586 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

Therefore, equ.(20.79) describes the superposition of a wave of intensity |A|2 moving along
the positive x-direction (from –f to zero) and a wave of intensity |B|2 moving along the
negative x-direction. Therefore, when the particles are incident on the step from left on the
potential energy step, |A|2 gives the intensity of the incident wave and |B|2 gives that of the
2
B
refelcted wave. The ratio 2
JLYHVXVWKHUHÀHFWHGIUDFWLRQRIWKHLQFLGHQWZDYHLQWHQVLW\
A

(b) Potential energy step, E < Vo:

Whenever E becomes less than V, a different solution results.
\(x) = Aekx + Be − kx (20.80 a)
If E were less than Vo, then the solution for \o(for x < 0) would still be given by equn.
(20.75 a), but the solution for \ (for x > 0) becomes
\1(x) = Cek1x + De − k1x (20.80 b)

8π 2 m
where k1 = (Vo − E ) .
h2
We set, C = 0 to keep \1(x IURPEHFRPLQJLQ¿QLWHDVx o f, and apply the boundary
conditions on \1(x) at x = 0. The resulting solution is shown in Fig. 20.18 (b).
This illustrates an important difference
between classical and quantum mechanics.
Classically, the particle can never be found in the
region x!VLQFHLWVWRWDOHQHUJ\LVQRWVXI¿FLHQW
to overcome the potential energy step. However,
quantum mechanics allows the wave function,
and therefore the particle, to penetrate into the
classically forbidden region. The particle can
never be observed in the forbidden region, but a
particle can pass through a classically forbidden Fig. 20.18
region and emerge into an allowed region where it can be observed.
Penetration into the forbidden region is associated with the wave nature of the particle.
7KH SHQHWUDWLRQ GLVWDQFH LV FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK WKH XQFHUWDLQW\ LQ GH¿QLQJ WKH ORFDWLRQ RI WKH
particle.
20.21 RECTANGULAR POTENTIAL BARRIER
According to classical ideas, a particle striking
a hard wall has no chance of leaking through
it. But the behaviour of a quantum particle is
different owing to the wave nature associated
with it. We know that when an electromagnetic
wave strikes at the interface of two media, it is
SDUWO\UHÀHFWHGDQGSDUWO\WUDQVPLWWHGWKURXJK Fig. 20.19
the interface and enters the second medium. In
DVLPLODUZD\WKHGH%URJOLHZDYHDOVRKDVDSRVVLELOLW\RIJHWWLQJSDUWO\UHÀHFWHGIURPWKH
boundary of the potential well and partly penetrating through the barrier. The penetration of a
barrier by a quantum particle is called tunneling.
Quantum Mechanics 587

Fig. 20.19 represents a potential barrier of height Vo and thickness L. The region around
the barrier can be divided into three regions as shown in Fig. 20.20. The potential energy is
zero in regions I and III, i.e., for x < 0 and x > L and has a constant value Vo in the region II,
i.e., for 0 < x < L. Let us consider a particle of total energy E approaching the barrier from the
left. In regions I and III the total energy of the particle is kinetic energy. In region II, the total
energy is partly kinetic and partly potential energy. From the view-point of classical physics,
WKHHOHFWURQZRXOGEHUHÀHFWHGIURPWKHEDUULHUEHFDXVHLWVHQHUJ\E is less than V. For the
particle to overcome the potential barrier, it must have energy equal to or greater than V.
Quantum mechanics leads to an entirely new result.
If E < VDFFRUGLQJWRTXDQWXPPHFKDQLFV  WKHUHLVD¿QLWHFKDQFHIRUWKHHOHFWURQ
to leak to the other side of the barrier. We say that the electron tunneled through the potential
barrier and hence in quantum mechanics, the phenomenon is called tunneling.
We write down the Schrödinger wave equation for the electron wave in the three regions
and solve them. The Schrödinger wave equation for a particle constrained to move along
x-axis is given by
d 2 ψ 8π 2 m
+ 2 ( E − V )ψ = 0 (20.81)
dx 2 h
In the region I, V = 0 and the equation (20.81) takes the form
d 2 ψ1 8π 2 mE
+ ψ1 = 0
dx 2 h2
d 2 ψ1
or + ko2 ψ1 = 0 (20.82)
dx 2
? In the region II, E < Vo, V = Vo and the equation (20.81) takes the form
d 2 ψ 2 8π 2 m
+ 2 ( E − Vo )ψ 2 = 0
dx 2 h
d 2ψ2 8π 2 m
or − (Vo − E )ψ 2 = 0 (20.83)
dx 2 h2
d 2ψ 2
or 2
− k 2ψ 2 = 0 (20.84)
dx

8π 2 m
where k= (Vo − E ) .
h2
In the region III, V = 0. Therefore,
d 2ψ 3
+ ko2 ψ 3 = 0
dx 2
The solutions of equations (20.82), (20.83), and (20.84) are
\1 = Aeiko x + Be −iko x (20.85 a)
\2 = Ce kx
+ De −k x
(20.85 b)
\3 = Le iko x
+ Me − iko x
(20.85 c)
In the region III, no particle comes from right and hence M = 0.
588 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

? \3 = Leiko x (20.85 d)
In eq. (20.85 a), Aeikoxrepresents the de Broglie wave traveling along the x-direction
in the region I, with amplitude A and Beikox UHSUHVHQWVWKHZDYHUHÀHFWHGDORQJWKHQHJDWLYH
x-direction with amplitude B. Since the probability that the particle is present in a region of
the space is proportional to the square of the de Broglie wave amplitude, the ratio
2
B
R= 2
(20.86)
A
is the FRHI¿FLHQWRIUHÀHFWLRQ of the particle from the barrier.
The wave function <2 is not zero inside the barrier (the region forbidden by classical
mechanics), but decreases exponentially. De–kx represents the exponentially decreasing wave
LQWKHEDUULHU7KHVTXDUHRIWKHDPSOLWXGHRIWKLVZDYHGH¿QHVWKHSUREDELOLW\RISHQHWUDWLRQ
of the particle into the region II. The ratio is the FRHI¿FLHQWRISHQHWUDWLRQ of the interface.
CekxLVWKHUHÀHFWHGZDYHZLWKLQWKHEDUULHU6LQFHVXFKDZDYHLVQRQH[LVWHQWC should be
equal to zero.
2
D
T= 2
(20.87)
A
In eq.(20.85 d) Leikox represents the transmitted wave moving along the x-direction in the
region III.
The form of the wave function in the

Fig. 20.20. The wave function <1

region (I), (II) and (III) is also shown in the

corresponds to the free electron with

momentum p = 2mE . Since <3 is not
equal to zero at x = L WKHUH LV D ¿QLWH
SUREDELOLW\ RI ¿QGLQJ WKH HOHFWURQ LQ WKH
region III. That means the particle that is
Fig. 20.20
probability of being found to the right of the barrier. The wave function <3 represents the
initially to the left of the barrier has some

wave transmitted through the barrier and the free particle on the right side of the barrier. The
particle has the same momentum as the incident particle but has smaller amplitude. Thus, it is
possible for a particle to penetrate through the potential barrier even if its kinetic energy is

This probability is proportional to the square of the modulus of the wave function <2.
less than the height of the potential barrier.

P v |\2|2 = C exp  −
 2x 
2m (Vo − E ) 
2
(20.88)
 = 
This probability is indicative of the fact that the particle is able to penetrate the potential
EDUULHURI¿QLWHZLGWK/6XFKDSHQHWUDWLRQLVFDOOHGWKHtunnel effect. The probability that
the particle gets through the barrier is called the WUDQVPLVVLRQFRHI¿FLHQW,WLVGH¿QHGDV
Probability density of the transmitted wave
T=
Probability density of the incident wave
 ,WLVVKRZQWKDWWKHWUDQVPLVVLRQFRHI¿FLHQWLVJLYHQDSSUR[LPDWHO\E\
16 E  E   −2 L 8 π 2m(V − E ) / h
T = Ge −2 kL =  1 −   e (20.89)
 V  V 
Quantum Mechanics 589

where G is a constant close to unity. Equ.(20.89) shows that the probability of particle
penetration through a potential barrier depends on the height, V and width, L of the barrier.
The probability decreases rapidly with increasing barrier width, L.
 7XQQHOLQJLVVLJQL¿FDQWLQPDQ\DUHDVRISK\VLFV
20.21.1 Application of Tunnelling
1. The tunnel diode is a semiconductor diode. The current in this device is largely due to
tunneling of electrons through a potential barrier. The rate of tunneling or current can
be controlled over a wide range by varying the height of the barrier, which is done by

2. D-decay: The quantum possibility of

varying the applied voltage. Potential
energy

of the explanation of the D-decay of

penetrating potential barriers is the basis

radioactive nuclei. In D-decay, an unstable

nucleus and an D-particle. For example, a

nucleus disintegrates into a lighter

uranium nucleus 2388XQGHUJRHVD-decay x

and forms thorium nucleus 234Th.

D-decay of unstable nuclei on the basis

In 1928 George Gamow explained

of quantum tunneling. The forces in the

of the order of 30 MeV against D-particle

nucleus set up a potential barrier of height

emission. Classically, the D-particle

exceeds 30 MeV. The D-particles have Fig. 20.21: Alpha particle having less energy
would be trapped unless its energy
than the height of the potential barrier

Therefore, it is impossible for a D-particle

energies in the range of 4 to 9 MeV only. tunnels through the barrier

to jump the barrier. According to quantum mechanics, the D-particle tunnels through the
potential barrier (Fig. 20.21). The experimental studies of Geiger-Nuttal on D- decay
FRQ¿UPHGWKHSUHGLFWLRQVRI*DPRZ¶VWKHRU\
3. Scanning tunnelling electron microscope (STM): The instrument was invented in
the early 1979 by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, who were awarded the 1986
Nobel prize in physics for their work. The scanning tunnelling electron microscope
uses electron tunneling to produce images of surfaces down to the scale of individual
DWRPV,IWZRFRQGXFWLQJVDPSOHVDUHEURXJKWLQFORVHSUR[LPLW\ZLWKDVPDOOEXW¿QLWH
GLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHPHOHFWURQVIURPRQHVDPSOHÀRZLQWRWKHRWKHULIWKHGLVWDQFHLV
of the order of the spread of the electronic wave into space. One says that the electrons
“tunnel” through the barrier into the adjacent sample. For electrons, the barrier width
which may be overcome via a tunneling process is of the order of nm, i.e. of the order
of several atomic spacings. The probability of an electron to get through the tunneling
barrier decreases exponentially with the barrier width, i.e. the so called tunneling
current is extremely sensitive measure of the distance between two conducting samples.
The STM makes use of this sensitivity.
Working: The schematic diagram of a scanning tunneling electron microscope is shown
LQ)LJ D ,QWKHVFDQQLQJWXQQHOLQJPLFURVFRSHWKHVDPSOHLVVFDQQHGE\DYHU\¿QH
metallic tip. The tip is mechanically connected to the scanner, an XYZ positioning device. The
590 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

Control voltages for piezotube

Piezoelectric tube
with electrodes
Tunneling Distance control
current amplifier and scanning unit

Tip

Sample

Tunneling
voltage
Data processing
and display

(a)
z piezo
o
ez
pi
y

x piezo

(b) (c)

Fig. 20.22: (a) The schematic diagram of STM (b) The tunneling tip is scanned over the specimen,
producing an image of the tunneling current (c) An image of a silicon crystal surface produced by
a STM.

sharp metal needle is brought close to the surface to be imaged. The distance is of the order of
a few angstroms. A bias voltage is applied between the sample and the tip. When the needle
is at a positive potential with respect to the surface, electrons can tunnel through the across
the gap and set up a small “tunneling current” in the needle. This feeble tunneling current
LV DPSOL¿HG DQG PHDVXUHG :LWK WKH KHOS RI WKH WXQQHOLQJ FXUUHQW WKH IHHGEDFN HOHFWURQLFV
keeps the distance between tip and sample constant. The sensitivity of the STM is so large
that electronic corrugation of surface atoms and the electron distribution around them can be
detected. Fig. 20.22 (b) shows the tip of the sharp needle and Fig. 20.22 (c) shows the image
of silicon crystal surface.
Example 20.8. A stream of electrons, each of energy E = 3eV, is incident on a potential barrier
RIKHLJKW9 H97KHZLGWKRIWKHEDUULHULVc&DOFXODWHWKHSHUFHQWDJHWUDQVPLVVLRQRI
the beam through this barrier.
Solution. The probability of transmission through a potential barrier is given by
Quantum Mechanics 591

16 E  E   −2 L 8 π 2m(V − E ) / h
T = Ge –2kl =  1 −   e
 V  V 
2L 2 × 20 × 10 −10 m
8π 2 m (V − E ) = 8 × (3.143) × 9.11 × 10 −31 kg ( 4 − 3) × 1.602 × 10 −19 J
2
−34
h 6.63 × 10 Js
= 20.49

?
16 E  E   −20.49
T=  1 −   e
 V  V 
16 × 3eV  3eV  −20.49
= 1 −  e
4eV  4eV 
= 3 × e–20.49 = 3.8×10–9
Therefore, the percentage of transmission = 3.8×10–7%.
¥ µ
20.22 INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL
A potential well is a potential energy function V(x) V
V=0
that has a minimum (see Fig. 20.23). A potential well
is the opposite of a potential barrier; it is a potential- y¹0
energy function with a minimum. If a particle is left
in the well and the total energy of the particle is less
y=0 y=0
than the height of the potential well, we say that the
particle is trapped in the well. In classical mechanics a
particle trapped in a potential well can vibrate back and
forth with periodic motion but cannot leave the well.
In quantum mechanics, such a trapped state is called a
bound state. 0 x L
 /HWXVFRQVLGHUDSDUWLFOHFRQ¿QHGWRWKHUHJLRQ Fig.20.23
< x < L. It can move freely within the region 0 < x < L
but subject to strong forces at x = 0 and x = L. Therefore, it can never cross to the right to the
region x > L or to the left of 0. It means that V = 0 in the region 0 < x < LDQGULVHVWRLQ¿QLW\
(V ’ DWx = 0 and x = L. This situation is called a one-dimensional potential box.
For a particle trapped in a one-dimensional potential box, V = 0 and the Schrodinger
equation (20.61a) takes the following form
d 2 ψ 8π 2 mE
+ ψ =0 (20.90)
dx 2 h2
8π 2 mE
Putting = k2, we rewrite the above equation as
h2
d 2ψ
2
+ k 2ψ = 0 (20.91)
dx
Because the particle can move back and forth freely between x = 0 and x = L, the solution
of the equation (20.91) is of the form
\ x) = Aeikx + Be −ikx (20.92)
592 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

which contains motion in both directions. We can evaluate the constants A and B with the
help of boundary conditions. The boundary conditions are as follows. The particle cannot
jump over the walls and therefore the function does not exist outside the box. The particle is
located within the box and therefore it exists within the box. It means that
   \(x) = 0 at x = 0
   \(x) = 0 at x = L
?   \x=o = A+B = 0
?   B = –A
 8VLQJWKLVUHVXOWLQWRHTX  ZHJHW
\(x) = A(eikx − e −ikx )
or \(x) = 2iA sin kx
Again \(x) = 0 at x = L
?   \x=L = 2iA sin kL = 0
The factor 2iA cannot be zero, because we would not then have the wave function. It
means that
sin kL = 0
or kL = nS (20.93)
As k = 2S/n, O = 2L/n
where n (=1,2,3, ....) is an integer.
The above conclusion implies that the wave equation has solutions only when the particle
wavelength is restricted to discrete values such that only a whole number of half-wavelengths
are formed over the length L of the box. It means that particle waves form standing wave
pattern within the potential box. We write (20.93) as
k = nS/ L
(i) The possible values of the momentum of the particle are then given by
nπ= nh
p = =k = = (20.94)
L 2L
(ii) The possible values of the energy are
p 2 n2h2
E= = (20.95)
2m 8mL2
 7KH DERYH HTXDWLRQ LQGLFDWHV WKDW D SDUWLFOH FRQ¿QHG LQ D FHUWDLQ UHJLRQ FDQ KDYH RQO\
certain values of energy. Other energy values are not allowed. In other words, energy
quantization is a consequence of restricting a microparticle to a certain region.
The allowed wave functions which are the solutions of the Schrodinger equation are

\n = 2iA sin kx = C sin kx

given by

As k = nS / L, we write the above as

\n = C sin 
 nπx 
 L 
(20.96)

Applying normalization condition, we can determine the value of the constant C in the
above equation. The normalisation condition is that
Quantum Mechanics 593

∫ ψ n ψ n dx
*
=1
0

?
L
nπ x
∫ sin
2 2
C dx = 1
0
L
2 L
C  2nπ x 
2 ∫ 1 − cos L 
dx = 1
0
L
 2n π x 
C  sin
L 
2
 x − 2nπ  = 1
2  
 L 0

?  
L
C2 =1 Fig. 20.24
2
2
i.e., C2 =
L
or C= 2 L (20.97)
 8VLQJWKHYDOXHRI C into eq.(20.96), we obtain the wave function as

\n =
2  nπx 
sin 
 L 
(20.98)
L
Energy Levels:
The allowed energy states are given by
h2 2
En = n
8mL2
where n is the quantum number given by n = 1,2,3, ....
The energy states are obtained by inserting the value of n in the above equation. Thus
h2
First energy level E1 =
8mL2
h2
Second energy level E2 =
2mL2
9h 2
Third energy level E3 = and so on.
8mL2
The energy levels are shown in Fig. 20.24.
It is important to note that the particle cannot have zero energy. The lowest energy
allowed for the particle is E1 = h2/8 mL2. It cannot possess energy less than this in the one–
dimensional potential box.
The energy value E1 is called zero–point energy. The zero point energy is a consequence

zero, and the uncertainty principle requires that the wavelength OEHLQ¿QLWH,QVXFKFDVHWKH
of the uncertainty principle. If the energy of the particle is zero, its momentum also would be

SDUWLFOHFDQQRWEHFRQ¿QHGWRWKHER[7KHUHIRUHWKHSDUWLFOHPXVWKDYHDFHUWDLQPLQLPXP
amount of kinetic energy.
594 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

Comparison with Classical Results:

1. Classically, a particle in a box could have any positive energy. Quantum theory shows
that the particle is restricted to take only certain discrete values.
2. In classical theory, a particle in a box can have energy of zero value. The quantum
theory shows that a particle in a box cannot have zero energy. The minimum energy
possessed by the particle is E1 = h2/8 mL2.
Probability of locating the particle over an interval x and x + dx
The probability P(x)dxRI¿QGLQJWKHSDUWLFOHRYHUDLQ¿QLWHVLPDOGLVWDQFHdx at position x in
the potential well is given by
2 2  nπx 
P(x)dx = ∫ ψ n dx = sin 2 
 L 
dx (20.99)
L
 7KHSUREDELOLW\RI¿QGLQJWKHPLFURSDUWLFOHEHWZHHQWKHSRVLWLRQVx1 and x2 is
x
2 2 2  nπx 
L x∫
sin 
 L 
P= dx
1

x2
1  2nπx 
= ∫
Lx
1 − cos
L 
 dx
1

x
1 x 1  2nπx  2
= [ x ]x2 − sin (20.100)
L 1 2π  L  x1

The probability density is given by

2 2  nπx 
sin 
 L 
P(x) = dx (20.101)
L

Fig. 20.25
nπx π 3π 5π L 3L 5 L
The probability density is a maximum when = , , ,..... or x = , , ,..
L 2 2 2 2n 2n 2n
The variation of the probability densities with x for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3 are shown in
Fig. 20.25.
Quantum Mechanics 595

It is easy to see that in the state \1 the probability is seen to be largest at x = L / 2 ,i.e.,
in the middle of the box (Fig. 20.25a) and it decreases towards the walls. It means that the

the state \2 the most probable positions are at x = L/4 and x = 3L/4. Therefore, the particle
particle will stay more in the centre of the box and avoids the region near walls. Similarly, in

will be found either in the right–half or in the left–half of the box but never in the middle. In
classical theory, all positions within the box are equally probable for the particle. Classically,
the particle passes back and forth between the walls and it has an equal probability of being
found any where between x = 0 and x = L. The classical probability function is a constant
with a value of 1/L. The quantum results show peaks of magnitude 2/L and valleys where
the probability is very small. The number of peaks is equal to the quantum number n. As n
increases, the number of peaks increase and when n is very large, the distribution approaches
the classical distribution.
Dependence of quantization on the width of the box:
Equn.(20.95) suggests that the quantization of energy is dependent on the width of the
potential box, L and on the quantum number n. Let us now study the effect of L on the
quantization of particle energy. If we designate two adjacent energy levels by En+1 and En, the
separation between these levels is given by
   ¨E = En+1 –En
h2 
= 2 
(n + 1) 2 − n 2 
8mL
h2
= (2n + 1) (20.102)
8mL2
As 2n > 1, 2n§n

?   ¨E 
h2
n (20.103)
4mL2
Case (i): Let us take the case of an electron moving in a box of side L = 1 cm = 10–2 m.

ǻE # n × 10–15 eV
From equ.(20.102) we get
  
The thermal energy possessed by the electron is
kT # 10–3eV at T =1°K
?   ǻE << kT
It means that the electron can move
form a lower energy level to an upper energy
due to its own thermal energy and without DE << KT
the need of any energy input from external
agency. As the levels are nearly continuous, En+1
DE >> KT
the electron behaves as a classical particle En
without revealing the quantum aspects. 0 L
0 L >> 1mm L L » 10Å
Case (ii) Let us next consider the case of
an electron moving in a box of side L = 10 Å. Fig. 20.26
Then
   ǻE # 0.75 (n) eV.
?   ǻE >> kT.
596 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

This energy difference between the adjacent energy levels is very large and the electron
cannot go to higher levels on its own, as the energy levels are separated by large energy
values. Therefore, it becomes necessary to supply energy from an external agency.
The above example amply demonstrates that the quantization of energy assumes a great
importance in the atomic world.

20.23 EXTENSION TO THREE-DIMENSIONAL CASE

The case can be generalized to the three-dimensional box with sides a, b and c. As the
coordinates are orthogonal, the general time-independent Schrodinger equation (equ.20.61)
can be separated into three equations and can be solved separately for the eigen values and
eigen functions. The complete eigen function is
   \(x, y, z) = ψ nx ( x ) ψ ny ( y ) ψ nz ( z )

8 n πx ny π y n πz
= sin x sin sin z (20.104)
abc a b c
The total energy of the particle is
En = Enx + Eny +Enz

h 2  nx2 n y nz2 
2
=  + +  (20.105)
8m  a 2 b 2 c 2 
where nx, ny, and nz are the three quantum numbers for this case.
In case of a cubical box, a = b = c and we get

\(nx, ny, nz ) =  
8
3/ 2
nx π x ny π y n πz
sin sin sin z (20.106)
a a b c
h2  2
and En = n + n 2y + nz2 
2  x
(20.107)
8m a
n2h2
or En = (20.108)
8ma 2

where n2 =  nx2 + n 2y + nz2 

The ground state is given by

3h 2
E1 =
8ma 2
DQGWKH¿UVWH[FLWHGVWDWHLVJLYHQE\
3h 2
E2 = = 2 E1 .
4 m a2

Degeneracy:
For different combinations of quantum numbers, we may obtain the same energy value but
the wave functions are different. Such quantum states having the same energy are called
degenerate. Thus, for example, the wave functions
Quantum Mechanics 597

\112 =
8 πx πy 2πz
3
sin sin sin
a a b c

\121 =
8 πx 2πy πz
3
sin sin sin
a a b c

\211 =
8 2πx πy πz
3
sin sin sin
a a b c
are different. But the corresponding energies are the same. The quantum numbers
FRUUHVSRQGLQJWRWKH¿UVWZDYHIXQFWLRQDUH
nx = 1, ny = 1, and nz = 2
and n2 =  nx2 + n 2y + nz2  = 6

?
6h 2
E112 =
8ma 2
6h 2
Similarly, for the other two wave functions, we get E121 = E211 =
8ma 2

?
6h 2
E112 = E121 = E211 =
8ma 2
 7KXV WKH ¿UVW H[FLWHG VWDWH LV GHJHQHUDWH VLQFH WKH VDPH n value is given by three sets
(1,1,2), (1,2,1), and (2,1,1). The number of different states with a certain value of the energy
is known as the degree of degeneracy7KXVZHVD\WKDWWKH¿UVWH[FLWHGVWDWHLVWKUHHIROG
degenerate.
Example 20.9. Find the probability that a particle trapped in a box L wide can be found
EHWZHHQ/DQG/IRU WKHJURXQGVWDWHDQG¿UVWH[FLWHGVWDWH
x
2 2 2  nπx 
L x∫
sin 
 L 
Solution. P= dx
1

x2
1  2nπx 
= ∫
Lx
1 − cos
L 
 dx
1

x
1 x2 1  2nπx  2
=
L
[ x ]x −
1 2nπ 
sin
L  x1

For the ground state, n = 1 and

x
1 x2 1  2πx  2
P= [ x ] − sin L 
L x1 2π   x1
0.55 L
1 0.55 L 1  2πx 
= [ x ]0.45 L − sin
L 2π  L  0.45 L

1 1   2πx2   2πx1  
or P=
L
[ x2 − x1 ] −  sin
2π  
− sin
L  

L  
598 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

1 1   2 × 180o × 0.55L   2 × 180o × 0.45L  

P=
L
[ 0.55L − 0.45L ] −  sin
2π   L
 − sin
L

   
1
0.1 − ( −0.309 − 0.309) = 0.198
2 × 3.143
For the 1st excited state, n = 2 and

1 1   4 × 180o × 0.55L   4 × 180o × 0.45L  

P=
L
[ 0.55L − 0.45L ] −  sin
4π   L
 − sin
L

   

1
= 0.1 − (0.5878 + 0.5878) = 0.0065.
4 × 3.143
Example 20.10. $QHOHFWURQLVFRQ¿QHGWRPRYHLQDRQHGLPHQVLRQDOSRWHQWLDOZHOORIOHQJWK
5Å. Find the quantized energy values for the three lowest energy states.
Solution. 7KHTXDQWL]HGHQHUJ\YDOXHVRIDQHOHFWURQFRQ¿QHGLQDSRWHQWLDOZHOODUHJLYHQ
by
h2 2
En = n
8mL2

( )
2
h2 2 h2 6.63 × 10−34 J .s
Energy of the ground state E1 = 1 = =
8mL2 8mL2
( )
2
8 × 9.11 × 10−31 kg × 5 × 10−10 m
= 2.41×10–19 J = 1.5 eV.
h 2 2 4h 2
Energy of the 1st excited state E2 = 2 = = 4×1.5 eV = 6 eV.
8mL2 8mL2
h 2 2 9h 2
Energy of the 2nd excited state E3= 3 = = 9×1.5 eV = 13.5 eV.
8mL2 8mL2
Example 20.11: Calculate the energy required for an electron to jump from ground state to
the second excited state in a potential well of width L.
h2 2
Solution: En = n
8mL2
h2 2 h2
Energy of the ground state E1= 1 =
8mL2 8mL2
h 2 2 9h 2
Energy of the 2nd excited state E3 = 3 =
8mL2 8mL2
9h 2 h2 h2
Energy required for the transition E = E3–E1 = − = .
8mL2 8mL2 mL2
Example 20.12. An electron is trapped in a one-dimensional box of length 0.1 nm. Calculate
the energy required to excite the electron from its ground state to the fourth excited state.
Quantum Mechanics 599

h2 2
Solution. En = n
8mL2

( )
2

?
12 × 6.63 × 10−34 J .s
E1 =
( )
2
8 × 9.11 × 10−31 kg × 0.1 × 10−9 m

= 60.3×10–19 J = 37.6 eV.

( )
2
42 × 6.63 × 10−34 J .s
and E4 = = 601.6 eV
( )
2
8 × 9.11 × 10−31 kg × 0.1 × 10−9 m

The energy required to excite the electron from its ground state to the fourth excited state
is
E4 – E1 = 601.6eV – 37.6eV = 564 eV.
Example 20.13. $QHOHFWURQLVFRQ¿QHGWRPRYHEHWZHHQWZRULJLGZDOOVVHSDUDWHGE\QP
)LQGWKHGH%URJOLHZDYHOHQJWKUHSUHVHQWLQJWKH¿UVWWZRDOORZHGHQHUJ\VWDWHVRIWKHHOHFWURQ
and the corresponding energies.
Solution. 7KHHLJHQYDOXHVRIHOHFWURQHQHUJ\FRQ¿QHGLQDSRWHQWLDOZHOODUHJLYHQE\
h2 2
En = n
8mL2
h2 2 h2
Energy of the 1st allowed state E1 = 1 =
8mL2 8mL2

( )
2

?
12 × 6.63 × 10−34 J .s
E1 = = 6.03×10–20J
( )
−31 −9 2
8 × 9.11 × 10 kg × 1 × 10 m

h2 2 h2
Energy of the 2nd allowed state E1 = 2 = 4 × = 4×6.03×10–20J = 2.4×10–19J
8mL2 8mL2

De Broglie wavelength of the electron at the 1st energy level, O1 =

h
2mE2
6.63 × 10−34 J .s
= = 2 nm.
2 × 9.11 × 10−31 kg × 6.03 × 10−20 J

De Broglie wavelength of the electron at the 2nd energy level, O  

h
2mE2

6.63 × 10−34 J .s
= = 1 nm.
2 × 9.11 × 10 −31 kg × 2.4 × 10−19 J

Example 20.14. )LQGWKHORZHVWHQHUJ\RIDQHOHFWURQFRQ¿QHGWRPRYHLQDRQHGLPHQVLRQDO

box of length 1Å. Express the result in electron volts.
600 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

Solution. The energy values of electron in a one-dimensional box are given by

n2h2
En =
8mL2
For the lowest energy level n = 1.

? E 
(6.626 × 10 −34 J .s ) 2
8 × 9.11 × 10 −31 kg × (10 −10 m) 2

    = 6×10–18J = (6×10–18)(6.242×1018eV) =37.4 eV.

Example 20.15: &RPSDUH WKH ORZHVW WKUHH HQHUJ\ VWDWHV IRU L  DQ HOHFWURQ FRQ¿QHG LQ WKH
LQ¿QLWH SRWHQWLDO ZHOO RI ZLGWK  c DQG LL  D JUDLQ RI GXVW (m =10–6 gm) moving with a
speed of 10 m/s in an angle potential well pf width 0.1 mm. What can you conclude from this
FRPSDULVRQ"
n2h2
Solution: En = ; n = 1,2,3, ....
8 m L2
(i) Electron
(1)2 (6.626 × 10−34 J .s.)
2

E1 =
( )( )
2
8 9.11 × 10 −31 kg 10 −9 m

E1 = 6.03×10–20 J = 0.37 eV
E2 = 4×6.03×10–20 J = 24×10–20 J = 1.48eV
E3 = 9×6.03×10–20 J = 54×10–20 J = 3.33eV

(1)2 (6.626 × 10−34 J .s.)

2

(ii) Grain of dust, E1 = = 5.49 × 10−51 J

( )( )
−9 −4 2
8 10 kg 10 m

E1 = 5.49×10–51 J
E2 = 4×5.49×10–51 J = 2×10–51 J
E3 = 9×5.49×10–51 J = 48.7×10–51 J
1 1
( )
2
K.E. = m υ2 = ×10 −9 kg × 106 m / s = 500 J
2 2
It may be inferred from the above calculations that
(i  (QHUJ\OHYHOVRIDQHOHFWURQLQDQLQ¿QLWHSRWHQWLDOZHOODUHTXDQWL]HGDQGWKHHQHUJ\
difference between the successive levels is quite large. The electron cannot jump from
one level to another level on the strength of the thermal energy. Hence quantization of
HQHUJ\SOD\VDVLJQL¿FDQWUROHLQFDVHRIDQHOHFWURQ
(ii) The energy levels of a grain of dust are so near to each other that they constitute a
continuum. These energy values are far smaller than the kinetic energy (=500J)
possessed by the grain of dust. It can move through all these energy levels without an
H[WHUQDOVXSSO\RIHQHUJ\7KXVTXDQWL]DWLRQRIHQHUJ\OHYHOVLVQRWDWDOOVLJQL¿FDQWLQ
case of macroscopic bodies.