Lecture1: Introduction to Measurements

Dr. Riaz Muhammad

 Course Content:
 See uploaded course Syllabus uploaded to Team

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  CILOs

CILOS SO SO2 SO SO SO5 SO6 SO

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1. Differentiate the meaning of terminology and physical
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principles associated with the subject.
1. Illustrate sources of errors for accurate measurements
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1. Distinguish basic concepts of sensors and apply to various
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physical variables such as pressure, temperature, flow,
acoustic noise, force, displacement, velocity, and
acceleration.
1. Draw conclusions for data analysis concerning measured
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quantities and measurement techniques.

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  Assessments

1. Course assessment:
Details/ Explanation
Assessment Type of Assessment in Number Weight Date(s)
relation to CILOs
Quizzes 2 10%
Examinations – Test
02 25%
1 and 2
Laboratory/Practical 02 5%
Assignments 02 10%
Projects/Case Studies 1 10%
Final Examination 1 40%
Total 100%

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 Lecture 1 Content:

1. Introduction to Measurements and their types

2. Accuracy and Precision
3. Significant Figures
4. Units Systems of measurement
5. Errors and uncertainty
6. Instruments Category
7. Functional elements of Instruments
8. Examples for Functional elements
9. Types of instruments
10. Examples for the type of the Instruments
11. Calibration of Instruments

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How We Measure?

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 What is Measurement?
✓is a process of determining the magnitude of a
quantity to a unit of measurement.
For example:
The length of a wire using a ruler (in cm or mm),
or Meat or sugar using scale in Kg.

✓The word measurement came out the Greek

word “metron,” which means limit quantity.

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1. it allows us to master the environment;
2. It allows us to control production;
3. It Allows us to master our economy
4. It allow us to master and control energy
(electrical, thermal, and mechanical);
5. It allows us to manage information
6. It allows us to understand the events/issues that we
observe in our day to day life.
 Direct comparison
✓ Easy to do but inaccurate
e.g. to measure the length of a particle using a ruler

 Indirect comparison
✓ Very high accuracy-close to the true value
✓ Consists of several devices to convert, process
(amplification or filtering) and display the output:
for example measure a length of a particle using
◦ SEM” Scanning electron microscope”

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✓ In general, we are used to count rather than
measure.
✓ As Engineer, you will be concerned with
distances, elevations, volumes, directions,
and weights.
Fundamental principle of measuring:
✓ No measurement is exact but true value is
generally an approximate.

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Accuracy ‫صحة‬
ًّ and Precision ‫ ِدقّه‬:

1. Accuracy
degree of perfection obtained in a Measurement.

2. Precision
The closeness of one measurement to another.

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 ًّ and Precision ‫ ِدقّه‬:
Accuracy ‫صحة‬

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For example,
if a robot is to place samples within a target, RED area, at
the center of the following centric circles
✓ then there are 3 different cases:

✓ A) Samples place randomly and away from the target area.

This Type of sampling

❑ low accuracy and low precision

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✓ b) Samples placed close to each other but not
necessarily accurate. This sampling is

✓ Inaccurate but precise

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✓ C) Sampling that placed within the target area
is

✓ Accurate and precise

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What we learned: from accuracy and precision
Better precision does not mean accuracy but
good accuracy means good precision
✓ In measuring a value, precision is defined as:

✓ For example, if a distance of 400 meter is measured and

the error is estimated a 5 meter, what is the precision?

✓ then the precision =5/400=1/80 =1/80x100%=1.25%

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 The length of a rectangular box is 1.2 meters, but it
was measured with tape, and the length was
measured as 1.22 meters. Find the Precision of
measurement.

 A measuring tape can measure with a Precision of

99.8%. What is the possible range of length which can
be obtained by using this measuring tape, to measure
a cloth of length 2 meters?

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Significant Figures
(What is your Height ? In feet/inches)

✓ The number of significant figures is the number of

digits you are certain about, in your measurement,
plus one that is estimated.

✓ For example: wire measurement

✓ Significant figures are important when reporting

your data because they give person an idea of how
well you could measure and report your data.
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Rules of Significant Figures:
1)All non-zero digits,1,2,3,4,etc,) are significant.
For example, 73 has two significant figures (7 and 3), while
13.25 has four significant figures (1, 3, 2 and 5).
2)Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero numbers
are significant.
 For example: 201.06 has five significant figures: 2, 0, 1, 0
and 6.
3) Leading zeros are NOT significant. They're nothing more
than "place holders." The number 0.54 has only TWO
significant figures. 0.0032 also has TWO significant figures
are not significant.
For example, 0.0074 has two significant figures: 7 and 4.
4) All zeroes placed at the end of a decimal number
are significant. Example 0.450 has 3 significant digits
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Rules of Significant Figures
1) When two numbers are multiplied or divided, the answer
should have significant figures equal to number with the least
number of significant digits. The rest of the digits will be
ignored.
For example: multiplication: 3.21X6.2051 =19.9
Division: 3.21/6.2051 = 0.517

2) When adding/subtracting, the answer should have the same

number of decimal places as the limiting term. The limiting
term is the number with the least decimal places.

For example: addition:3.01+5.312+7.0571=15.37

Subtraction: 7.0571-5.312=1.745
Convergence: When converting a number, the answer should
have the same number of significant figures as the number
started with: 52.4 in to feet = 52.4*1/12 = 4.366666667 ft = 20
Unit Systems
✓ Two types of unit systems are used in science and
engineering measurements:
1) International System Unit (SI) or Metric System
That consist of 7 base units
Shown in diagram from top
K= Kelvin for Temperature
S = second for Time
m= meter for length
Kg= kilogram for mass
Cd=Candela for intensity
Mol= mole for amount of substance
A= ampere for Current

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2) English unit system
✓ Foot-pound-second (F.P.S.) used for:
➢Length ( foot)
➢Mass ( pound)
➢Time ( second)
Relation/conversion between Metric and English unit
system.
1 Foot= 12 inches= 30 cm
I Pound = 453. 5 g = 0.4535kg
1Celcius = 273 Kelvin;
25 C- room Temp=298 Kelvin

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Error and it’s Source
Error in a scientific measurement does not mean a intentional
mistake but it is rather refers to unavoidable uncertainty in
measurements.

Why Engineers should pay attention to errors.?

The reason is simple: error in a given measurement can lead
serious consequences in science and in real life.

For example:
If you want decorate one of your room with arabian Majilis, then
you give the tailor a wrong measurement you will end up with
bigger/small dimension to your room then you will end up
paying for it and lose money.

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✓ 1) Personal Errors –
✓ No one has perfect sense of tunning, vision, touch, or adjustment
For Example: If you were asked to measure the length of a pendulum from
the pin to the end of the mass, as shown below.

If you zoom in, then one can not tell if the length is 128.89cm or 128.88cm.
Then with confidence we can say the length is L= 128.90.±0.1cm.
The number 128.9 is called Central value and ±0.1 is called Error or
uncertainty

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✓ 2) Instrument Errors
✓ devices were not manufactured perfectly to be compatible
with other components; in addition, there is wear and tear.

For Example: digital weight scale;

the advantage is scale give you the
Central value immediately.

Disadvantage: the scale has limit of its

Precision and the error is specified by the
Manufacturer at the back of the system.
The error value should be written with central value to have
accurate result
Therefore; the weight W= 138.2±X lb

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3) Environmental Errors –:

✓ Temperature, electrical noise, pressure, humidity, vibration ,

fluctuation wind, and many other sources.

✓ These errors come from different sources, therefore, it is

impossible to measure and quantify them.

✓ In addition, since all sources contribute to random

errors, it is agreeable to handle them through
statistical analysis

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Types of Errors:

1) Absolute error-:denoted by the symbol“∆“ and has the same units as the
Measured value.

2) Relative Error of measured value: denoted by the symbol “ε“ and

is percentage of the measured value.

3) Relative Error of full scale: denoted by the symbol “ε“ and is

percentage of the full scale of the system.

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Type of error, Example:
if a voltmeter has full scale of 50 V and it takes a reading of 29.8 for a
true value of 30 V. Calculates the Absolute and relative errors.

1) Absolute error =∆ = true value-measured= 30V-29.8V= 0.2V

2) Relative error(MV)=(error/measured)x100%=(0.2V/29.8V)x100%=0.67%

3) Relative error(FS)=(error/full scale)x100%= (0.2V/50V)x100%= 0.4%

In general ε = (∆/measured value)x100% or

∆= (ε x measured value)/100

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Errors Rules: Addition and Subtraction Error:

Let us say we have A and B as measured value and A and B

are absolute errors. Then Rule of addition is:

(A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B) = (A + B) ± (∆A + ∆B)

For subtraction is
(A ± ∆A) - (B ± ∆B) = (A - B) ± (∆A + ∆B)

Measured errors are always added regardless

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 Error Multiplication and division:
Let us say we have A and B as measured value and εA and εB
and relative errors. Then Rule of
1)Multiplication is
(A ± εA) x (B ± εB) = (A x B) ± (εA + εB)
2) Division is:
(A ± εA) / (B ± εB) = (A / B) ± (εA + εB)

The Rule is then errors Add regardless.

3) Power Rule :for a error equation raised to a power, the rule is

simply to MULTIPLY by the power

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Number Multiplication:
✓For multiplying an error equation by number or constant there
are two different rules that applies depending on the type of
error:
1)For Absolute Error: c(A ± ∆A) = cA ± c(∆A)
Note that the Absolute error is multiplied by the constant.

2) For Relative Error: c(A ± εA) = cA ± εA

Note that the Relative Error is not multiplied

by the constant.

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Lecture Content:
1) Basic Terminology
2) Instruments Category
3) Functional elements of Instruments
4) Examples for Functional elements
5) Types of instruments
6) Examples for the type of the Instruments
7) Calibration of Instruments

Dr. Riaz Muhammad

Basic Terminology:
✓ Instrument: is a device that detects, measures, records a quantity.
In addition instrument could be a device that control another device
✓ Metrology: The field of Science that concern with measurement
✓ Transducer: A device that converts one form of energy to another.
Such as
✓ Sensor: A device, transducer, that converts physical quantity into
an electrical signal.
✓ Actuator: A device, transducer ,that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
✓ Transmitter:device that converts mechanical signals into electrical signals

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Category of Instruments
✓ Instruments can be classified or divided into 2 different groups

1) Monitoring of processes and operations.

✓ refers to measuring devices that keep track of some quantity, such as
thermometers, voltmeter, electric meter and water-meter,
speedometer, fuel gage, etc.

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Instruments types continue
2) Control of processes and operations.
✓ This usually refers to an automatic feedback control system to tune and
control the final product as show in the figure below:
✓ Ex: Central cooling system in the house

For example: We want to control the temperature in the house to be 20 C

using central cooling system
In any feedback system, the variable which we want to control should be compared,in a ontroller, with its
desired value, and then, based on the “difference” between the two, manipulate the final control element to
move the controlled variable closer to its desired value.

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Instrument’s disturbances:
In many cases, the instrument output will be influenced by input variables
other than the intended measured value. For example: trying to cool the
house and the outside doors left open that will influence the output temp.
these disturbances are divided to
a)Interfering input: causes the instrument to respond in the same way of the
intended measured value. The output will be a combination of the
measured value + interfering input: example of interfering input vibration
b) modifying inputs: causes changes in the system calibration ; therefore both
input and output will changes example of modifying input is Temp

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Functional Element of Instrument
✓ Most of all instrument consist of the followings functional elements
detailed in the diagram below:

Primary Variable n
Variable Data Data
input
Sensing conversion elemen
manipulating Transm present
element element t
element element element

1) Primary Sensing element:

✓ A device that receives a signal from the input and produces an output that
depends on the measured quantify.

2) Variable conversion element:

✓ A device that converts the output signal of the primary sensing element to another
more suitable signal while keeping the information of the original signal.
✓

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Functional elements continue

3) Variable manipulating element:

✓ A device that change the numerical value output if it low to produce a
signal but a does not change the physical nature of the signal/variable.

✓ 4) Data-transmission element
✓ A device that transmits the data from one to another when functionality
of devices is separated
5) Data-presentation element
✓ A device that displays the final information about the measured quantity
to the human being.

Primary Variable n
Variable Data Data
input
Sensing conversion elemen
manipulating Transm present
element element t
element element element
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1) Piston
2) Piston and Spring
3) Linkage
4) Piston pad
5) Pointer and scale

Primary Variable n
Variable Data Data
input
Sensing conversion elemen
manipulating Transm present
element element t
element element element

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 Manual Ammeter
1)Moving coil
2) Magnet and spring
3)Linkage
4) Magnet
Pointer and scale

Primary Variable n
Variable Data Data
input
Sensing conversion elemen
manipulating Transm present
element element t
element element element

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 Thermometer- Functional elements
Functioning elements of thermometer

1) Bulb
2) Tubing
3) Bourdon “C” tube
4) Linkage and gear
5) Scale and Pointer

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Instruments Classification:
1) Active/Passive type 2) Analog/Digital type
3) Null/deflection type 4)Absolute/Secondary type

1)Active/Passive Instruments-electronic component:

Active Instrument: is an instrument with active electronic components inside ,
such as diode and transistor, that requires external power source for its
operation . The component produces energy in the form of voltage or current;
therefore it is and energy donor.

Passive Instrument: is an instrument with passive electronic components inside ,

such as resistor, and capacitance, that Don’t requires external power source
for its operation . The component store energy in the form of voltage or
current; therefore it is and energy acceptor

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Passive and Active Instrument:
Comparison of active versus passive for design point of view

Active Instrument Passive Instrument

External Energy source is required No energy Source is required

The output depends on energy The output is produced by the

quantity to be measured

High resolution Lower resolution

Hard to design Easy to design

Cheaper and economical expensive

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Example of Active Instrument is Petrol level liquid Tank
How it works:

1) The potentiometer driven needle driven by external power input is used to

sense the float position.
2) The position of the float is proportional to the liquid in the tank
3) When the liquid level changes the float position changes as a result the
potentiometer needle position will change indicating the new reading

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 Example of passive Instrument is the
Pressure gauge measuring device

How it works
As the liquid pressure changes, the piston position
changes too; therefore. the pointer that is
connected to the piston is moved indicating
A new reading for the pressure

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 Example of Analogue instrument is
Voltmeter, ammeter, and thermocouple.
 The analog Instrument is the system that gives an output that varies
continuously as the quantity being measured.

How it works
As the operator insert the input and change the values, the pointer moves
contineously to report and output as shown in the plot below

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Example of digital instrument (DI) is Revolution counter or analog
to digital converter. DI is a system that has an output that varies in discrete
steps and only have a finite number of values.
HOW IT WORKS
The speed of the rotating shaft is
measured by using a digital detector
The disc which is fixed to a rotating shaft
has a number of transparent slots within its
design. As the disc rotates with the
speed of the shaft, each slot passes by
the detector producing an output
pulse representing a logic "1" or "0"
Level. These pulses are sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display
to show the speed or revolutions
of the shaft.

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Null/Deflection Instruments:
Null Instrument:

✓ The null method is one possible mode of

operation for a measuring instrument.
✓ In this method, the instrument exerts a force on
the measured system so as to oppose the effect
of the measurand.
✓ The force and the measurand are balanced until
they are equal but opposite in value, yielding a
null measurement.

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Null instrument continues
Advantages:
1) minimizes interaction between the measuring system and the measurand.
2) Inputs come from separate sources, the impact of any measuring influence
on the measurand is reduced.
3) Due to high impedance of the measured system, the loading error is
minimal for small measurand .
Disadvantages:
1) The instrument requires more time to execute than simply measuring
sensor input
2) The instrument does not offer fast measurement if required.
3) The Instrument does not achieve perfect parity due to the usable resolution

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 Deflection Instrument:
 A deflection instrument uses the deflection( move in different direction)
method for measurement
The spring scale shown is a good example of a
deflection instrument.
Measurand (applied weight) acts on a plate-spring.
the position of the spring is influenced by the applied
weight and responds with a translational
displacement,
a deflection x
The final value of this deflection is a balance
between the downward force of the weight ,W, and
the upward restoring force of the spring, kX
A mechanical coupler is connected directly or by
linkage to a pointer that serves as the readout scale.
at the end of the measurement and at
equilibriumW=kX then the weight is deduced
by=X=W/k
.

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 Deflection continue:
The logic diagram is linear and simple
✓ The input signal is sensed by the prime element and thereby deflected from its
initial setting.
✓ The deflection signal is transmitted to signal conditioner unit that act to condition
the signal into a desired form. For example amplifying or filtering it.
✓ The conditioned signal is then transferred to the output scale, which provides the
indicated value corresponding to the measured value.

Advantages: it can be designed for either static or dynamic measurements or both

Disadvantages: It derives it energy from the measurand that will lead to loading error

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 Instrument Calibration
✓ is a comparison process, with universal known standard,to see the accuracy
of instruments.
✓ To check the accuracy of the system, one has to have magnitude with know
correctness known as Standard. The standard is measured against the unit
under test.
✓ If the result is within a certain tolerance, not to exceed ±0.1% of the
measured value, then the system is performing to the standard; IF NOT then
system need to be check with an specialist to fix.
Why Calibration is important:
✓ Because you will be able to know

if you measurement is wrong or right

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Data/measurement Spreading:

✓ If we collected a data though a measurement and we want to

summarize the data in a shorter form to understand the process and
possibly predict a model then statistical analysis is needed for the
analyses.
✓ Terms that you will encounter often are:

✓ Population: a set of measured values or elements.

✓ Mean: the average number of the population.
✓ Median: the middle number of the population

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Example:

if the room’s temperature was taken 8 time/hour for 5 hours;

then what is the population :n

Population =8x5= 40 values of temp. measurement.

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