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Introduction To Semiconductor

This document discusses the basics of semiconductors, including the structure of atoms, how current flows in semiconductors, and different types of semiconducting materials. It explains that semiconductors have conductivity between conductors and insulators and describes how doping with n-type and p-type impurities can increase the number of charge carriers to enhance conductivity. The document provides background needed to understand electronic devices that use semiconductors like diodes and transistors.

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Denver Exconde
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27 views31 pages

Introduction To Semiconductor

This document discusses the basics of semiconductors, including the structure of atoms, how current flows in semiconductors, and different types of semiconducting materials. It explains that semiconductors have conductivity between conductors and insulators and describes how doping with n-type and p-type impurities can increase the number of charge carriers to enhance conductivity. The document provides background needed to understand electronic devices that use semiconductors like diodes and transistors.

Uploaded by

Denver Exconde
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1

Basic Electronics
Course Code: ECE 422
Introduction to Semiconductors
2

Objectives

After this lesson, the students should be able to:


• Discuss the basic structure of atoms
• Differentiate conductors, semiconductors and insulators
• Explain covalent bonding
• Discuss how current flows in a semiconductor
• Describe the properties of n-type and p-type semi conductors
3

The atom

• All matter is made up of atoms


• It is the smallest particle of an
element that retains the
characteristics of that element
• A Bohr model of an atom is
shown in the figure, showing
electrons in orbit around in a
nucleus which is consists of
protons and neutrons
4

The atom

• Each type of atom has a certain


number of electrons and protons that
distinguishes it from the atom of all
other elements.
• All elements in periodic table of
elements are arranged according to
their atomic number
• Atomic number equals the number of
protons and also to electrons.
5

The atom

• In an atom, the orbits are group into


energy levels known as shells. (1,2,3,
and 4; 1 being closest to nucleus)
• Maximum number of electrons that
exist in each shell can be calculated
using the formula,
Ne = 2n2
6

The atom

• Electrons that are in orbits farther


from the nucleus have higher energy
and at less tightly bound to the atom
than those closer to nucleus.
• The outermost shell is known as the
valence shell and the electrons in this
shell are called valence electrons.
7

The atom

• When an atoms absorbs energy, the valence electron can easily jump to
higher energy shells.
• If a valence electron acquires sufficient amount of energy, called
ionization energy, it escapes the outer shell and atom’s influence.
Ionization – process of losing a valence electron
Free electrons – escaped valence electron
8

The atom

Review question:
1. Describe an atom.
2. What is an electron?
3. What is a valence electron?
4. What is a free electron?
5. How are ions formed?
9

Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators

When we talk about electrical conductivity, materials are classified as


insulator, conductor, or a semiconductor.
Insulators – material that does not conduct electrical current under normal
condition. Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms.
Conductors – materials that easily conduct electrical current
Semiconductors – materials that is between conductors and insulators in its
ability to conduct electrical current
10

Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators

Energy gap or band gap


• This is the amount of energy that a
valence electron must have in order
to jump from the valence band to
the conduction band.
11

Semiconductors

Semiconductors
• elements having a conductivity between a good conductor and insulator.

2 Classes of Semiconductor
1. Single Crystal
2. Compound
12

Semiconductors

Single crystal – have repetitive crystal structure


Example: Ge and Si

Compound – constructed of two or more semiconductor materials of different atomic


structures.
Example: GaAs, CdS, GaN, GaAsP

• Ge, Si and GaAs – most frequently used in the construction of electronic devices
13

Semiconductors

• In 1939, diodes was discovered followed by the discovery of transistor in 1947.


• Both electronic device was made in Germanium.

Germanium was used almost exclusively because:


• Relatively easy to find
• Available in large quantities
• Relatively easy to refine to obtain very high levels of purity which is an
important aspect in the fabrication process
14

Semiconductors

• But diodes and transistors constructed using Ge suffered from low levels of
reliability due to its sensitivity to change in temperature

• At this point, scientist knows that Silicon can also be used in making
electronic devices, but that time, refining of Silicon is still on process.
15

Semiconductors

• 1954 – first silicon transistor was introduced

Silicon:
• have improved temperature sensitivity
• One of the most abundant materials on earth
• Has the benefit of years of development
• Is the leading semiconductor materials for electronic components and ICs
16

Semiconductors

• Both Silicon and Germanium has 4


valence electron.
• But the valence electron of
Germanium is in the 4th shell while
Silicon is in the 3rd shell, closer to
nucleus.
17

Semiconductors

Review Questions:
1. How do semiconductors differ from conductors and insulators?
2. What is the most widely used semiconductor materials?
18

Semiconductors

Covalent Bonding – Bonding


of atoms strengthened by the
sharing of electrons.
19

Semiconductors

• Although the covalent bond will result in a stronger bond between the
valence electrons and their parent atom, it is still possible for the valence
electrons to absorb sufficient kinetic energy from external natural causes
to break the covalent bond and assume the “free” state.
• The term free is applied to any electron that has separated from the fixed
lattice structure and is very sensitive to any applied electric fields such as
established by voltage sources or any difference in potential.
20

Current in a semiconductor

Figure shows energy band diagram of


an atom in a pure silicon crystal at its
lowest energy state.
21

Current in a semiconductor
22

Current in a semiconductor

• For every electron raised to


conduction band by external
energy, there is one hole left in the
valence band, creating what we
called electron-hole pair.
• When electrons in conduction band
loses energy, it goes back to the
hole which we called
recombination.
23

Electron and Hole Current

• This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a semiconductive


material and is called electron current.
24

Electron and Hole Current

Although current in the valence band


is produced by valence electrons, it is
called hole current to distinguish it
from electron current in the
conduction band.
25

Electron and Hole Current

• It is interesting to contrast the two types of charge movement in a


semiconductor with the charge movement in a metallic conductor, such
as copper.
• Copper atoms form a different type of crystal in which the atoms are not
covalently bonded to each other but consist of a “sea” of positive ion
cores, which are atoms stripped of their valence electrons.
• The valence electrons are attracted to the positive ions, keeping the
positive ions together and forming the metallic bond.
26

N-type and P-type Materials

• Since semiconductors are generally poor conductors, their conductivity


can be drastically increased by the controlled addition of impurities to the
intrinsic (pure) semiconductive material.
• This process, called doping, increases the number of current carriers
(electrons or holes). The two categories of impurities are n-type and p-
type.
27

N-type and P-type Materials

• Since semiconductors are generally poor conductors, their conductivity


can be drastically increased by the controlled addition of impurities to the
intrinsic (pure) semiconductive material.
• This process, called doping, increases the number of current carriers
(electrons or holes). The two categories of impurities are n-type and p-
type.
28

N-type and P-type Materials

N-type material
• To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in
intrinsic silicon, pentavalent im-purity atoms are added.
• These are atoms with five valence electrons such as
arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and antimony
(Sb).
• Pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often
called a donor atom.
• Majority carriers are electrons, minority carrier are holes.
29

N-type and P-type Materials

P-type material
• To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon,
trivalent impurity atoms are added.
• These are atoms with three valence electrons such
as boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga).
• Trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often
referred to as an acceptor atom.
• Majority carriers are holes, minority carrier are
electrons.
30

N-type and P-type Materials

Review Questions:
1. Define doping.
2. What is the difference between a pentavalent atom and a trivalent
atom? What are the other names for them?
31

End of Discussion

Next Meeting will be a discussion about Diode.

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