CELL

CARBON—A UNIQUE ELEMENT OF LIFE

• Carbon is the most predominant and versatile element of life.

• It is estimated that about 90% of compounds found in living system invariably contain
carbon.

CHEMICAL MOLECULES OF LIFE

• Escherichia coli
- 6,000 different organic compounds.
• Human
- about 100,000 different types of molecules.
- although only a few of them have been characterized.

COMPLEX BIOMOLECULES

The major complex biomolecules of cells

S.No. Biomolecule Building block Major functions
(repeating units)
1. Protein Amino acids Fundamental basis of
structure and functions of cell
(static and dynamic functions)
2. Deoxyribonucleic acid Deoxyribonucleotides Repository of hereditary
(DNA) information
3. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) Ribonucleotides Essentially required for
protein biosynthesis
4. Polysaccharide (glycogen) Monosaccharides Storage form of energy to
(glucose) meet short term demands
5. Lipids Fatty acids, glycerol Storage form of energy to
meet long term demands;
structural components of
membranes

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAN

• The chemical composition of a normal man, weighing 65 kg.

• Contains water more than 60% of the weight. i.e., 40 kg.
• Water > Proteins (muscles) > Lipids (adipose tissue) > Carbohydrates
(in the form of glycogen)
THE CELL

• The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.

• The basic unit of biological activity.
• The concept of cell originated from the contributions of Schleiden and Schwann
(1838).

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

1. Prokaryotes (Greek : pro – before; karyon – nucleus)
- lack a well defined nucleus.
- possess relatively simple structure.
- include the various bacteria.
2. Eukaryotes (Greek : eu – true; karyon – nucleus)
- possess a well defined nucleus.
- more complex in their structure and function.
- higher organisms are composed of eukaryotic cells.

Comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

S.No. Characteristics Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
1. Size Small (1-10 µm) Large (10-100 µm)
2. Cell membrane Cell is enveloped by rigid cell Cell is enveloped by a flexible
wall plasma membrane
3. Sub-cellular Absent Distinct organelles are found
organelles (eg. Mitochondria, nucleus,
lysosomes)
4. Nucleus Not well defined; DNA is Well defined nucleus –
found as nucleoid; histones membrane bound; DNA is
are absent associated with histones.
5. Energy Mitochondria absent, Enzymes of energy metabolism
metabolism membrane bound are located in mitochondria
metabolism (mesosome)
6. Cell division Mostly fission Mitosis
7. Cytoplasm Organelles and cytoskeleton Contains organelles and
are absent cytoskeleton (a network of
tubules and filaments)

SUBCELLULAR ORGANELLES
When the cell membrane is disrupted, the organized particles inside the cell are
externalized. These are called subcellular organelles.
Nucleus

• It is the most prominent organelle of the cell.

• All cells in the body contain nucleus, except mature RBCs in circulation.
• In some cells, nucleus occupies most of the available space, e.g. small lymphocytes
and spermatozoa.
• Nucleus is surrounded by two membranes:
- the inner one is called perinuclear membrane with numerous pores.
- the outer membrane is continuous with membrane of en doplasmic
reticulum.
• Nucleus contains DNA, the repository of genetic information.
• Eukaryotic DNA is associated with basic protein (histones) in the ratio of 1:1, to form
nucleosomes.
• Ground material of the nucleus – nucleoplasm - rich in DNA and RNA polymerases.
• Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS)
- a rare condition of aging beginning at birth (incidence 1 in 5 million births).
- occurs as a result of distortion of nuclear envelope due to accumulation of
abnormal protein namely lamina A
• Functions:
- DNA replication and transcription

Mitochondria

• The centres for the cellular respiration and energy metabolism.

• Regarded as the power houses of the cell.
• It has various size and shape.
• Composed of a double membrane system.
• The outer membrane is smooth and completely envelops the organelle.
• The inner membrane is folded to form cristae which occupy a larger surface area.
- contains components of electron transport chain and oxidative
phosphorylation (flavoprotein, cytochromes b, c1, c, a and a3 and coupling
factors).
• The internal chamber of mitochondria is referred to as matrix or mitosol.
- The fluid matrix contains the enzymes of citric acid cycle.
- The matrix enzymes also participate in the synthesis of heme and urea.
- The mitochondrial matrix contains a circular double stranded DNA (mtDNA),
RNA and ribosomes (independent protein synthesizing machinery).
- The division of mitochondria is under the command of mitochondrial DNA.
• The principal producers of ATP in the aerobic cells - provide energy for the cellular
work.
• The structure and functions of mitochondria closely resemble prokaryotic cells
(hypothesised – evolved from aerobic bacteria).
 • Antibiotics inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis do not affect cellular processes, but
do inhibit mitochondrial protein biosynthesis.
• Functions:
- Electron transport chain
- ATP generation
- TCA cycle
- beta oxidation of fatty acids
- ketone body production

Endoplasmic reticulum

• It is a network of interconnecting membranes enclosing channels or cisternae

• Continues from perinuclear envelope to outer plasma membrane.
• Railway track appearance.
• Actively synthesize proteins and packing.
• The proteins, glycoproteins and lipoproteins are synthesized in the ER.
• Categorized as Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulam (SER) and Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulam (RER).
• Functions:
- RER - Biosynthesis of proteins, glycoproteins, lipoproteins

- SER – synthesis of steroidal hormones, and site of drug metabolism

Golgi apparatus

• Considered as the converging area of ER.

• Functions:
- Golgi apparatus is protein sorting, packaging and secretion.
- Maturation of synthesized proteins.

Lysosomes:

• Spherical vesicles enveloped by a single membrane.

• The digestive tract of the cell, since they are actively involved in digestion of cellular
substances.
• Contains hydrolytic enzymes (granules contains more than 40 different hydroxylases
– collectively called lysozymes.
• They hydrolyse polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
 • Endocytic vesicles and phagosomes are fused with lysosome (primary) to form the
secondary lysosome or digestive vacuole. Foreign particles are progressively digested
inside these vacuoles.
• Functions:

- Degradation of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleotides

Plasma Membrane

• The plasma membrane separates the cell from the external environment.
• Compartmentalization of cells.
• Highly selective permeability properties.
• The membrane is very active metabolically.
• Membranes are mainly made up of lipids, proteins and small amount of
carbohydrates - present as glycoproteins and glycolipids.
• Phospholipids are the most common lipids present and they are amphipathic in
nature.
• Cell membranes also contain cholesterol.

Fluid Mosaic Model:

• Membranes are made up of lipid bilayer.

• The phospholipids are arranged in bilayers with
- the polar head groups oriented towards the extracellular side
- the cytoplasmic side with a hydrophobic core
Membrane Proteins:
o The peripheral proteins exist on the surfaces of the bilayer.
o They are attached by ionic and polar bonds to polar heads of the lipids.
o The integral membrane proteins are deeply embedded in the bilayer.
o Some of the integral membrane proteins span the whole bilayer and they
are called transmembrane proteins.
o They can serve as receptors (for hormones, growth factors,
neurotransmitters), tissue specific antigens, ion channels, membrane
based enzymes, etc.