Chapter 1

Particles…

How do we classify them?

How do they interact?
How do we detect them?

http://www.ipnl.in2p3.fr/cours/marteau/PP2012-2013/

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 Outline/Plan
1. Fundamental particles 1. Particules fondamentales
1. Leptons 1. Leptons
2. Quarks 2. Quarks
3. Hadrons 3. Hadrons

2. Hadron spectroscopy 2. Spectroscopie hadronique

1. Isospin symmetry 1. La symétrie d’isospin
2. Basics of group theory. 2. Rappel de théorie des groupes.
The SU(N) group. Le groupe SU(N).
3. The quark model 3. Le modèle des quarks.

3. Fundamental interactions 3. Interactions fondamentales

1. Range and propagators 1. Portée d’une interaction et
2. Electro-weak interaction propagateurs.
3. Strong interaction 2. Interaction électro-faible.
3. Interaction forte.

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 1- Fundamental particles
General features:
• Fundamental particles can not be separated into smaller
components (elementary particles such as: electron, photon,
quarks…)
• Some particles are composite ones (protons and neutrons
are composed of 3 quarks, pions of 1 quark and 1 anti-
quark…)
• There are 2 ways of classifying the particles:
1. Following the spin-statistics
Fermions (1/2 integer spin, Fermi-Dirac statistics)
Vs
Bosons (integer spin, Bose-Einstein statistics)
2. Following the interaction(s) they are sensitive to…
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 1- Fundamental particles
There are 4 fundamental interactions:
• Strong interaction (e.g. nuclei structure)
• Electromagnetic interaction (e.g. atomic physics, light, µ-wave…)
• Weak interaction (e.g. β radioactivity phenomena)
• Gravity (neglected at energy scales well below 1019GeV)

In quantum field theory any interaction is modeled by an

intermediate particle exchange (gauge bosons).

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 1- Fundamental particles
A simplified scheme

Matter ‘’building blocks’’

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 1- Fundamental particles
They are (up-to-now) the most elementary particles known and
constitute the building blocks of atoms

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 1.1 Leptons
Leptons:
• Are insensitive to strong interaction
• Carry integer electric charges (n×1.610-19C with n∈ℵ)
• Carry a “weak” charge ie can be associated in weak interaction
doublets
• Are organized into 3 families : electron, muon, tau

• Muons and taus are “heavy” and unstable copies of electrons

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 1.1 Leptons
Leptonic number: global symmetry associated to leptons implying
that 3 numbers are conserved additively in the interactions:

• Le = +1 (e- and νe) / Le = -1 (e+ and νe) / Le = 0 for others

• Lµ = +1 (µ- and νµ) / Lµ = -1 (µ+ and νµ) / Lµ = 0 for others
• Lτ = +1 (τ- and ντ) / Lτ = -1 (τ+ and ντ) / Lτ = 0 for others

• Reactions example:

π + → µ + +ν µ (Lµ :0 =−1+ (+1))

µ − → e− +ν e +ν µ (Le:0 =+1+ (−1)/ Lµ :+1=+1)

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 1.1 Leptons
Neutrinos are only sensitive to weak interactions and have a fixed

helicity (operator : λ = S. p )
p
ν
Left-handed neutrinos
S p

ν
Right-handed anti-neutrinos
S p
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 1.1 Leptons
Leptons summary

Notations:
• Iw and I3w are related to the weak isospin
• JPC = SpinParity C-Parity
 1.1 Leptons
What about stability and lifetime? Almost all particles (but e.g.
electrons, protons) are unstable and decay with a time which
depends on the type of interaction and the available phase space

Hierarchy:

forte e.m. faible

τ(s)
10-23 10-20 10-10 1

Width (energy scale):

∆M =Γ=τ1 (MeV)

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 1.1 Leptons
Strong decays and resonances :
∆→π N (Γ =115 MeV)
ρ →ππ (Γ =150 MeV)
σ(πN)
2
1
Γ∆ σ= 2
( s − M ∆ s ) + iM ∆ Γ( s )

M∆ √s

τ ~ 1/100(MeV )* 200(MeV . fm)/3.108.1015( fm.s−1)

 
τ ~10−23 s
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 1.2 Quarks
Quarks:
• Are sensitive to strong interaction (they are the fundamental
components of nuclear matter)
• Carry fractional electric charges (e.g. Qu=2/3×e)
• Carry a “weak” charge ie can be associated in weak interaction
doublets
• Carry also a “colored charge” and are associated in triplets of the
strong interaction
• Are organized into 3 families (as the leptons are, probable link?)
which are ~identical but for the masses

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 1.2 Quarks
Quarks are confined : they can not be observed in a free state
(extreme case: quark-gluon plasma)

Global quantum numbers are associated with the quark content of a

compound : strangeness (s), charm (c), beauty (b), top (t)…
These numbers are conserved in all but the weak interactions

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 1.3 Hadrons
Hadrons are the compound particles sensitive to the strong
interaction. They are divided into 2 categories:
• Baryons : made of 3 quarks (q1q2q3)
• Mesons : made of 1 quark and 1 anti-quark (q1q2)

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 1.3 Hadrons
Examples:

uud
udd
ud , uu + dd , ud
udc
us , ds , sd , us

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 1.3 Hadrons
• Hadrons carry integer electric charge
• They interact weakly
• We associate a global quantum number (baryonic number),
conserved additively in all reactions and defined as :
B = 1 for baryons / B = -1 for anti-baryons / B = 0 others

Why do we observe only the baryon/meson combinations only?

Why can we observe such particles as the ∆++ = (u↑ u↑ u↑)

forbidden by the Fermi statistics?

 Because of the colored charge : the only allowed (physics) states

correspond to “white” combinations of quarks and antiquarks.
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 1.3 Hadrons
3 basic colors: R G B for the quarks and their “anti”-colors for the
anti-quarks : R G B

White combinations correspond to :

• RGB or RGB in equal proportions
• RR GG BB in equal proportions
(where “proportions” means the proper anti-symmetrization)

Example: “white proton” p (u u d)

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 2. Hadron spectroscopy
Introduction:
• 1st observation : invariance of the strong interactions w.r.t. the
electric charge (p-p, p-n, n-n are equivalent for the strong
interactions: underlying symmetry?)
• 2nd observation : masses identity
= =
mP 938.3 (MeV) mN 939.1 (MeV)
= =
mπ ± 139.6 (MeV) mπ 0 135.0 (MeV)
= =
mK ± 493.7 (MeV) mK 0 497.7 (MeV)

Those masses would have been probably degenerate in absence of

e.m. interactions (symmetry violation analog to the Zeeman effect)

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 2.1 Isospin symmetry
Generalization to multiplets :

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 2.1 Isospin symmetry
Conclusion: hadrons can be classified as multiplets of ~equal masses
particles differing by their electrical charge :

From the point of view of strong interactions, proton and neutron

are almost the same particle. One creates an abstract space in which
strong interactions are invariant under rotations… 21
 2.1 Isospin symmetry
The conserved quantity (Noether’s theorem) is called isospin.
Isospin treatment follows the kinetic moment one’s and relies on the
group theory (SU(2) representation) :

• In the isospin space one introduces an operator I = ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 )
which commutation rules read  I i , I j  = ε ijk I k
• The eigenstates I , I 3 of the observables I , I 3
2

are such that :

I 2 I , I=
3 I ( I + 1) I , I 3
I3 I , I3 = I3 I , I3

• A multiplet has 2 I + 1 eigenstates I 3 =

− I ,..., + I (“2I+1”-plet)

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 2.1 Isospin symmetry

Within such representations one has the following multiplets:

Doublet

Quadruplet

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 2.2 Basics of Lie groups
SU(N) groups :
• Group generators : I k defined such as U (α1 , α 2 , α 3 ) = e − iα k I k
# of independent generators : m = n2 − 1
• Properties : I k = I k and Tr ( I k ) = 0
†

• # of generators simultaneously diagonalizable (rank) : r= n − 1

• # of Casimir operators (function of the generators commuting
with all of them) : r= n − 1
ex. SU(2) : I 2 = I12 + I 2 2 + I 32
• The fundamental representation is of dimension N :  X 1 
 
X
 2
 
 
 N
X

• Structure constants defined by:  I i , I j  = f ijk I k 24

 2.3 Quarks model
• Fundamental representation 3 :
Y
1/3
d u

-1 -1/2 1/2 1 I3
-1/3

s -2/3
• Adjoint representation 3 :
Y
s 2/3

-1 -1/2 1/2 1 I3
1/3

u -1/3 d
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 2.3 Quarks model
• Pseudo-scalar mesons diagram (octet + singlet): J P = 0−

sd su

1
2 ( uu − dd )
ud du

1
2 ( uu + dd + ss ) 1
2 ( uu + dd − 2ss )

us ds

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 2.3 Quarks model
• Pseudo-vector mesons diagram (octet + singlet): same quarks
content but // spin : J P = 1−

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 2.3 Quarks model
• Just for fun : baryons decuplet

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 3- Fundamental interactions
• Leptons and quarks interactions are mediated by specific gauge
bosons :

strong gluons g (8) M=0

e.m. photon γ (1) M=0

weak Z0 M=90 GeV

W± M=81 GeV

gravitation graviton hµν ? ?

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 3.1- Range and propagators
• Yukawa approach: in 1935 it was proposed a link between the
range of an interaction and the mass of the “carrier” quantum.
• Heisenberg inegality :
R = c∆t ≈ 1 = 1
∆E m
• Formally (Klein-Gordon equation ie “massive” photon
propagation equation): ψ + m 2ψ = 0
For a static spherical potential :
ψ (r ) + m 2ψ (r ) =
0
1 ∂ 2 ∂ 
 r (ψ ( r ) )  + m 2
ψ (r ) =
0
r ∂r  ∂r
2

g −r/R 1
⇒ ψ (r )
=  e= where R
4π r m 30
 3.1- Range and propagators
• Historically this approach led to the prediction of an intermediate
quantum for the strong interaction of mass close to:
m 1 ~ 1 ~ 100 − 200 MeV
R few fm

• The pion was then discovered (140 MeV) which can be seen as
the carrier for the residual strong interaction between nucleons
(not quarks) at the scale of the nucleus.

• Its small mass is the manifestation of another symmetry breaking,

the chiral symmetry SU(2)L×SU(2)R .

• This simple model gives an idea of the range of an interaction and

the link with the intermediate properties.
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 3.1- Range and propagators
• The Fourier transform of the Yukawa potential is given by :
e− r / R 1
ψ (r ) ∝ where R =
r m
1
⇒ ψ (q ) ∝  2
q + m 2 − iε
• The quantity obtained is called the propagator.
• Using the Green function formalism for the Klein-Gordon
µ 0 
equation: ( + m )ψ ( x) =0 where x = x =
2
(x , x)
µ 0 
⇒ (q − m )ψ (q ) = 0 with q = q = (q , q )
2 2

δ 4 (q )
⇒ (q 2 − m 2 )G (q ) =
δ 4 (q) i
⇒ G (q=
) ⇒ Propagator= 2
q −m
2 2
q − m2
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 3.1- Range and propagators
• What is the role of the integration constant g?
g −r/R
ψ (r ) = e
4π r
• In Electromagnetism we have the standard Coulomb potential :
Q
ψ (r ) =
4π r
corresponding to a vanishing mass (for photon) or infinite range
• Q and g play the role of a Final
coupling constant state
g
for the interaction

Initial i ψ (r )
state
q 2 − m2
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 3.1- Range and propagators
• Basic Feynman diagram :

pb
g
pa
i
p2
q 2 − m2 g
q = pa − pb = p2 − p1
p1

• The amplitude of the process writes:

1
2
g A( pa , pb ) 2 A( p , p ) δ 4
( pa + p1 − pb − p2 )
q −m 2 1 2

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 3.2- Electroweak interactions
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTIONS
e2 1
α em =
• Coupling constant :=
4π c 137
∂σ α 2 em
• Example : Rutherford cross-section ∝ 4
∂q 2
q
−33
• Typical cross-section ~ 10 m
2

−20

• Typical interaction times ~ 10 s

• Photon (γ) exchange, infinite range

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 3.2- Electroweak interactions
WEAK INTERACTIONS
GF mP 2
α Fermi
• Coupling constant : = ≈ 10−6
4π

• Example : neutron β-decay

• Weak interactions do not conserve the quarks flavor

• Typical cross-section ~ 10−44 m 2

−10
• Typical interaction times 
~ 10 s

• Weak bosons exchange, finite range 36

 3.2- Electroweak interactions
WEAK INTERACTIONS (cont’d)

• Typical range : M ~ 80 − 90 GeV ⇒ R ~ 10−18 m

• Due to the large mass of the exchanged bosons the weak
interactions can often be considered point-like
gW
⇒
gW
1 gW 2 −5 −2
gW 2 2  → ≡ G = 10 GeV
q − MW 2 q 2 →0 F
MW 2
• Weinberg angle (electroweak theory) :
gW 2 e2 1
=αW = = (sin 2
=θW 0.22)
4π 4π sin θW 29
2
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 3.3- Strong interactions
Features

• Coupling constant : α s ~ 1

• Carry a colored charge

• Typical cross-section ~ 10−30 m 2

• Typical interaction times ~ 10−23 s

• Gluons (g) exchange, effective finite range due to the

−15
confinement R  ~ 10 m . Asymptotic freedom.

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 3.3- Strong interactions
Features (cont’d)

• Residual interaction (at the nuclei scale) :

• ∃ couplings between gluons :

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 Towards unification ?
• Coupling constants vary with the energy

• At large scales all couplings become nearly equal.

• In some “beyond Standard Model” models (SUSY etc) this occurs!
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