational psychology. Bruner was a
senior research fellow at the New York
University School of Law.

He was strong advocate of learning by

doing
He propounded the discovery learning.
He explained how children present the
concepts and ideas learnt

MODE /WAYS BY WHICH CHILDREN LEARN

The mode of learning are hierarchical and
developmentally related
It also overlap
1. ENACTIVE MODE
The learning by doing Experience
concept through concrete, images and
pictures representations

2. ICONIC MODE
Learning by forming mental pictures and image
Deals with concrete embodiment of the concept.

3. SYMBOLIC MODE
Learning through abstract
symbols/representations
Deal with concept abstractly

Discovery Learning
• Cognitive approach suggests putting learners in an
environment to learn by themselves
• Bruner advocate active learning with his discovery
method
•Discovery learning rooted in constructivism.
ü Learn mathematics by doing
ü Encourage the view that mathematics learning
is a process and not a finished product
ü It’s intrinsically rewarding/ motivating, hence
no worry for teachers rewarding learners

SPIRAL CURRICULUM
Presentation of a lesson in a way a learner
understands and present material in intellectual
honest manner a child can learn
The sequential development of the intellect

THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
MATHEMATICS

Theory of multiple intelligence

• First introduced into
education by Howard Gardner
to let us understand that there is
no general intelligence.

• Multiple intelligence Is a
natural theory
• It is biologically-based
• Evolved in response to how
individual differences be
addressed and developed.
*° Multiple intelligence:
Multiple--Many
Intelligence
• No unique definition
The intellectual powers
people have
• The power to adapt to new
challenging situations
• The capacity to reason to
take decisions and self-
criticise
"Ability to solve a problem"
(Gardner 1986,)
Multiple intelligences refers
to a theory describing the
different ways students learn
and acquire information.
 These multiple intelligences
range from the use of words,
numbers, pictures and music,
to the importance of social
interactions, introspection,
physical movement and being
in tune with nature.

The theory
A. Every individual has at least
eight intelligences that are
 developed in one's life time and
are manifested in what we-do in
different ways
• At least 8 intelligence
(problem solving abilities in
our life trajectory)

The German psychologist

William Stern (1871-1938)
introduced the idea of
intelligence quotient, or IQ.

Human intelligences
1. Logical-mathematical
intelligence
2. Linguistic/verbal intelligences
3. Bodily/kinaesthetic
intelligence
4.Interpersonal/social
intelligence
5.Intrapersonal/introspective
intelligence
6. Naturalistic intelligence
7. Visual/spatial intelligence
8. Musical/rhythmic intelligence
9.Existential intelligence

A. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL
INTELLIGENCE
• Ones mental Power to, and capacity to
recognise logical patterns, handle long
chains of reasoning to calculate or think
logically to carry out operations (henry,
1992; haley, 2004)
•Manifest: students in different tasks
involving mathematical problem solving,
logic games, classification, and
sequencing activities
• People with intelligence are
ü Excellent in problem
solving/solving puzzles and mysteries
ü Skilful in manipulating numbers
and operations
Examples Bill gate

B. Linguistic/Verbal
Intelligences
• Ability to effectively manipulate
language to express oneself and ranges
from the use of language sounds,
symbols, rhythms, to meanings of words
as well as the different functions of
language (Gardner, 1989; Haley, 2004)
• Exercised through reading interesting
books, participating in discussions and
using various kind of technology
This demonstrated in people who:
• Easily learn new languages
• Use language accurately to convey
meaning
• Are excellent in writing and speaking

C. Musical/Rhythmic
Intelligence
• The individual ability to notice,
recognise, produce and appreciate
rhythm, pitch, tonal changes, and
melody and to appreciate forms
of musical expressiveness (henry, 1992)
• It has that capacity to concentrate and
connect thoughts
• E.g. they easily learn songs; good
dancers, remember songs and melodies
D. Visual/Spatial Intelligence
• Involves the ability to:
• Perceive and create a mental image of
something;
• Mentally represent and transform or
manipulate images and objects to solve
problems
• it underpins mathematical
investigations, mechanics, and geometry
• Stimulating mathematics learning
environment is filled with charts,
pictures, drawings, and videos to
enhance students' visual/spatial ability
• This intelligence is key to the hunter,
scouts, guides, architects, artist,
inventors.
Bodily-Kinesthetics Intelligence
• Involves the ability to manipulate,
coordinate and control-one’s body
movements and handle objects skilfully
• Involves the use of one's to produce or
transform things
• Challenges the view that mental and
physical activities
are unrelated,

E. Interpersonal intelligence
1. The ability to descend understand and
respond appropriately to the feelings mood
and desire of the other people
2. A tool for providing conducive learning
environment
3.It is the intelligence use by counsellor,
politicians , sales men and experienced
Teachers. They can be though through group
active

Intrapersonal intelligence
• Knowledge of one's own strengths,
weaknesses, desires, and intelligences
• Helps individuals to practise self
discipline
• Making students aware of their self-
talk is an example of how to work on
their intrapersonal intelligence
• One access his or her own feelings
and work with personal deadline and
goal

-Naturalistic Intelligence
• Is the capacity to discriminate among
numerous species, enjoy
the natural world
• Students with high naturalistic intelligence
enjoy exploring the environment
• Students can learn about patterns, shapes,
order and other mathematical concepts
among others
• Students with intelligence are interested
biology, botany, & zoology; tourist; gardening,
etc

Existential Intelligence
• The capacity to think about the big
picture/ideas
• Used widely by theorists and philosophers
• Questions such as "who are we, why do we
die are demonstration of this intelligence

Piaget Circular reactions

Is for the infant to engage in repetitive
acts which allow them to learn
about their bodies

CHAPTER 9

Mathematical Understanding
*Knowing something and being able
explain something
*Knowing is different from
understanding
*And to understand something is to
assimilate into appropriate schema

Schema
A schema is a cognitive structure that
serves as a framework for one's
knowledge about people, places, objects,
and events.
 ü Networks of concepts that we
cannot see, feel or touch
ü Mental construct for organizing
our perceptions of the
environment (Kellough, 1996)
ü A category of knowledge that
allows us to interpret and
understand the world
• skemps
definition implies to take in
knowledge meaningfully.
• Knowledge is seen as schema
• Schema: A hardware drive we fill
with folders containing everything we
know
• New ideas are organised in existing
folders or create new folders.
• Assimilation: A process of
integrating new ideas knowledge with
existing schema( skemp 1989)
ASSIMILATION is the process of
understanding a new concept or
ideas in terms of existing schema
/idea

• Accommodation: A process of
modifying existing schema to fit(
integrate) into new
knowledge/concept
Accommodation is also the
process of modifying existing
schema to fit new concept
• Cognitive dissonance:
When the existing schema does not
align with the new
information/idea/concept

When there is no understanding

Three failures to understand
1. Wrong schema is used
2. Gap between new idea and the
existing schema
3.The existing schema is not capable
of assimilating the new idea without
undergoing expansion or
restructuring/ modification
 Types of Mathematical
understanding
Different types, but we consider only
the following:

1. Instrumental UNDERSTANDING
/ROOT LEARNING
When you have the knowledge about
it but don’t know why
Instrumental understanding – having a
mathematical rule and being able to
apply and manipulate it.

2. Relational understanding
Relational understanding – having a
mathematical rule, knowing how to
use it AND knowing why it works.
 3. Intuitive UNDERSTANDING
When one Have the knowledge about the
thing but find it difficult to explain.

4. Formal
Using ideas or things the way it should be used
When you are able to use symbols , words and
figures in appropriate way

5. Informal
The kind of understanding you already know
before getting a concept or new idea

TECHNIQUES TO PROMOTE
UNDERSTANDING

Developing relational understanding

Ø Mapping and home work

strategies
Fictitious homework : Homework’s
which are not real but given to
learners
 Ø Systematic instructional sequence
& procedure
-Appropriate cognitive level
-Linking existing knowledge
-Ausubel and experience
"The most important single factor
influencing learning is what the child
already knows. …. Ascertain this and teach
the child accordingly"

Ø Classroom discussions
• Can start with a question
• Teachers tend to ask very simple
questions to avoid errors
• Teacher tend to avoid difficult
questions
•Labinowicz (1987) reminds us the
importance of errors.
 Ø Opportunities for investigations
• Enable the child to understand
ways mathematic can be used
• Arouse interest
• Promote extension of knowledge
•Evoke divergent thinking
•Generate self-confidence
• Promote discussion
•Learners detect errors and correct
them

Ø Games and plays

• Opportunities to see or figure out
math ideas
• Learning practical for better
understanding
• Create interest and motivate to learn a
Create conditions for active involvement
• Remove boredom
• Evoke mental imagery

CHAPTER 10
Diversity in the math classroom
• What is the composition of the classroom
today?
• Do you think the composition and nature of
the classroom affect learning?
• Two catenaries:
A. Rural Culturally Homogenous
-B: Urban Culturally Heterogeneous

A.Rural Culturally Homogenous community

• Poor facilities/teachers
• Low enrolments
 • incompetent non-professional
teachers
• Teachers feel inferior & unmotivated
• No supervision
• Sense of dejection, negative attitudes
communicated
• Negative impressions of math and
teaching

B. Cosmopolitan -linguistically heterogeneous

•Language is heterogeneous
• classroom is Miniature country
• A lot of facilities, Diverse experiences
• "Normal" growth of children; Minimal age
disparities; Better resources-including
teachers
• Satisfaction of teachers
• Over-crowding
•Adequate Resources

Characteristics of effective teaching

• Teacher enthusiasm,( feeling of
excitement)
 • Teacher Orientation,
• Clarity and ability to deliver
• Selection and sequencing of learning
tasks
• Variation of teaching methods and
materials
• An effective teacher: one able to bring
about learning goals.

SCHOLARS PROPOUNDED
LIEBECK 1984
He propounded that effective
teacher is the one who uses ELPS
Ø EXPERIENCE
provide opportunities for the children to
acquire relevant experiences
Ø LANGUAGE
• Uses a common medium of instruction
for all to understand, describe
experiences, and share ideas
Ø PICTURES
• Provide avenues for pictorial
representation
 of experiences

Ø SYMBOLS
• Provide avenues to generalise
experiences
using symbols

Factors influencing instructional

effectiveness
• Amount learning of task at a give
time
• Nature of task
• Pace and sequence
• Teachers content/pedagogical
content knowledge
• Availability of materials
• Expectations

Amount learning of task at a give time

• What amount of task are students to:
 -Cover in the syllabus at a given
time?
-Learn in class at a given time?
• What is their effect on the pace of
coverage?

Nature of task
• What Is the nature of mathematics in
general?
• What Is the nature of mathematical
task provided for student?

Pace and sequence

• Composition of classroom:
-sloW, Intermediate, and fast learners
-Tactile, visual, auditory, etc learner’s

Teachers content/pedagogical content

knowledge
What mathematical knowledge to
teachers need to do effective teaching?
 ü Subject content?
ü Pedagogical content?
ü Curricula knowledge?
ü Knowledge of pupils etc?

Availability of materials
• Why materials?
• What materials?
• Are materials need in all cases?

Expectations
ü Teacher expectation
ü pupil expectations
ü Curriculum expectations
ü ’Societal/Parents expectation

Mathematics Learning Difficulties

What is a learning difficulty?

Anything physical, social, or psychological
that hinder or impedes the progress of a
child's consistent and systematic
understanding of a subject/mathematics
"children who have learning difficulties
are at risk whatever their age" (Dean,
1992, p. 204)

Mathematical Learning Difficulty (MLD) is

used broadly to describe a wide variety of
deficits in math skills, typically pertaining
the domains of arithmetic and arithmetic
problem solving.

TYPES OF LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

• General learning difficulties
• Specific learning difficulties

Sources of specific learning difficulties

- Riddell, Brown, and Duffled (1994)
indicated that specific learning difficulties
stem from:
Ø The learners themselves
Ø The school environment
Ø Social and political influence

TEACHERS PERCEPTION ON LEARNING

DIFFICULTIES
v Child-related learning difficulties
• Health
• Language
• Skills
• Child's difficulties stem from
neurological sources
(Orton, 1992) symbolic nature of math
(Cockeroft,1982) learning styles or
personality factors (WEEDON,1994)
 v Subject-related difficulties
• Difficulties Intrinsic in the subject are
subject-related difficulties
• Nature of the subject
• Symbolism
• Its language
• Formal codes (representational device
in which words can represent or stand for
a range of objects). They are context-free

v School-related difficulties
Some Activities in school with the
tendency to impede or hinder children
mathematics understanding or learning
are referred to as school -Based learning
difficulties :They include among others
Teacher-related factors such as
• Teachers methodologies and subject
matter knowledge
 • Availability of mathematics learning
facilities
• Social climate of the classroom and
school

v Curriculum-related learning
difficulties
• Skills and values to for International
standards
• Functional life of products
"In seeking the right middle road for all
our pupils we often get it wrong for many"
as pupils are often rushed through
the material which, at best, is half learned
by few (Orton,1992, p. 7)

•What is a learning difficulty?

• there are "no consistent standards by
which to judge the presence or absence of
LDs [learning difficulties] in math"and
there is still disagreement concerning the
question of a definition, operational
criteria, and prevalence
(Lantranchi et al., 2008; Mazzocco, 2008).

Karagiannakis, Baccaglini-Frank and

Papadatos (2014)
describes mathematics as a complex
subject with different domains:
Arithmetic, Arithmetic Problem Solving,
Geometry, Algebra, Probability, Statistics,
Calculus, e.t.c.
This requires "a variety of basic abilities
associated with the sense of quantity,
symbols decoding, memory, visuospatial
capacity, logics, etc. Therefore any
difficulty in any of these abilities or
coordination can result in a learning
difficulties
*Karagiannakis, Baccaglini-Frank and
Papadatos (2014)
argue that "no single framework or model
can be used for a comprehensive and fine
interpretation of students' mathematical
difficulties"
• Reviewed literature found five deficits
the lead to difficulties in processing
numbers defective approximate Number
System(AN>)
- Deffective object Tracking System (OYSI
Deffective numerosity coding
Access deficit
Multiples deficits

Geary (1994) connected mathematics

disorder with
neuropsychological deficits and identified
three (3)
subtypes of deficits:
• Procedural deficit that lead to delay in
developing
arithmetic strategies
Semantic memory that manifests in
children's Inability in retrieve facts due to
long term memory deficit
• Spatial deficit that manifests In spatial
representation of number

• These subtypes are not characterised by

basic cognitive processes -working
memory, long term memory(semantic
memory) executive functions, fact
retrieval, and calculations and fluency.

Karagiannakis, Baccaglini-Frank and

Papadatos (2014) proposed a model that
classified MLDs into 4 subtypes that
reflect the cognitive domains from which
specific deficits arise.
1. Core Number- Internal representation
of quantity in the arithmetic domain
2. Memory (Retrieval and Processing)- All
mathematical domains
3. Reasoning- All mathematical domains:
4. Visual-Spatial- Domains of written
Arithmetic, Geometry,Algebra, Analytical
Geometry, Calculus

EDITED BY
QWEKU LUCID (ASI )
THANK YOU