MODULE-3

CORROSION SCIENCE & E-WASTE MANAGEMENT

Corrosion Chemistry Introduction, electrochemical theory of corrosion, types of corrosion differential metal
and differential aeration. Corrosion control- galvanization, anodization and sacrificial anode method.
Corrosion Penetration Rate (CPR) – Introduction and numerical problem.
E-waste Management: Introduction, sources, types, effects of e-waste on environment and human health,
methods of disposal, advantages of recycling. Extraction of copper and gold from e-waste.
Self-learning: Recycling of PCB and battery components

CORROSION CHEMISTRY
Introduction :
 Corrosion is defined as the destruction and consequent loss of metals through chemical or
electrochemical attack by the environment
 Corrosion, in general, is a process through which refined metals are converted into more stable
compounds such as metal oxides, metal sulfides, or metal hydroxides.
 Corrosion is usually an undesirable phenomenon since it negatively affects the desirable properties of
the metal. For example, iron is known to have good tensile strength and rigidity (especially alloyed
with a few other elements). However, when subjected to rusting, iron objects become brittle, flaky, and
structurally unsound.
 On the other hand, corrosion can be classified as an electrochemical process since it usually involves
redox reactions between the metal and certain atmospheric agents such as water, oxygen, sulphur
dioxide, etc.
Corrosion classified as
1. Dry corrosion (Chemical corrosion)
2. Wet Corrosion (Electrochemical corrosions)
1) Dry corrosion (Chemical corrosion)
Corrosion of metal occurs by direct attack of atmospheric gases such as oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, halogens
and Sulphur dioxide in the absence of moisture to form metal oxide layer.
Example : 2Ag + Cl2 - AgCl2
2) Wet corrosion (Electrochemical corrosion)
Wet corrosion occurs in presence of an aqueous solution of electrolyte and atmospheric oxygen by setting up
of tiny galvanic cells on the metal surfaces.
The mechanism of the wet corrosion is explained by the Electrochemical theory of corrosion

Electrochemical theory of corrosion / WET Corrosion

Corrosion is an example of Oxidation. When a metal like Iron is exposed to atmosphere, the following
electrochemical changes occur gradually.
a) Formation of Galvanic cells - Anodic and cathodic areas are formed resulting in a large number of
minute galvanic cells.
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b) Anodic Reaction: At the anodic area metal undergoes oxidation with the release of electrons
Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e-
The anodic part of the metal undergo oxidation and suffer from corrosion, cathodic part undergo reduction
and remain protected from corrosion.
c) Cathodic Reaction - The electrons flow from the anodic to cathodic area and cause reduction. There are
3 possible ways in which reduction can take place.
(i) In acidic medium and absence of oxygen: hydrogen ions are reduced to hydrogen gas.

(ii) In neutral and in the absence of oxygen: If the solution is neutral and in the absence of oxygen, water
is reduced to H2 and OH-

(iii)In neutral and aerated medium: when the solution is neutral and aerated, hydroxyl ions are formed
as follows.

(iv) Formation of corrosion product:

The hydroxyl ions migrate towards anode and react with metal ions (Mn+ ions) and forms corrosion
product. In the case of iron OH- reacts with Fe2+ ions and forms an insoluble hydrated ferric oxide
known as brown rust.

Types of corrosion
1) Differential metal corrosion
2) Differential aeration corrosion
3) Stress Corrosion (not in syllabus)
4) Grain Boundary corrosion (not in syllabus)
Discuss in detail about the differential metal corrosion and differential aeration corrosion with neat
diagrams.
1) Differential metal corrosion :
(i) Differential metal corrosion arise when two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other.
(ii) The metal higher in the electrochemical series is anodic to the one below it, i.e, the metal with lower
reduction potential undergoes oxidation, whereas the metal with higher reduction potential undergoes
reduction
(iii)The rate of differential metal corrosion depends primarily on the amount of current passing from the
anode to cathode, i.e, higher the difference in potential, higher will be the rate of corrosion.
The principle of Differential metal corrosion occurring in a simple cell can be extended to a bimetallic couple.
Let us consider a bimetallic sample of iron and copper as shown below

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The standard electrode potential of Fe (– 0.44 V) is less than that of Cu (0.34 V), hence in this case iron acts
as anode and undergoes corrosion whereas copper acts as cathode and remains un-attacked.
At anode : Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
At cathode : (either hydrogen evolution or oxygen absorption) 2 H + + 2e- → H2↑
O 2+ 2 H2O + 4 e- → 4 OH-
Products : Fe2+ + 2 OH-  Fe(OH)2
Common Examples
 Steel screws in copper sheet
 Lead-tin solder around copper wire
 Buried iron pipeline connected to Zinc bar.
 Steel pipe connected to copper plumbing

2) Differential aeration corrosion :

(i) It occurs when a metal surface is exposed to differential air (or) oxygen concentration.
(ii) Part of the metal exposed to lower concentration of oxygen will have lower potential and therefore acts
as anode. This part undergoes corrosion.
(iii)The other part of the metal exposed to higher concentration of oxygen acts as cathode and remains
unaffected.
(iv) The difference in oxygen concentration produces a
potential difference and causes corrosion current to flow
from cathode to anode.
Let us consider a strip of Zn immersed partially in a solution
of ZnCl2
Hence part of the metal below the water level acts as anode
undergoes corrosion and the part above the water level acts as
cathode and remain unaffected. The corrosion product is
formed between anodic and cathodic areas.
Differential aeration corrosion can be classified into two categories :
1) Water line corrosion
2) Pitting corrosion (not in syllabus)

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Water line corrosion
1) This takes place due to the formation of differential oxygen concentration cells.
2) The part of metal exposed to lower concentration of oxygen (dissolved oxygen) acts as anodic area.
3) The part of the metal above the water level is exposed to higher concentration of oxygen acts as
cathodic area and remains unaffected.
4) A distinct brown line is formed just below the water line due to the deposition of rust.
5) Water line corrosion is observed usually in steel water tanks and ships floating in sea water for a long
time

At anode : Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-

At cathode : ½ O2+ H2O + 2 e- → 2 OH-
Products : Fe2+ + 2 OH-  Fe(OH)2

Corrosion control
 Corrosion is a Natural process. Corrosion of metal results in huge economic loss.
 We cannot completely STOP the corrosion process of metals, but it is possible to minimize corrosion effect
by applying various methods.
Corrosion control methods are broadly classified into three types
1. Anodizing
2. Cathodic protection
3. Metal coating

1) Anodizing

 Anodizing is a process of oxidation of outer layer of metal to its oxide by electrolysis.

 Oxide layer formed over the metal itself acts as protective layer.
 Anodizing is generally produced on non-ferrous metals like Al, Zn, Mg and their alloys.
 Aluminum is ideal for anodizing

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Process of anodizing of Aluminum
Anode : Aluminum
Cathode : Cu / Steel/Lead
Electrolyte : 5-10 % chromic acid or 10 % H2SO4
Temperature : 30 – 40 oC
Voltage : 40 V

 Electrode reactions
At anode
(Oxidation): 2Al + 3 H2O → Al2O3 + 6 H++6 e-
At cathode
(Reduction): 6 H+ + 6 e- → 3 H2

Overall reaction: 2 Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2

1.Aluminum is made as anode and steel, copper or lead acts as cathode.

2.The electrolyte consists of 5-10 % chromic acid.
3.The temperature of the bath is maintained at 35oC
4.A current density of 100 A/m2 is applied which oxidizes the outer layer of Al to Al2O3
5.An oxide layers of Al2O3 with a thickness 2-8 µm is formed.
6.For higher thickness 10% H2SO4 is used as the electrolyte
Advantages
• Increases the corrosion resistance
• Increases in surface hardness and abrasion resistance
• Provides better adhesion for paint primers
• Electrical and thermal insulation
• Porous layer allows for the coloring and sealing of the coating
Application
 Anodized articles are used as soap boxes tiffin carriers, window frames, nameplates decorative object .
 Household appliances : Refrigerators, television, microwave, display cases.
 In automobile industries.

2) Cathodic protection
In cathodic protection electrons are provided from an external source so that the metal or alloy remains as
cathode.
The principle is to force a metal to be protected to behave as cathode
It is broadly divided into two:
a) Sacrificial anodic protection: SAP method
b) Impressed current cathodic protection: ICCP method (not in syllabus)

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Sacrificial Anode Protection

 In this method the metal to be protected from corrosion is converted into cathode by connecting into a
metal which is anodic to it.
 The base metal is usually iron, copper or brass.
 Metals like Mg, Al and Zn are more active and hence are used as anodes. Water pipe line
 These metals being more active acts as anode undergo corrosion and
supply electrons to the specimen.
 In this way the protected metals acts as cathode.
 Since anodic metals are scarified to protect the metal structure this
technique is called sacrificial anode method.

Benefits
• No power source is required
• Simple to install, operate and maintain
• Additions easily installed
Example: Mg block connected to buried oil storage tanks,
Zn wire fixed to the sides of ocean-going ships are the best examples of sacrificial anode methods.

3) Metal coating
Galvanization
The process of depositing a protective layer of zinc on steel or iron is called galvanization.
It is a method used to prevent corrosion.
 In this process the base metal is coated with Zinc.
 Zinc coatings are generally obtained by hot dipping of the base metal in a molten zinc bath and the
process is called galvanization
 Iron and steel articles are protected from corrosion usually by galvanization because of the low cost of
zinc easy application of the coating and efficient anodic protection afforded.
The primary method of galvanization is “hot dip galvanization”, which has been in use for over 150 years
Galvanization consists of hot dipping which involves the following steps.
1. The base metal surface is washed with organic solvents to remove organic impurities such as oil and
grease present on it.
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 2. Followed by water wash to remove excess organic solvents.
3. Then metal surface is washed with dilute sulphuric acid (pickling) to remove rust and other inorganic
deposits.
4. Followed by water wash to remove excess acids.
5. Then the base metal surface is subjected to steam zone process where we can dry the surface (Drying
process)
6. The metal is treated with mixture of aqueous solution ZnCl2 and NH4Cl which acts as flux and dried.
The flux treatment enhances the adsorption process of base metal.
7. The metal is then dipped in molten zinc maintained at 450 0 C.
8. Excess zinc is released by passing the metal through rollers (or) by wiping, which makes uniform
coating of zn on base metal.
9. Finally, the base metal subjected to furnace for annealing (calcination) process at higher temperature.
This process enhances the adsorption and coating efficacy.

Advantages
Since the coating is anodic in nature the exposure of base metal will not cause corrosion.

Disadvantages
Since Zn salts are poisonous food materials cannot be stored in container.

Uses/Applications
To make galvanized articles.
Galvanized Iron objects are used as roofing sheets, buckets, wires, pipes.
To manufacture automobile parts, bolts & nuts, nails etc.

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Corrosion Penetration Rate (CPR)
The rate of material removal as a consequence of the chemical action is an important corrosion parameter, this
may be expressed as the corrosion penetration rate CPR, or the thickness loss per unit of time.
Several pieces of data must be collected to calculate the corrosion penetration rate for any given metal:
 The weight lost (the decrease in weight of the metal during the period of reference).
 The density of the metal.
 The total surface area initially present.
 The time taken for the metal to corrode.

The CPR is calculated as follows:

𝒌× 𝑾
 CPR = where k = a constant
𝑫𝑨𝑻
W = total weight lost
T = time taken for the loss of metal
A = the surface area of the exposed metal
D = the metal density in g/cm³

 The corrosion penetration rate is best expressed in terms of thickness or weight loss where the surface
of the metal corrodes uniformly across an area.
 This method involves the exposure of a weighed piece of test metal or alloy to a specific environment
for a specific time. This is followed by a thorough cleaning to remove the corrosion products and then
determining the weight of the lost metal due to corrosion.
 Where W is weight loss after exposure time T, while D and A represent the density and exposed
specimen area respectively and k is constant, its magnitude depend on the system of units used. The
CPR is conveniently expressed in terms of either mils (1/1000 inch) per year (mpy) or millimetres
per year (mm/yr).
 k=534 to give CPR in mpy (mil per year) and W, D, A and T are specified in units milligrams, gram
per cubic centimetre ,square inches and hours respectively, in second case k=87.6 for CPR in mm/yr
and unit for the other parameters are the same for first case except that A is given in square centimetres.
For most application a corrosion penetration rate less than 20 mpy (0.5 mm/yr) is acceptable.

Numerical problem:
Q1) A piece of corroded metal alloy plate was found in a submersed ocean vessel ,it was estimated that the
original area of plate was 800 cm2 and that approximately 7.6 Kg had corroded a way during the submersion
, assuming a corrosion penetration rate of 4 mm/yr for this alloy in seawater , estimate the time of submersion
in years , the density of alloy is 4.5 g/cm3.
They have given; CPR: 4 mm/yr, K: 87.6, W: 7.6 Kg, D: 4.5 g.cm3, A: 800 cm2
We need to calculate Time ?

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Q2: A steel of area 100 inch2 is exposed to air near the seashore. After 1 year it was found that the steel sheet
has lost 485 g due to corrosion. What is the value of CPR in mils/year and in mm/year ? Can such steel sheet
be applicable for the construction purpose where the steel sheet is exposed?
Given : Area (A) =100 inch , total weight lost (W) = 485g = 485 x10 3 mg,
T = 1 year =1 x 365 x 24 hrs, D = 7.9 g/cm3 and k=534.
CPR=(K x W)/(D x A x T)
CPR=(534 x 485 x 10^3)/(7.9 x 100 x 365 x 24)
CPR = 37.42 mils/year
To calculate the result in mmpy
Area =100 inch2 = 100 x 2.54 × 2.54 cm2 (1 inch = 2.54 cm) and k =87.6
87.6 x 485 x 10
CPR =
7.9 x 100 x 2.54 x 2.54 x 365 x 24
CPR = 0.9516 mmpy
Since CPR is not less than 20 m/year or 0.5 mm/year, it is not applicable for the construction purpose.
Q3: A piece of corroded steel plate was found in a submerged ocean. It was estimated that the original area of
the plate was 12 inch2 and the approximately 2.5 kg had corroded during the submersion. Assuming a
corrosion penetration rate of 100 mpy for this alloy in seawater. Estimate the time of submersion in year. The
density of steel is 7.9 g/cm3
Answer: 16.1 year
Q4: A piece of corroded steel plate was found in a submerged ocean vessel. It was estimated that the original
area of the plate was 11 inch2 and that approximately 2.3 kg had corroded away during the submersion.
Assuming a corrosion penetration rate of 200 mpy for this alloy in seawater, estimate the time of submersion
in years. The density of steel is 7.9 g/cm3
Answer: 8.03 year

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 E-Waste Management
Definition:
Electronic Waste or E-Waste describes rejected electrical or electronic devices. All items of electrical and
electronic equipment and its parts that have been discarded by the user as waste without the purpose of re-use
or re-cycle is called Electronic Waste. Stored used electronics are also considered E-Waste. Improper
processing of E-waste can lead to dangerous human health effects and environmental pollution.

Introduction:
Any item which is considered as Electronic Waste has a Lifetime Profile which differs for different categories
of Electrical and Electronic devices. Lifetime Profile includes the information about hazardous quantity
present in discarded items, economic value and the effects on environment and health of people if they are not
recycled appropriately.

Electronic Waste is dismantled and sorted manually in developing countries unlike developed nations which
make use of sophisticated machinery and provides PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) for the people who
risk their lives in extraction of different materials from Electronic Waste.’

Ill effects: E-waste can be toxic, is not biodegradable and accumulates in the environment, in the soil, air,
water and living things. For example, open-air burning and acid baths being used to recover valuable materials
from electronic components release toxic materials leaching into the environment.

Global losses: The world produces as much as 50 million tonnes of electronic and electrical waste (e-waste)
a year, weighing more than all of the commercial airliners ever made. Only 20% of this is formally recycled.
The e-waste produced annually is worth over $62.5 billion, more than the GDP of most countries.

Environmental importance: E-waste poses a huge risk to humans, animals, and the environment. The
presence of heavy metals and highly toxic substances such as mercury, lead, beryllium, and cadmium pose a
significant threat to the environment even in minute quantities. Consumers are the key to better management
of e-waste.

Sources of E-Waste

Any appliance that runs on electricity has the potential to cause damage to the environment if it is not disposed
properly. Common things of electrical and electronic waste are:
❖ Large household appliances like refrigerators/freezers, washing machines, dishwashers, televisions.
❖ Small household appliances which include toasters, coffee makers, irons, hairdryers.
❖ Information Technology (IT) and Telecommunications equipment namely personal computers, telephones,
mobile phones, laptops, printers, scanners, photocopiers etc.
❖ Lighting equipment such as fluorescent lamps.
❖ Electronic or Electrical tools i.e. handheld drills, saws, screwdrivers etc.
❖ Toys, leisure and sports equipment.
❖ Monitoring and control instruments.
❖ Automatic dispensers.

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Types of e-Waste

It is broadly classified;
1. Information and Communication Equipment: ICT
The ICT sector is one of the fastest-growing segments of the global economy. It is also the largest
contributor to the global e-waste crisis. ICT equipment refers to common personal use electrical and
electronic items, such as: Personal computers, Laptops, Monitors, Keyboards, Printers.
2. Large Household Appliances: this category covers large appliances that we use at homes. These
include: Refrigerators, Freezers, Dishwashers, Heating and cooling units, Microwaves
3. Small Household Appliances: Small HA Most towns in America offer convenient recycling options
that take care of small household appliances. Ex: Electric shavers, Hair dryers, Watches, Vacuum
cleaners
4. Electric and Electronic Tools: E&E Tools .Tools that you need to process materials such as wood,
metal, and others cover this category. They can be large or small and like other forms of e-waste are
injurious to the environment. Electric drills, Lawn mowers, Welding machines, Flash lights
5. Lighting Equipment’s: Lighting Lighting equipment is such a prevalent part of modern life that we
don’t even notice them anymore. Every time you enter a room and hit the light switch, you do it without
thinking. LED lamps, Fluorescent lamps, High intensity discharge lamps, Sodium vapor lamps
6. Medical Devices: Medical There is a wide range of equipment — big and small — that cover this
section. Electric or electronic medical devices or those that contain such components become a
substantial part of our annual e-waste data. Here’s how healthcare’s e-waste looks like: Radiotherapy
equipment, Freezers, Dialysis equipment, Ventilators, Scanners

Composition of E-Waste

Composition of E-Waste includes materials like:

➢ Valuable metals like gold, platinum, silver and palladium.
➢ Useful metals like copper, aluminium, iron etc.
➢ Hazardous substances like radioactive isotopes and mercury.
➢ Toxic substances like PCB’s and Dioxins.
➢ Plastic like High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polycarbonate (PC),
Polyphenylene oxide (PPO) etc.
➢ Glass material like Cathode Ray Tube glass made up of SiO2, CaO, Na.
➢ For instance, a mobile phone contains more than 40 elements, base metals such as Copper (Cu) and Tin
(Sn), special metals such as Lithium (Li), Cobalt (Co), Indium (In) and Antimony (Sb) and precious metals
such as Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), and Palladium (Pd).

Effects of e-waste on environment:

The effects of improper disposal of E-waste on the environment pose very real threats and dangers to the
global environment at large. Improper disposal of these wastes affects the soil, air and water components of
the environment.

Effects of E-Waste on Air: Most common result of E-waste on air is through air pollution. Burning of e waste
can release hydrocarbons within the atmosphere that pollutes the air.

E-Waste Negatively Impacts Soil: E-waste can have a negative effect on the soil. As e-waste breaks down,
it releases toxic heavy metals. Such heavy metals include lead, arsenic, and cadmium. When these toxins

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penetrate the soil, they influence the plants and trees. Thus, these toxins can enter the human food supply,
which can lead to birth defects as well as a number of other health complications.

Effects of E-Waste on Water: Heavy metals like mercury, lithium, lead present in electronics (found in
mobile phone and computer batteries), etc., when not disposed properly, these heavy metals penetrate from
soil to groundwater which then run to the surface as streams or small ponds of water.

Effects of e-waste on human health:

Effects on Humans
 Electronic waste contains toxic components that are dangerous to human health, such as mercury, lead,
cadmium, polybrominated flame retardants, barium, and lithium.
 The negative health effects of these toxins on humans include brain, heart, liver, kidney, and skeletal
system damage. It can also considerably affect the nervous and reproductive systems of the human body,
leading to disease and birth defects.
 Improper disposal of e-waste is unbelievably dangerous to the global environment, which is why it is so
important to spread awareness on this growing problem and the threatening aftermath.

To avoid these toxic effects of e-waste, it is crucial to properly re-cycle, so that items can be recycled,
refurbished, resold, or reused.
Methods of disposal:
Various methods of treatment and disposal system includes:
▪ Land Filling– Disposal of Electronic Waste is mainly through land filling. Mostly, the discarded electronic
goods finally end-up in landfill sites along with other municipal waste or are openly burnt releasing toxic
and carcinogenic substances into the atmosphere.
▪ Incineration– In this complete combustion process, the waste material is burned in specially designed
incinerators at a high temperature (900-1000o C). It reduces waste volume and some environmentally
hazardous organic substances are converted into less hazardous compounds.
▪ Recycling of E-Waste – Recycling involves dismantling, processing and end processing. Comparatively,
the value of recycling from the element could be much higher in comparison to other treatments.
▪ Re-use– It includes direct second-hand use or use after slight modifications to the original functioning
equipment like Inkjet cartridge is used after refilling. Old working computers can be donated to schools or
organization working in the field of education. Computers beyond repairs can be returned back to the
manufacturers. This can considerably reduce the volume of E-Waste generation converted into less hazardous
compounds.
Advantages of Recycling E-Waste
Benefits of recycling e-waste include the following:
Reduces Landfill Sites : The more we recycle, the less waste we generate, which applies to all kinds of
waste. Reduced landfill sites allow for more land to be utilised for more meaningful purposes such as
agriculture and housing development.
Preserves Natural Resources : As highlighted earlier, recycling e-waste enables valuable materials to be
recovered and reused to manufacture new products, which saves energy, reduces our carbon footprint, and
preserves Earth’s finite natural resources.

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Prevents Toxic Chemicals from Polluting the Ecosystem : Electronic components contain a number of toxic
chemical substances such as nickel, cadmium, lithium, mercury, and lead, which pose health and
environmental hazards. Buried in landfills, these toxic chemicals leach into our soil, waterways, and
ecosystem, contaminating agriculture, livestock, and sea life, ultimately ending up in our food and causing
long-term damage to our health and the environment.
Promotes Mindful Consumerism : Making e-waste recycling a regular practice is a useful reminder of the
impact our consumer decisions and behaviour have on our environment. Rather than contributing to the
wasteful and irresponsible throw-away culture, it’s time for us to embrace mindful consumerism by thinking
before buying and repairing/recycling before discarding.
Extraction of copper and gold from e-waste:
E- waste processing is as shown below

E-waste treatment for recovery of precious metals.

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Gold extraction from PCB
1. Pyrometallurgy
Pyrometallurgy is a traditional method to recover precious and non-ferrous metals from e-waste. It includes
different treatments on high temperatures: incineration, melting etc. Pyrometallurgical processes could not
be considered as best available recycling techniques anymore because some of the PCB componenets,
especially plastics and flame retardants, produce toxic and carcinogenic compounds.
2. Dunn’s process
In this process the gold scrap is reacted with chlorine at a temperature with the range of about 300–700 ◦C to
form a mixture containing metallic gold, silver chloride, and other metal chlorides. The mixture is washed
with air-sparged hydrochloric acid to dissolve the impurity metal chlorides other than silver chloride
forming a metallic gold/silver chloride mixture. Then ammonium hydroxide and nitric acid are used
respectively for washing the metallic gold/silver chloride mixture to dissolve the silver chloride and the
traces of metallic silver from the metallic gold. Gold with 99.9% purity is recovered from PCB (gold
scraps). Dunn‟s processing is developed for refining high grade gold materials that contain more than 80%
of gold.
Copper extraction from PCB
Owing to the fact that e-waste contains precious metals like silver and gold. The present study deals with the
extraction of copper from printed circuit boards (PCB) of different obsolete electronic devices by means of
leaching using different types of acid and their combinations.
Hydrometallurgy (chemical leaching) is a promising treatment due to its low capital cost, high selectivity
and lower environmental impact.
Printed circuit boards were collected ,dismantled and cut into small pieces. Then the cut pieces of 1cm was
leached by using the aqueous solutions of HNO3, H2S04+H2O2, HCl, and HCl+HNO3. The different
parameters such as effect of reaction time, and the effect of different type of leaching chemical were observed
in order to extract best concentration of copper from printed circuit boards of mobile phone, CPU, and charging
light. From PCB of mobile phone using aqua regia as a leaching acid while lowest copper extraction was
achieved from PCB of charging light using hydrochloric acid as a leaching acid. These results show that the
hydrometallurgical extraction of copper present in PCB’s scrap is a technically feasible alternative that shall
be considered and evaluated.

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