Acids

Acids are substances that ionize in water to produce hydrogen ion as the only
positive ion.. There are two classes of acids – organic and inorganic acids.

Mineral/Inorganic Acids

These are acids that can be prepared from mineral elements or inorganic matter.

• They are generally much stronger

• Most do not occur naturally

• They usually have simpler molecules

Examples are: Hydrogen tetra oxo sulphate (vi) Acid, hydrogentrioxonitrate (v)
acid, Hydrochloric Acid etc

Organic Acids

Organic acid are acids that occurs as a natural product in plants and animal

• They naturally occur

• They are found in vegetables, fruit and other foodstuffs

• They are usually weaker and less corrosive

Examples are: Ethanoic Acid, Citric Acid, Lactic Acid, Tartaric Acid , Acetic
Acid etc

ORGANIC ACID SOURCE

Ethanoic acid Vinegar

Lactic acid Milk

Citric acid Lime, lemon

Amino acids Protein

Fatty acids Fats and Oils

Ascorbic acid Oranges

INORGANIC ACIDS SOURCE

Hydrochloric acid HCl Hydrogen and Chlorine

Tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid H2SO4 Hydrogen, Sulphur and Oxygen

Trioxonitrate(v) acid HNO3 Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Oxygen

Acids in Solution

Acids are substances that form hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. A hydrogen
ion is actually a proton. Therefore, acids are called the proton donors.

Basicity of Acids

Basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen ions, H+ in one molecule

of an acid.

There are 3 common types of Basicity of an acid, these are:

• Monobasic (monoprotic)
• Dibasic (diprotic)
• Tribasic (triprotic)

Monobasic Acids

The monobasic acids are the acids that produced one H+ ion from each acid
molecule.

Examples:

HCl H+ + Cl−

HNO3 H+ + NO3–

CH3COOH CH3COO− + H+
Dibasic Acids

The dibasic acids are the acids that produced two H+ ion from each acid molecule.

Examples:

H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-

H2SO3 2H+ + SO32-

H2CO3 2H+ + CO32-

Tribasic Acids

The tribasic acids are the acids that produced three H+ ion from each acid molecule.

Example:

H3PO4 3H+ + PO43-

Note: Acid containing more than three replaceable hydrogen ions in one molecule
of the acid is called a polybasic acid

Strong Acids and Weak Acids

Acids can be classified into 2 categories:

• Strong acids
• Weak acids

The strength of an acid depends on the degree of ionization/dissociation of the acid.

Strong Acids: Strong acids are acids that ionise completely to form hydrogen ions
in water

Examples:

• Sulphuric acid
• Hydrochloric acid
• Nitric acid
Weak Acids: Weak acids are acids that partly ionise to form hydrogen ions in water

Examples:

• Ethanoic acid
• Phosphoric acid
• Citric acid

Concentrated and Diluted Acids

• Concentrated Acid: This is one in which a large amount of the acid is

dissolved in little amount of water
• Dilute Acid: This is one in which a little amount of the acid is dissolved in
large quantity of water

Physical Properties of Acids

Acids have the following physical properties:

1. They tastes sour

2. They turn moist blue litmus to red
3. Acids have pH value less than 7 (i.e. < 7)
4. Acids Can conduct electricity
5. Concentrated forms of acids are corrosive

pH value of acids

pH value is quantity to measure the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

The higher the concentration of hydrogen, the lower the pH value of the solution.
Pure water has pH value of 7. All acids has pH value lower than 7.

Chemical Properties of Acids

Acids have the following chemical properties:

Reaction Between Acids And Metals

Acids react with a metal that is more electropositive than hydrogen in the
electrochemical series to produce salt and hydrogen gas. Acids do not react with
copper and silver.
Examples:

Reaction Between Tetraoxo sulphate(vi) acid and Zinc

H2SO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + H2

Reaction between trioxonitrate (v) acid

2HNO3 + Pb Pb(NO3)2 + H2

2. reaction between acids and Metallic trioxo Carbonate(iv)

Acids react with metal carbonates produces salt, water and carbon dioxide

Examples:

Sulphuric acid and Lime Stone

H2SO4 + CaCO3 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O

3. Reaction between acid and base to form salt and water

Examples:

Hydrochloric acid and Magnesium Oxide

2HCl + MgO MgCl2 + H2O

4. Neutralization reaction

Acids react with alkali produces salt and water only. This is called a neutralisation
reaction.

Examples:

Ethanoic Acid and Sodium Hydroxide

CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O

Hydrochloric Acid and sodium hydroxide

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

Preparation of Acids

There are four methods which can be used to prepare acids. These are:

By dissolving acid anhydrides in water. Acid anhydrides are oxides of non-metals

which will react with water to form the corresponding acids

Examples:

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

By displacing a weaker more volatile acid form its sodium or potassium salt using a
stronger but less volatile acid

Examples:

NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)

KNO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) NaHSO4(aq) + HNO3(g)

By precipitating insoluble sulphide of metal from a solution of the metallic salt using
hydrogen sulphide gas

Examples:

(CH3COO)2Pb(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)

Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2S(g) CuS(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

By direct combination between the elements

H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

H2(g) + Br2(g) 2HBr(g)

Uses of Acids

Lemon and orange juice contains citric acid. Citric acid is used in the preparation of
effervescent salts and as a food preservative.

• Nitric acid and sulphuric acid are used in the manufacture of fertilizers, dyes,
paints, drugs and explosives.
• Sulphuric acid is used in batteries, which are used in cars, etc. Tannic acid is
used in the manufacture of ink and leather.
• Hydrochloric acid is used to make aqua regia, which is used to dissolve noble
metals such as gold and platinum. It is also used to remove rust and used by
industries to make chemicals.
• Sulphuric acid is used in manufacturing fertilizers such as super phosphate,
ammonium sulpahte etc.
• Boric acid is used as a germicide or mild antiseptic
• Fatty acids is used in the manufacture of soaps via saponification
• Tartaric acid is used in making baking soda, soft drinks and health salt

Bases and Alkalis

Bases are usually metallic oxides or metallic hydroxides. Bases that are soluble in
water are called alkalis.

In aqueous solution, alkali produces hydroxide ions (OH–). In short, alkalis are
substances that form hydroxide ions (OH–(aq)) in water

Strength of Alkalis

Similar to strength of acids, the strength of an alkali is defined by its ability to

ionise and release hydroxide ions (OH–) in the solution.

In a solution of strong alkali, all the alkali molecules are ionised completely in the
water to produce hydroxide ions
In a solution of weak alkali, only small portion of the molecules are ionised to
release hydroxide ions.

Table below shows some example of strong/weak alkalis.

Alkali

Strong Weak

NaOH
NH3OH, Mg(OH)2 ,
KOH
Ca(OH)2 etc
LiOH

Physical Properties of Alkali

The following are the physical properties of alkali

1. Alkalis are bitter in taste.

2. Alkalis turn litmus from red to blue.

Like acid, alkali can change the colour of litmus. In alkali solution, the
colour of litmus turn blue.

3. Alkalis are soapy to touch.

4. Alkalis has pH value more than 7

pH value is a measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a
solution. Alkali has very low concentration of solution hydrogen ion, even
lower than water. Hence the pH value of alkali is higher than 7. (Note: The
pH value of water is 7. The lower the concentration of hydrogen ions, the
higher the pH value.

5. Alkalis can conduct electricity when in solution

When a base dissolve in water, it will dissociate and form hydroxide ions.
The present of the freely move ions make alkali an electrolyte.

Chemical Properties of Bases/Alkalis

Reaction between Alkalis and Acids

Alkalis react with acids to form a salt and water (neutralisation reaction)

Example:

Potassium hydroxide and trioxonitrate (v) Acid

KOH + HNO3 KNO3 + H2O

Reaction between Alkali and Ammonium Salts

Alkalis, when warmed with ammonium salts, give off ammonia gas

Example:
Ammonium Chloride and Sodium Hydroxide

NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl + H2O + NH3

More examples:

2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3

Preparation of Bases and Alkalis

There are different ways of preparing bases and alkalis

• By burning metals in air or oxygen

2Mg (s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)

• Sodium hydroxide is prepared by

1. Heating slaked lime with dilute sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) solution

Ca(OH)2(s) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaOH(aq)

• Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is prepared by heating a mixture of

ammonium salt and slaked lime to produce ammonia gas which is then
dissolved in water

Ca(OH)2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(s) CaSO4(s) + 2H2O(g) + 2NH3(g)

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE BASES

Insoluble bases are prepared by method of precipitation/double decomposition.

This is done by addition of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide to soluble
salt solution

CuSO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)

Uses of Bases

• Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) is used in the manufacture of soap. It is

used in petroleum-refining; in making medicines, paper, pulp, etc. It is used
in making rayon.

• Calcium hydroxide is also known as slaked lime. It is used to neutralize acid

in water supplies; in the manufacture of bleaching powder; as a dressing
material for acid burns; as an antidote for food poisoning; in the preparation
of fungicides and in the mixture of whitewash. It is mixed with sand and
water to make mortar which is used in the construction of buildings. It is
also used by farmers on the fields to neutralize the harmful effects of acid
rain.

• Ammonium hydroxide is used to remove ink spots from clothes and to

remove grease from window-panes. It is used in the cosmetic industry.

• Alkalis are used in alkaline batteries. Generally, potassium hydroxide is used

in such batteries.

• Magnesium hydroxide is used in toothpaste to neutralise acid on teeth. It is

also used in antacids to relieve indigestion

Salts

A salt is an ionic compound formed when the hydrogen of an acid is partly or

completely replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion. All salts are chemically and
electrically neutral.

Classification of Salt
Salts are classified into four different types:

1. Neutral salts

2. Acidic salts

3. Basic salts

4. Double salts

5. Complex salts

Neutral salts: This is a salt formed when all the hydrogen ion in acid has been
completely replaced by meatallic or ammonium ion. A neutral salt which is formed
by complete neutralization of strong acid and base or weak acid and weak base is
called neutral salt and it neither produces H+ or OH– in solution

Examples:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Acidic salts: This is a salt formed when only part of the hydrogen ion in acid was
replaced by meatallic or ammonium ion. Salt formed by partial neutralization of
poly basic acid with a base. Acidic salt produces H+ in solution.

Example:

NaOH(aq) +H2SO3(aq) NaHSO3(aq) +H2O(aq) ( Acidic salt formed by

partial neutralization)

2NaOH(aq) +H2SO3(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + 2H2O(l) (Neutral salt formed by

complete neutralization)

Basic salt: This is a salt formed when only part of the hydroxyl ion in alkali was
neutralized by meatallic or ammonium ion. Salt which is formed by partial
neutralization of poly acidic base (Ca(OH)2,Fe(OH)3 etc.) with an acid. Such a salt
produces OH– ion in solution
Example:

• Ca(OH)Cl (formed by partial neutralization of Ca(OH) 2 with HCl)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) Ca(OH)Cl(aq) + H2O(l) (Basic salt)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) (Neutral salt)

Double salt: A double salt contains two different positive metallic ions and
common negative acid radical or a positive metallic ion and ammonium ion and a
common negative acid radical

Examples:

• FeSO4 (NH4)2SO4 .6H2O – Ammonium Iron (III) tetraoxosulphate (VI) or

Mohr salt

• K2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 .12H2O – Potassium Aluminium tetraoxosulphate (VI)

dodecahydrate (Potash alum)

Mixed salt: When an acid is simultaneously neutralized by two bases or when a

base is neutralized by two acids. They produce two cations or two anions and one
cation.

Example:Ca(OCl)Cl -bleaching powder

Complex salt: Salt which produces one simple ion and a complex ion in aqueous
solution. A complex salt does not answer the ions present in complex ion.

Example:K4(Fe(CN)6 – Potassium hexacyanoferrate (II)

Uses of Salts

Salts are used in the manufacture of many industrial, agricultural and consumer
substances like chlorine gas, fertilizers and laxatives. They are also used as food
preservatives, drying agents and anti-freeze.

Salt Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is the reaction of salt with water to form a solution which is either
acidic or basic.
LEAVE A PAGE

Solubility of Salts

Solubility is the ability of a compound to dissolve in a solvent.

Table below shows the solubility of the salts of nitrate, sulphate, chloride and
carbonate.

Salt Solubility

All soluble in water

Salt of nitrate All soluble in water

Mostly soluble in water except:

(Pb) Lead sulphate
Salt of sulphate
(Ba) Barium sulphate
(Ca) Calcium sulphate

Mostly soluble in water except:

(Pb) Lead chloride
Salt of chloride
(Ag) silver chloride
(Hg) mercury chloride

Mostly insoluble in water except:

Potassium carbonate
Salt of carbonate
Sodium carbonate
Ammonium carbonate

Notes: Lead halide such as lead(II) chloride (PbCl2), lead(II) bromide (PbBr2) and
lead (II) iodide (PbI2) are insoluble in cold water but soluble in hot water.

Preparation of Soluble Salts

Neutralization( Reaction Between Acid And Alkali)

KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + H2O

Reaction Between Acids And Metals More Electopositive Than Hydogen

Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2

Reaction Between Acids And Trioxo carbonates

ZnCO3 + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2O + CO2

Preparing Insoluble Salts

Insoluble salts can be made by ionic precipitation (is also called double
decomposition/double displacement) and by direct combination

Double Decomposition

Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaCl PbCl2 + 2NaNO3

CuSO4 + Na2CO3 CuCO3 + Na2SO4

By Direct Combination

Iron combines directly with sulphur to give iron (ii) sulphide

Fe + S FeS

Reaction of Substances When Expose to Air

When certain compounds are exposed to air, they either lose their water of
crystallization or they absorb moisture from their surroundings. The terms
efflorescence, deliquescent and hygroscopic are used to describe such compounds.

Efflorescence

Some crystalline salts will lose part or all of their water of crystallization when
they are exposed to the atmosphere to form a lower dehydrate or the anhydrous
salt. This phenomenon is known as efflorescence and the salt is said to be
efflorescent. Example is the washing soda molecule which loses nine out of its ten
molecules of water of crystallization when exposed to the atmosphere.

NaCO3.10H2O(s) Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O(g)

Another example is sodium tetraoxosulphate (VI) decahydrate known as Glauber’s
salt. It changes to the anhydrous salt on exposure to air for some days.

Na2SO4.10H2O Na2SO4(aq) + 10H2O

Deliquescence

Some compounds tend to absorb a large amount of water on exposure to the

atmosphere so that they eventually turn into solutions. This phenomenon is called
deliquescence and substances are said to be deliquescent

Examples of these substances are ; sodium hydroxide, iron(iii) chloride, potassium

hydroxide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, phosphorus (v) oxide, silica gel

A deliquescent substance such as calcium chloride or silica gel is used to maintain

a dry atmosphere in a laboratory dessicator.

Hygroscopy

Hygroscopic substances also absorb moisture on exposure to the atmospere. If they

are solids, they will not form solutions but merely besome sticky or moist. A
hygroscopic liquid like concentrated tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid will absorb water
from the air usually diluting iself 3 times its original volume. Examples of
hygroscopic substances are; sodium trioxonitrate (v), copper (ii) oxide, quick lime

Drying Agents

Drying agents or dessicants are substances that have strong affinity for moisture or
water. They may be either hygroscopic or deliquescent. A drying agent is
a chemical used to remove water from an organic compound that is in solution.
Commonly used drying agents are calcium chloride (CaCl 2), sodium sulfate
(Na2SO4) Calcium sulfate (CaSO4, also known as Drierite) and magnesium sulfate
(MgSO4), all in their anhydrous form

Alkalinity and Acidity

Alkalinity and Acidity are measured using a scale of numbers from 0 to 10 called
the pH scale. A solution with pH value of 7 is neutral. A solution with a pH value
less than 7 is acidic while a solution with pH value greater than 7 is alkaline.
Acidity increases with decreasing pH while alkalinity increases with increasing
pH.

Dissociation of water

Water is neutral and it ionizes very slightly to yield an equal number of hydrogen
ions and hydroxide ions.

[H+] = [OH–] = 1 x 10-7 mol dm-3 (at 25oC)

The product of the two ionic concentrations gives the ionic product of water. It is
represented by

Kw = [H+] = [OH–] = 1 x 10-7 (mol dm-3)2 (at 25oC)

= 10-14 mol2 dm-6 (at 25oC)s

Kw is constant under al circumstances at 25oC.

PH Scale

The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion

concentration to the base 10. It can also be defined as the measure of the alkalinity
or acidity of a solution.

Example

1.if the hydrogen ion concentration of a given aqueous medium is 10-5 mol dm-3 the
acidity of the solution could be written in terms of its pH as follows

[H+] = 10-5

Log [H+] = Log 10-5

= -5

pH = -Log [H+] = – (-5) = 5.

pOH = 14 – pH = 14 – 5 = 9

2.Find the hydrogen and hydroxide ion concentrations in

a) 1. 0.01 M tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid

b.) 2. 0.001 M potassium hydroxide solution.

a. H2SO4 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)

In a 0.01 M solution,

[H+] = 2 x 0.01 = 2 x 10-2 mol dm-3

2 x 10-2 x [OH–] = 10-14

[OH–] = 0.5 x 10-12 mol dm-3

= 5 x 10-13 mol dm-3

b. KOH (aq) K+ OH–

[OH–] = 10-3 mol dm-3

[H+] [OH–] = 1 x 10-14 mol dm-3

[H+] = 1 x 10-14
1 x 10-3

= 1 x 10-11 mol dm-3

3.Find the [OH–] of a solution given pH = 4.5.

pOH + pH =14
pOH + 4.5 = 14
pOH = 14 – 4.5
pOH = 9.5

[OH–] = 10-pOH
[OH–] = 10-9.5
[OH–] = 3.2 x 10-10 M

4.Find the hydroxide ion concentration of a solution with a pOH of 5.90.

pOH = -log[OH–]
5.90 = -log[OH–]
Because you’re working with log, you can rewrite the equation to solve for the
hydroxide ion concentration:

[OH–] = 10-5.90
To solve this, use a scientific calculator and enter 5.90 and use the +/- button to
make it negative and then press the 10x key. On some calculators, you can simply
take the inverse log of -5.90.

[OH–] = 1.25 x 10-6 M

Find the pOH of a chemical solution if the hydroxide ion concentration is 4.22
x 10-5 M.

pOH = -log[OH–]
pOH = -log[4.22 x 10-5]

To find this on a scientific calculator, enter 4.22 x 5 (make it negative using the +/-
key), press the 10x key, and press equal to get the number in scientific notation.
Now press log. Remember your answer is the negative value (-) of this number.
pOH = – (-4.37)
pOH = 4.37

Relationship Between pH and pOH

The pH and pOH of a water solution at 25oC are related by the equation below.

pH + pOH = 14

If either the pH or the pOH of a solution is known, the other can be quickly
calculated.

Importance of pH

1. In the body, the acidic medium is required for digestion of food in the small
intestine. For our bodies to function normally, the blood pH should be 7.4 .

2. Plants grow well in soils with pH of 7 or 8. Most soil pH vary from 4 – 9.

 3. pH values are important in medicine, water treatment, sewage treatment etc

LEAVE 3 PAGES FOR CALCULATIONS

Indicators

Indicators are weak organic acids or bases which will produce different colours in
solution according to the hydrogen ion concentration in that solution.

Acid – Base Indicators

They are dyes which change colour according to the pH of the medium. Litmus is a
common indicator which is red in acid and blue in alkali. It changes from purple to
blue over a pH range of 5.0 to 8.0. Each indicator has its own specific pH range
over which it changes colour.

Measuring pH of a Solution

The pH of a solution can be measured by Universal indicators and pH meters.

A universal indicator is made up of a mixture of various indicators which work at

different ranges. By a series of successive colour changes, it can indicate pH values
from about 3 to 11. These changes can be easily determined by comparing the
colour obtained with that of the standards given.

A pH meter is used to measure hydrogen ion concentration. The pH of a solution

can be measured accurately by using a pH meter. It can also measure the pH of
dilute solutions.