UNIT I – SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND THEIR REPESENTATION

A system is arrangement of components or devices connected together to perform a

specific function. A control system is a type of system, which for a specific input gives
corresponding output.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF A SYSTEM

The system consists of various components such as
Input: flow of energy or material that causes process to react or respond. Manipulated
Input is a input which is subjected to control. Disturbance Input is an undesirable and
unavoidable input to the plant, also known as Disturbance or Noise.
Command Input: The external input which is independent of the feedback control.
Reference Input Element: This element estimates the relationship between the command
and reference input.
Error Detector: Also known as comparator, it compares the reference input with feedback
signal.
Controller: This element is responsible for suitable control action. Control Signal is the
output of the controller.
Error Signal: Output of error detector.
Final Control Element: Actuator element block.
Controlled System: Process, in which a particular condition is to be controlled.
Disturbance Input: Variable which designer has no control or little information is available
on magnitude or function or time.
Controlled Variable: It is influenced by both manipulated variable and disturbance.
Feedback : It is a function of controlled variable. It is Used to correct the nonlinear in the
controlled system.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM

1. Open loop and closed loop system
2. Linear and nonlinear system
3. Time Invariant and Time Variant system
4. Continuous and Discrete system
5. SISO and MIMO system.
6. Lumped parameter and Distributed parameter system
7. Deterministic and Stochastic control system
8. Static and Dynamic system
Open loop and closed loop system
Open Loop Control System: A control system in which the control action is totally
independent of output of the system. Any physical system which does not automatically
correct the variation in its output or control system in which the output quantity has no effect
upon the input quantity are called open-loop control system. This means that the output is not
feedback to the input for correction.

Fig: Open loop system.

In open loop system the output can be varied by varying the input. But due to
external disturbances the system output may change. When the output changes due to
disturbances, it is not followed by changes in input to correct the output. In open loop
systems the changes in output are corrected by changing the input manually.
Example:
1. Light Switch : Lamp glows whenever light switch is „ON‟ irrespective of light is
required or not.
2. Volume of Stereo System: Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of output volume
level.
 3. Man walking on road with closed eyes. It is very difficult to walk on the desired path.
Merits:
1. System are simple in construction and design.
2. Easy to maintain
3. Economical
4. Stable
Demerits:
1. Systems are inaccurate and not reliable
2. Recalibration of the controller is necessary time to time
3. Changes in output due to external disturbance are not corrected automatically.

Closed Loop Control System: Control systems in which the output has an effect upon the
input quantity in order to maintain the desired output value are called closed loop systems.

Fig: Closed loop control system.

The open loop system can be modified as closed loop system by providing a
feedback. The provision of feedback automatically corrects the changes in output due to
disturbances. Hence the closed loop system is also called automatic control system. The
general block diagram of an automatic control system is shown in fig.
It consists of an error detector, a controller, plant (open loop system) and feedback
path elements. The reference signal (or input signal) corresponds to desired output. The
feedback path elements samples the output and converts it to a signal of same type as that of
reference signal. The feedback signal is proportional to output signal and it is fed to the error
detector.
The error signal generated by the error detector is the difference between reference
signal and feedback signal. The controller modifies and amplifies the error signal to produce
better control action. The modified error signal is fed to the plant to correct its output.
Example:
1. Automatic electric Iron: Heating element are controlled by output temperature of the
iron.
2. Air Conditioner: It‟s function depends on the temperature of the room.
3. Water Level Controller: Input water is controlled by water level of the reservoir.
4. Man walking with eyes open in a road, eye performs as error detector, compares
actual path of the movement with prescribed path and generates error signal. This
error signal transmits the corresponding control signal to the legs to connect the actual
movement to desired path.
Merits:
1. The closed loop systems are accurate and reliable
2. Reduced effect of Nonlinearity and disturbance.
3. Operating frequency zone is high.
4. Senses the environmental changes and external disturbance and accordingly takes
necessary control action.
Demerits:
1. The closed loop systems are complex and costly.
2. The feedback in closed loop system may lead to oscillatory response.
3. The feedback reduces the overall gain of the system.
SNO Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System
1. Feedback is absent Feedback is always present
2. An error detector is not present An error detector is always present
3. Stable It may become unstable
4. Easy to construct Complicated in construction
5. It is an economical It is costly.
6. Has small bandwidth Has large bandwidth
7. It is inaccurate. It is accurate
8. Less maintenance More maintenance
9. It is unreliable It is reliable
10. Examples: Hand drier, tea maker Examples: Servo voltage stabilizer,
perspiration

Linear and Nonlinear system: Linear system obeys law of superposition. The principle of
superposition states that the response produced by simultaneous application of two different
forcing functions is the sum of individual responses.
If r(t) is input and y(t) is the output, and r1(t)→ y1(t) for t≥0 and r2(t)→ y2(t) for t≥0, if the
input r(t)= ar1(t)+br2(t): for t≥0,
then for a linear system the output must be y(t)= ay1(t)+by2(t), for t≥0.

Time Invariant and Time Variant system:

For a time invariant system the parameter does not vary with time, response of such
system is independent of time at which input is applied.
For time variant the response depends on time. For example, in the space vehicle
control system the mass of the vehicle reduces as time increases and fuel decreases.

Continuous and Discrete system

If all the elements of the describing equation is define for all time, then the system is
continuous time (Differential Equation).If as in sampled date system, some elemental
equation are define or used only at discrete time points, then the system is discrete time
system (Difference Equation).
SISO and MIMO system
Single input – Single output and Multi input and multi output system.

Lumped parameter and Distributed parameter system

In Lumped Parameter system the significant variable of the system are lumped at
some discrete point, hence they are described by ordinary differential equation. When the
significant variables are distributed with respect to space and time, they are described by
partial fraction with time, with variables as independent variables.

Deterministic and Stochastic control system

In deterministic system the response is predictable, whereas in Stochastic system the
variables and parameters are random and the response is not predicable.

Static and Dynamic system

In a dynamic system the present output depends on present and past inputs. In a static
system the present output depends on only the present input.

MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Mathematical modelling of any control system is the first and foremost task that a
control engineer has to accomplish for design and analysis of any control engineering
problem. It is nothing but the process or technique to express the system by a set of
mathematical equations (algebraic or differential in nature).
 Analysis means the process of finding the response or output of a system when it is
excited by an input or excitation provided we know the mathematical model of the system.
On the other hand, design or synthesis means we have to find out the system equations or the
arrangement of the components, provided we know the output of the system for an input.
Commonly used mathematical models are-
1. Differential equation model.
2. State space model.
3. Transfer function model.
Transfer Function. The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation
system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the
Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under the assumption that all initial
conditions are zero.

The applicability of the concept of the transfer function is limited to linear, time-invariant,
differential equation systems. The transfer function approach, however, is extensively used in
the analysis and designs of such systems are as follows.
1. The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an operational
method of expressing the differential equation that relates the output variable to the
input variable.
2. The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the magnitude
and nature of the input or driving function.
3. The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to the output;
however, it does not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the
system. (The transfer functions of many physically different systems can be identical.)
4. If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be studied for
various forms of inputs with a view toward understanding the nature of the system.
5. If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be established experimentally
by introducing known inputs and studying the output of the system. Once established,
a transfer function gives a full description of the dynamic characteristics of the
system, as distinct from its physical description.

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by
each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships that
exist among the various components. Differing from a purely abstract mathematical
representation, a block diagram has the advantage of indicating more realistically the signal
flows of the actual system.
In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional
blocks. The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on
the input signal to the block that produces the output. The transfer functions of the
components are usually entered in the corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows
to indicate the direction of the flow of signals. Note that the signal can pass only in the
direction of the arrows. Thus a block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a
unilateral property.

Figure above shows an element of the block diagram. The arrowhead pointing toward the
block indicates the input, and the arrowhead leading away from the block represents the
output. Such arrows are referred to as signals.
The dimension of the output signal from the block is the dimension of the input signal
multiplied by the dimension of the transfer function in the block. The advantages of the block
diagram representation of a system are that it is easy to form the overall block diagram for the
entire system by merely connecting the blocks of the components according to the signal flow
and that it is possible to evaluate the contribution of each component to the overall
performance of the system.
In general, the functional operation of the system can be visualized more readily by
examining the block diagram than by examining the physical system itself. A block diagram
contains information concerning dynamic behaviour, but it does not include any information
on the physical construction of the system. Consequently, many dissimilar and unrelated
systems can be represented by the same block diagram.
It should be noted that in a block diagram the main source of energy is not explicitly
shown and that the block diagram of a given system is not unique. A number of different
block diagrams can be drawn for a system, depending on the point of view of the analysis.

Summing Point. Referring to Figure, a circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates
a summing operation. The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal
is to be added or subtracted. It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have
the same dimensions and the same units.
Branch Point. A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes
concurrently to other blocks or summing points.

Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System. Figure below shows an example of a block

diagram of a closed-loop system. The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it
is compared with the reference input R(s). The closed-loop nature of the system is clearly
indicated by the figure. The output of the block, C(s) in this case, is obtained by multiplying
the transfer function G(s) by the input to the block, E(s).Any linear control system may be
represented by a block diagram consisting of blocks, summing points, and branch points.
When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is
necessary to convert the form of the output signal to that of the input signal. For example, in a
temperature control system, the output signal is usually the controlled temperature. The
output signal, which has the dimension of temperature, must be converted to a force or
position or voltage before it can be compared with the input signal. This conversion is
accomplished by the feedback element whose transfer function is H(s). The role of the
feedback element is to modify the output before it is compared with the input.

For the system shown in Figure, the output C(s) and input R(s) are related as follows:
C(s) = G(s)E(s)
E(s) = R(s) - B(s)
E(s)= R(s) - H(s)C(s)
C(s) = G(s)[R(s) - H(s)C(s)]
C ( s) G(s)

R( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
RULES FOR REDUCTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM
Rule 1: Combining blocks in series or cascade:

Rule 2: Combining blocks in parallel:

Rule 3: Moving take off (Branch Point) ahead of the block:

Rule 4: Moving take off (Branch Point) beyond the block:

Rule 5: Moving the summing point ahead of the block:

Rule 6: Moving the summing point beyond the block:

Rule 7: Interchanging Summing Points:

Rule 8: Splitting Summing Points:

Rule 9: Combining Summing Points:

 Rule 10: Eliminating negative feedback:

Rule 11: Eliminating positive feedback:

Examples:
1. Find the transfer function of the system shown in the fig. using block diagram reduction
technique and signal flow graph technique.

Step 1: Re arranging the branch points.

Step 2: Eliminating the feedback paths.

Step 3: Combining the blocks in cascade.

Step 4: Eliminating the feedback path

G2G2
= 1- G2H1
G1G2
1+ ×H3H1
1- G2H1
G1G2
=
1- G2H1+ G1G2H3H1
Step 5: Combining the blocks in cascade.

Step 6: Eliminating the feedback path

G1G2G3
= 1- G2H1+ G1G2H3H1
G1G2G3
1+
G2H1+G1G2H3H1
C(s) G1G2G3
= =
R(s) 1- G2H1+G1G2H3H1+ G1G2G3H2
2. For the block diagram shown below, find the output C due to R and disturbance D.

Step 1: Assuming D = 0, the block diagram becomes as shown in the figure below.

Step 2: Eliminating the feedback paths.

Step 3: The three forward path blocks and the feedback block is combined to give the transfer
function.

Step 4: Assuming R = 0 the block diagram in the question becomes

Step 5: The two feedback loops are eliminated.

Step 6: The block diagram can be redrawn as

 Step 7: The block diagram can be reduced to give the transfer function as shown.

Step 8: When D = 0 output is C and is given below

RG1G2G3
C=
[(1+G1)(1+G3H1)+G1G2G3H2]
When R = 0 the output is C1 and is given by
DG3(1+G1)
C1=
[(1+G1)(1+G3H1)+G1G2G3H2]
When R and D are simultaneously present the output is O = C + C1
G3[RG1G2+D(1+G1)]
O=
[(1+G1)(1+G3H1)+G1G2G3H2]
3.For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure, Determine the transfer
function C1/R1 and C2/R1.

Solution:
Case 1: To find C1/R1. Consider R2 and C2 to be zero.
Step 1: Eliminate the feedback path.

Step 2: Combining blocks in cascade and the summing point.

Step 3: Eliminate the feedback path.

Step 4 : Combining the blocks in cascade

Step 5: Eliminate the feedback path.

Step 6 : Combining the blocks in cascade

Case 2: To find C2/R1. Consider R2 and C1 to be zero

Step 1: Eliminate the feedback path.
Step 2: Combining blocks in cascade and the summing point.

Step 3: Eliminate the feedback path.

Step 4 : Combining the blocks in cascade

Step 5: Eliminate the feedback path.

 Step 6 : Combining the blocks in cascade

SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

Signal-flow graphs represent transfer functions as lines, and signals as small circular
nodes. Summing is implicit. Thus, the main advantage signal-flow graphs over block diagrams, is
that they can be drawn more quickly, they are more compact, and they emphasize the state
variables.
Signal-flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams. Unlike block diagrams, which
consist of blocks, signals, summing junctions, and pickoff points, a signal-flow graph consists
only of branches, which represent systems, and nodes, which represent signals.
Mason's rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a single transfer function requires the
application of one formula. The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-
flow graph to the simultaneous equations that can be written from the graph (Mason, 1953). In
general, it can be complicated to implement the formula without making mistakes.
Specifically, the existence of what we will later call nontouching loops increases the
complexity of the formula. However, many systems do not have nontouching loops. For these
systems, you may find Mason's rule easier to use than blockdiagram reduction. Mason's formula
has several components that must be evaluated. First, we must be sure that the definitions of the
components are well understood. Then we must exert care in evaluating the components with
example then discuss the Mason‟s Gain formula.
Loop gain. The product of branch gains found by traversing a path that starts at a node
and ends at the same node, following the direction of the signal flow, without passing through any
other node more than once. For example,

The loop gains are:

1. G2(s)H1(s)
2. G4{s)H2{s)
 3. G4(s)G5(s)H3(s)
4. G4(s)G6(s)H3(s)

Forward-path gain: The product of gains found by traversing a path from the input node to the
output node of the signal-flow graph in the direction of signal flow.
1. G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)G7(s)
2. G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G6(s)G7(s)

Non touching loops : Loops that do not have any nodes in common. Loop G2(s)H1(s) does not
touch loops G4(s)H2(s), G4(s)G5(s)H3(s) and G4(s)G6(s)H3(S)

Mason's Rule
The transfer function, T=C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph is
∑

T= T(s) = Transfer function of the system

K= Number of forward path
Pk = Forward path gain of kth forward path

[ ] [ ]

[ ]

Signal Flow Graph Algebra

Rule 1: Incoming signal to a node through a branch is given by the product of a signal at
previous node and the gain of the branch.

Rule 2: Cascade branches can be combined to give a single branch whose transmittance is
equal to the product of individual branch transmittance.

Rule 3: Parallel branch may be represented by single branch whose transmittance is the sum
of individual branch transmittance.

Rule 4: A mixed node can be eliminated by multiplying the transmittance of outgoing branch
(from the mixed node) to the transmittance of all incoming branches to the mixed node.

Rule 5: A loop may be eliminated by writing equations at the input and output node and
rearranging the equation to find the ratio of output to input. This ratio gives the gain of
resultant branch.
 Steps to construct the Signal Flow Graph:
The Signal flow graph is constructed from its describing equations, or by direct reference to
block diagram of the system. Each variable of the block diagram becomes a node and each
block becomes a branch. The general procedure is
1. Arrange the input to output nodes from left to right
2. Connect the nodes by appropriate branches,
3. If the desired output node has outgoing branches, add a dummy node and a unity gain
branch.
4. Rearrange the node and/or loops in the graph to achieve pictorial clarity.
Examples:
1. Determine the transfer function of the system using Mason’s Gain formula.

Step 1: There are four forward paths P1, P2, P3, P4; K = 4.

P1 = G1G2G3G6G7G8

P2 = G1G2G3G5G8

P3 = G1G4G6G7G8

P4 = G1G4G5G8
Step 2: There are 5 individual loops

P11 = G2G3G6G7G8H1
P21 = G3G6G7H2

P31 = G4G6G7G8H1

P41 = G4G5G8H1

P51 = G3G5H2
Step 4: There are no combination of two non-touching loops.
Step 5: Calculation of Δ and ΔK
Δ= 1 ‒ (P11 + P21 +P31 + P41 + P51)
=1 ‒ (G2G3G6G7G8H1 + G3G6H7H2 + G4G6G7G8H1 + G4G5G8H1 + G3G5H2

There is no part of the graph touching with 1st forward path; Δ1 = 1

There is no part of the graph touching with 2nd forward path; Δ1 = 1
There is no part of the graph touching with 3rd forward path; Δ1 = 1
There is no part of the graph touching with 4th forward path; Δ1 = 1
Step 5: Determination of transfer function.
By Masons gain formula the transfer function is given by
1
T=  PKDK
D K
1
= (P1D1+P2D2+P3D3+P4D4)
D
G1G2G3G6G7G8+G1G2G3G5G8+G1G4G6G7G8+G1G4G5G8
=
1- G2G3G6G7G8H1+G3G6H7+G4G6G7G8H1+G4G5G8H1+G3G5H2

2.Use Masons gain formula to obtain C(S)/R(s) of the system shown below by using signal
flow graph.
Step 1: The equivalent signal flow graph is given by

Step 2: There are two forward paths P1 and P2; K = 2

P1 = G1G2G3

P2 = G1G4
Step 3: There are 4 individual loops. Let the four loops be P11, P21, P31, P41

P11 = G1G2 P21 = G2G3H2

P31 = G1G2H1 P41 = G1G2G3
Step 3: Gain product of 2 non touching loops
There are no 2 non touching loops.
Step 4: Calculation of Δ and ΔK
Δ = 1 ‒ (P11 + P21 + P31 + P41)
Δ = 1 ‒ G1G2 ‒ G2G3H2 ‒ G1G2H1 ‒ G1G2G3
Δ1 = 1 ‒ 0 = 1
Δ2 = 1
Step 5: Determination of transfer function
1
T =  PKΔK
Δ k
1
=  P1Δ1+P2Δ2 
Δ
G1G2G3 + G1G4
=
1- G1G2 - G2G3H2 - G1G2H1- G1G2G3
3.The signal flow graph for a feedback control system is shown in the figure. Determine the
closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s).

Step 1: Forward path gains

There are two forward paths K = 2
Let forward path gains be P1 and P2

Gain forward path 1 = P1 = G1G2G3G4G5

Gain forward path 2 = P2 = G4G5G6
Step 2: Individual loop gain
There are three individual loops. Let individual loop gains be P11, P21, P31

Loop gain of individual loop 1 = P11 = ‒G2H1

Loop gain of individual loop 2 = P12 = ‒G2G3H2
Loop gain of individual loop 3 = P31 = ‒G5H3
Step 3: Gain products of two non-touching loops
There are two combinations of two non-touching loops. Let the gain products of two non-touching
loops be P12 and P22.

Gain product of 1st combination of two non-touching loops

P12 = P11P31 = (‒G2H1)(‒G5H3) = G2G5H1H3
Gain product of 2nd combination of two non-touching loops
P22= P21P31= (‒G2G3H2)(‒G5H3)= G2G3G5G3H2H3
Step 4: Calculation of Δ and ΔK
Δ = 1‒ (P11 + P21 + P31) + (P12 + P22)
= 1‒ (‒G2H1‒G2G3H2‒G5H3) + (G2G5H1H3 + G2G3G5G3H2H3)
= 1 + G2H1+G2G3H2+G5H3 + G2G5H1H3 + G2G3G5G3H2H3
Δ1 = 1, since there is no part of the graph which is not touching with first forward path
The part of the graph which is not touching with the second forward path is shown below.

Δ2 = 1‒P11 = 1 ‒ (‒ G1H1) = 1+G2H1

Step 5: Transfer function T
By Mason‟s gain formula the transfer function T is given by,
 1
T=  PKΔK
Δ k
1
=  P1Δ1+P2Δ2  No of forward path is 2, K = 2
Δ
G1G2G3G4G5+G4G5G6(1+G2H1)
=
1+G2H1+G2G3H2+G5H3+G2G5H1H3+G2G3G5H2H3
G1G2G3G4G5+G4G5G6+G4G5G6G2H1)

1+G2H1+G2G3H2+G5H3+G2G5H1H3+G2G3G5H2H3
G2G4G5[G1G3+G6/G2+G6H1]

1+G2H1+G2G3H2+G5H3+G2G5H1H3+G2G3G5H2H3

ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Electrical Systems:
Most of the electrical systems can be modelled by three basic elements : Resistor, inductor, and
capacitor. Circuits consisting of these three elements are analysed by using Kirchhoff's Voltage
law and Current law.
Resistor: The circuit model of resistor is shown in Fig.

The mathematical model is given by the Ohm's law relationship,

V(t) = i(t) R
i(t) = V(t)/R
Inductor:The circuit representation is shown in Fig.

The input output relations are given by Faraday's law,

V(t) = L di(t)/dt

where Integral of v dt is known as the flux linkages. Thus

Capacitor: The circuit symbol of a capacitor is given in Fig.

In eqn. idt is known as the charge on the capacitor and is denoted by 'q'. Thus

Mechanical System
There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.
  Translational mechanical systems
 Rotational mechanical systems
Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems
Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly
consist of three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.
If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing
forces due to mass, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the
opposing forces are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the
system is zero. Let us now see the force opposed by these three elements individually.
Mass
Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a
body having mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing
force is proportional to the acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and frictions are
negligible.

 F is the applied force, Fm is the opposing force due to mass, M is mass, a is

acceleration
 x is displacement
Spring
Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on
spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing
force is proportional to the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction are
negligible.

F is the applied force, Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring, K is spring constant
 x is displacement
Dashpot
If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due
to friction of the dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body.
Assume mass and elasticity are negligible.

 Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot, B is the frictional coefficient, v is

velocity
 x is displacement
Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems
Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of
three basic elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.
If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing
torques due to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied
torque and the opposing torques are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of torques
acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the torque opposed by these three elements
individually.
Moment of Inertia
In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy.
If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an
opposing torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to
angular acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.

 T is the applied torque, Tj is the opposing torque due to moment of inertia, J is

moment of inertia
 α is angular acceleration, θ is angular displacement
Torsional Spring
In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy.
If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to
the elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
displacement of the torsional spring. Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are
negligible.

 T is the applied torque, Tk is the opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional spring,
K is the torsional spring constant, θ is angular displacement
Dashpot
If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to
the rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
velocity of the body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.
  Tb is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot, B is the
rotational friction coefficient, ω is the angular velocity, θ is the angular displacement
Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions are
satisfied.
 The two systems are physically different
 Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems. There are
two types of electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems. Those are force
voltage analogy and force current analogy.
Force Voltage Analogy
In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations of translational mechanical
system are compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following translational mechanical system as shown in the following figure.

The force balanced equation for this system is

(Equation 1)
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit
consists of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected
in a series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is VV volts and the current flowing
through the circuit is ii Amps.

Mesh equation for this circuit is

V=Ri+Ldi/dt+1/c∫idt (Equation 2)
Substitute, i=dq/dt in Equation 2.

(Equation 3)
By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.
Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Voltage(V)

Mass(M) Inductance(L)
Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)(1c)

Displacement(x) Charge(q)

Velocity(v) Current(i)
Similarly, there is torque voltage analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss about this analogy.
Torque Voltage Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are compared
with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.

The torque balanced equation is

(Equation 4)
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous
quantities.
Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Voltage(V)

Moment of Inertia(J) Inductance(L)

Rotational friction coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)(1c)

Angular Displacement(θ) Charge(q)

Angular Velocity(ω) Current(i)

Force Current Analogy
In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the translational mechanical
system are compared with the nodal equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit
consists of current source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are
connected in parallel.
The nodal equation is

(Equation 5)
Substitute, V=dΨ/dt in Equation 5.

(Equation 6)
By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.
Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Current(i)

Mass(M) Capacitance(C)

Frictional coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1R)(1R)

Spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1L)(1L)

Displacement(x) Magnetic Flux(ψ)

Velocity(v) Voltage(V)
Similarly, there is a torque current analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss this analogy.
Torque Current Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are
compared with the nodal mesh equations of the electrical system.
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous
quantities.
Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Current(i)

Moment of inertia(J) Capacitance(C)

Rotational friction coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1R)(1R)

Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1L)(1L)

Angular displacement(θ) Magnetic flux(ψ)

Angular velocity(ω) Voltage(V)

These analogies are helpful to study and analyze the non-electrical system like
mechanical system from analogous electrical system.
Examples
1. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig .And
determine the transfer function?

Solution
In the given system, applied force f(t) is the input and displacement X is the output
Let, Laplace transfer of f(t)= * ( ) ( )+
Laplace transfer of x =)= * + ( )
Laplace transfer of X1= * + ( )
( )
Hence the required transfer function is ( )
At node 1(M1)

By Newton‟s second law,

( ) ( )
On taking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get,
( ) ( ) , ( ) ( )- ( ) , ( ) ( )-

( ), ( ) ( )- ( ), -=0
( ), ( ) ( )- ( ), -
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

At Node 2 (M2)

By Newton‟s second law, ( )

( )+ ( )= ( )
On taking Laplace transform of above equation with zero initial conditions we get,
 ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( )- , ( ) ( )- ( )
( ), ( ) - ( ), - ( ) ( )
Substituting X1(s) from equation (1) in equation (2) we get,
( )
( ), ( ) - ( )
( ) ( )

, ( ) -, ( ) ( )- ( )
( )[ ] ( )
( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) , ( ) ( )-, ( ) - ( )

2. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system as shown
in fig, obtain the transfer function of the system.

SOLUTION
In the given system, applied force f(t) is the input and displacement X is the output.
Let, Laplace transfer of T = * + ( )
Laplace transfer of x =)= * + ( )
Laplace transfer of X1= * + ( )
( )
Hence the required transfer function is ( )
The system has two nodes and they are mass J1and J2, the differential equations governing the
system are given by torques balance equations at these nodes.

Let the displacement of mass J1 be 1 .The free body diagram of J1 is shown in fig. the
opposing forces acting on J1are marked as Tj, and Tk.
Free body diagram-1

By Newton‟s second law,

( )
On taking Laplace transform of above equation we get,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Free body diagram-2

By Newton‟s second law,

( )
On taking Laplace transform of above equation we get,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Substitute ( )from equation 2 in equation 1 we get,
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
[ ] ( ) ( )

( )
( ) ( ) ( )

3. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig. draw
the force current electrical analogous circuit.

Solution:
Node-1

d 2 x1 d ( x1  x2 )
M 1 2  B1  K1 ( x1  x2 )  0
dt dt
Node-2

d 2 x2 d ( x2  x1 ) dx
M2 2
 B1  B2 2  K1 ( x2  x1 )  K 2 x2  f (t )
dt dt dt
Force- Current analogous circuits
The electrical analogous is given by:

Thus the systems equations are:

 And the circuit is given by

4.Determine the transfer function Y2(s)/F(s) of the shown fig.

Solution:
Let Laplace transform of f(t) = L{f(t)} = F(s)
Let Laplace transform of y1 = L{y1} = Y1(s)
Let Laplace transform of y2 = L{y2} = Y2(s)
The system has two nodes and they are mass M1 and M2.
The differential equations governing the system are the force balance equations of at these nodes.
Consider Mass M1,
Free Body diagram of M1,
f (t) = M1 + B + + ( ) 1
on taking Laplace Transform of equation (1) with zero initial conditions,
M1S2Y1(s) +BsY1(s) + K1Y1(s) + K2 [Y1(s) – Y2(s)] = F(s)
Y1(s)[M1S2 +Bs+(K1+K2)] - Y2(s)K2 = F(s) 2
Consider Mass M2,
M2 + K2(Y2 – Y1) = 0 3
On taking Laplace Transform of equation (3) with zero initial conditions,
M2S2Y2(s) +K2 [Y2(s) – Y1(s)] = 0 4
Y2(s) [M2S2 + K2] – K2 Y1(s) = 0;
Y1(s) = ; 5
Substituting equation Y1(s) from equation (5) into equation (2) we get,
Y2(s) [ ] +[M1S2 +Bs +(K1+K2)] - Y2(s)K2 = F(s)
) [ ( )]
Y2(s) [ - = F(s)

( )
=( ) , ( )-
( )

5.Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system shown in fig.
Draw the torque-voltage and torque-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by
writing mesh and node equations.
Solution:
The given mechanical rotational system has three nodes. The differential equations governing the
mechanical rotational system are given by torque balance equations at these nodes.
Let the angular displacements J1, J2 and J3 be θ1, θ2 and θ3 respectively. The corresponding angular
velocities be ω1, ω2 and ω3
Consider J1.
By Newton‟s second law we get

Consider J2.
By Newton‟s second law we get

Consider J2.
By Newton‟s second law we get

On replacing the angular displacement by angular velocity in the differential equations we get

dω1
J1 + B1 (ω1 - ω2 ) + K1  (ω1  ω2 )dt = T
dt
dω
J 2 2 + B1 (ω2 - ω1 ) + B2 (ω2 - ω3 )+K1  (ω2  ω1 )dt = 0
dt
dω
J 3 3 + B2 (ω3 - ω2 )+K 3  ω3dt  0
dt
Torque voltage analogous circuit
The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical rotational systems are given
below
ω1 → i1 J1 → L1 B1 → R1 K1 → 1/C1
ω1 → i2 J2 → L2 B2 → R2 K3 → 1/C3
ω3 → i3 J3 → L3
The Mesh basis equations using Kirchhoff‟s voltage law for the circuit is given by
di1 1
L1 + R1 (i1 - i 2 ) +  (i1 - i 2 ) dt = e(t)
dt C1
di 2 1
L2 + R1 (i 2 - i1 ) + R 2 (i 2 - i3 ) +  (i 2 - i1 ) dt = e(t)
dt C1
di3 1
L3 + R 2 (i3 - i 2 ) +  i3 dt = 0
dt C3
The electrical circuit is given by
Torque current analogous circuit
The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical rotational systems are
T → i(t) ω1 → v1 J1 → C1 B1 = 1/R1 K1 → 1/L1
ω 2 → v2 J2 → C2 B2 = 1/R2 K3 → 1/L3
ω3 → v3 J3 → C3
The node basis equations using Kirchhoff‟s current law for the circuit is
dv1 1 1
C1  (v1 - v 2 ) +  (v1 -v 2 )dt  i(t)
dt R1 L1
dv 2 1 1 1
C2  (v 2 - v1 ) + (v 2 - v3 )   (v 2 -v1 )dt  0
dt R1 R2 L1
dv3 1 1
C3  (v3 - v 2 ) +  v3dt  0
dt R 2 L3
The electrical circuit is given by

6.Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig. Draw the
force-voltage and force current electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh and
node equations.

Solution:
At M1:

At M2:

Replacing the displacement by velocity in the differential equation we get,

Force voltage analogous circuit
The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system is given by
f(t) = e(t) M1 → L1 B1 → R1 K1 → 1/C1
v1 = i1 M2 → L2 B2 → R2 K2 → 1/C2
B12 → R12
The mesh basis equations using Kirchhoff‟s voltage law for the circuit shown is
di 1
L1 1 + R1i1  R12 (i1 - i 2 ) +  (i1 -i 2 ) dt = e(t)
dt C1
di 2 1
L2 + R 2i 2  R12 (i 2 - i1 ) +  (i 2 -i1 ) dt = 0
dt C1

Force current analogous circuit

The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical system is given by
f(t) = i(t) M1 → C1 B1 → 1/R1 K1 → 1/L1
v1 → v1 M2 → C2 B2 → 1/R2 K2 → 1/L2
v2 → v2 B12 → 1/R12
The node basis equations using Kirchhoff‟s current law for the circuit is
dv1 1 1 1
C1  v1  (v1 - v2 ) +  (v1 -v 2 ) dt = i(t)
dt R1 R12 L1
dv 2 1 1 1 1
C2  v2  (v 2 - v1 ) +  v 2 dt +  (v 2 -v1 ) dt = 0
dt R 2 R12 L2 L1

7.Derive the transfer function of the system show in the figure.

Applying Newton second law at M1 ,
d 2 x1
F  t  =M1 +K  x1 -x 2 
dt 2
Taking Laplace transform on both sides,
M1S2 x1  s  +K  x1  s  -x 2  s   =F  s 
x1  s   M1S2 +K  -Kx 2  s  =F  s  ------ 1
Applying Newton second law at M 2 ,
d2x2
0=M 2 +K  x 2 -x1 
dt 2
Taking Laplace transform on both sides,
M 2S2 x 2  s  +K  x 2  s  -x1  s   =0
M 2S2 x 2  s  +Kx 2  s  -Kx1  s  =0
x 2  s   M 2S2 +K  =Kx1  s 
x 2  s   M 2S2 +K 
x1  s  =
K
substitute value of x1  s  in 1
 M S2 +K 
x2 s  2   M1S2 +K  -Kx 2  s  =F  s 
 K 
   M 2S +K  M1S2 +K   
2

x 2  s    -K  =F  s 

 
K  
  M 2S2 +K  M1S2 +K  -K 2 
x2 s   =F  s 
K
 
x2 s K
=
F  s   M 2S +K  M1S2 +K  -K 2
2

Substituting the value of M1 =2kg and M2=1kg we get

X 2 (s) K
 2
F ( s ) ( S  K )(2S 2  K )  K 2

8. In the system shown in the fig below, R, L, C are electric parameters while K, M, B are
mechanical parameters. Find the transfer function X(s)/E1(s) for the system where E1(t) is
input voltage while X(t) is the output displacement.

Apply Kirchhoff‟s voltage law at loop 1 in the above fig we get

 1
C
Ri1 + (i1 - i 2 ) dt = e

Taking laplace Transform of the above equation

1  1  1
RI1 (s) + [I1 (s) - I 2 (s)] = E(s) (or) R+  I1 (s) - I 2 (s) = E(s) ...(1)
Cs  Cs  Cs
Apply Kirchoff's Voltage law at loop 2 we get
di 1 dx
L 2 +  (i 2 - i1 ) dt = - e b = - K b
dt C dt
Taking laplace Transform of the above equation
1
sLI 2 (s) + [I 2 (s) - I1 (s)] = - sK b x(s)
Cs
1
(or) [I 2 (s) - I1 (s)] = - sK b x(s)-sLI 2 (s)
Cs
1
(or) [I1 (s) - I 2 (s)] = - sK b x(s)-sLI 2 (s) ...(2)
Cs
Substituting (2) in (1)
RI1 (s) + sLI 2 (s) + sK b x(s) = E(s)
From equation (2)
1 1
I1 (s) = sLI 2 (s) + I 2 (s) + sK b x(s)
Cs C(s)
 1 
=  sL+  I 2 (s) + sK b x(s)
 Cs 
I1 (s) = (s LC+1)I 2 (s) + s 2 K bCx(s)
2
...(3)
Substituting (3) in (1)
 1  2 2 1
 R+  [(s LC+1)I 2 (s) + s K b Cx(s)] - I 2 (s) = E(s)
 Cs  Cs
(or) (s 2 RLC + sL + R) I 2 (s) + (s 2 K b RC+sK b )x(s) = E(s)
Apply Newtons Second law at M
d2x dx
Fc = K ci 2 = M2
+B + 2Kx
dt dt
Taking Laplace Transform
 Ms 2 + Bs + 2k 
K c I 2 (s) = [Ms 2 + Bs + 2K]x(s) (or) I2 (s) =   x(s)
 Kc 
Substituting this value of I 2 (s) in eqn (3)
2  Ms 2 + Bs + 2k  2
(s RLC + sL + R)   x(s)+(s K b RC+sK b )x(s) = E(s)
 Kc 
X(s) Kc
=
E(s) [(RLCs + L(M + RCB)s + (RM+LB+RC(2LK+K b K c ))s 2 + (RB+2LK+K b K c )s + 2RK]
4 3
Servomechanism
A servo system mainly consists of three basic components - a controlled device, a
output sensor, a feedback system. This is an automatic closed loop control system. Here,
instead of controlling a device by applying the variable input signal, the device is controlled
by a feedback signal generated by comparing output signal and reference input signal.
When reference input signal or command signal is applied to the system, it is compared with
output reference signal of the system produced by output sensor, and a third signal produced
by a feedback system. This third signal acts as an input signal of controlled device.
This input signal to the device presents as long as there is a logical difference between
reference input signal and the output signal of the system. After the device achieves its
desired output, there will be no longer the logical difference between reference input signal
and reference output signal of the system. Then, the third signal produced by comparing
theses above said signals will not remain enough to operate the device further and to produce
a further output of the system until the next reference input signal or command signal is
applied to the system. Hence, the primary task of a servomechanism is to maintain the output
of a system at the desired value in the presence of disturbances.

DC SERVO MOTOR
The motors which are utilized as DC servo motors generally have separate DC source
for field winding and armature winding. The control can be achieved either by controlling the
field current or armature current.
Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor
Theory:
The figure below shows the schematic diagram for an armature controlled DC servo
motor. Here the armature is energized by amplified error signal and field is excited by a
constant current source.

The field is operated at well beyond the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve. In
this portion of the curve, for huge change in magnetizing current, there is very small change
in mmf in the motor field. This makes the servo motor is less sensitive to change in field
current. Actually for armature controlled DC servo motor, the motor should response to any
change of field current.
Again, at saturation the field flux is maximum. The general torque equation of DC
motor is, torque T ∝φIa. Now if φ is large enough, for every little change in armature current
Ia there will be a prominent changer in motor torque. That means servo motor becomes much
sensitive to the armature current.
As the armature of DC motor is less inductive and more resistive, time constant of
armature winding is small enough. This causes quick change of armature current due to
sudden change in armature voltage. That is why dynamic response of armature controlled DC
servo motor is much faster than that of field controlled DC servo motor.
The direction of rotation of the motor can easily be changed by reversing the polarity
of the error signal.
 Transfer Function:

Let
R = Armature resistance, Ω
a
L = Armature Inductance, H
a
I = Armature current, A
a
V = armature voltage, V
a
E = back emf, V
b
K = Torque constant, N-m/A
t
T = Torque developed by motor, N-m
θ = Angular displacement of shaft, rad
2
J = Moment of inertia of motor and load, Kg-m
B = Frictional coefficient of motor and load, N-m/(rad/sec)
K = Back emf constant, V/(rad/sec)
b
The differential equation of armature circuit is
di
La a  Raia  eb  Va
dt
Taking Laplace transform we get
La SI a (s)  Ra I a (s)  Eb (s)  Va (s)
I a (s)( La S  Ra )  Eb (s)  Va (s)
I a (s)( La S  Ra )  Va (s)  Eb (s)
V ( s )  Eb ( s )
I a (s)  a [1]
( La S  Ra )
Torque developed by motor is proportional to flux and current
Tia
T  KT ia
T ( s)
I a ( s)  [2]
KT
According to Newton‟s second law the Rotational mechanical differential equation is given
by
d 2 d
J 2 B T
dt dt
Taking Laplace transform
JS 2 (s)  BS (s)  T (s) [3]
Also the back emf is proportional to the speed of shaft (Angular velocity)
 d
eb  Kb
dt
Eb (s)  Kb S (s) [4]
Combining equation [1] and [3], we get
T ( s ) Va ( s )  Eb ( s )

KT ( La S  Ra )
K V ( s )  KT Eb ( s )
T (s)  T a
( La S  Ra )
Substituting [3] we get
K V ( s )  KT Eb ( s )
JS 2 ( s )  BS ( s )  T a
( La S  Ra )
 ( s)( JS 2  BS )( La S  Ra )  KTVa ( s)  KT Eb ( s)
KTVa ( s)  [ ( s)( JS 2  BS )( La S  Ra )]  KT Eb ( s)
Substituting [4] we get
KTVa ( s)  [ ( s)( JS 2  BS )( La S  Ra )]  KT Kb S ( s)
KTVa ( s)   ( s)[( JS 2  BS )( La S  Ra )  KT Kb S ]
 ( s) KT

Va ( s ) [( JS  BS )( La S  Ra )  KT K b S ]
2

 ( s) KT
 3
Va ( s) S JLa  S ( BLa  JRa )  S ( Ra B  K T K b )
2

Block Diagram:

Field Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory

The figure illustrates the schematic diagram for a field controlled DC servo motor. In
this arrangement the field of DC motor is excited be the amplified error signal and armature
winding is energized by a constant current source . The field is controlled below the knee
point of magnetizing saturation curve. At that portion of the curve the mmf linearly varies
with excitation current. That means torque developed in the DC motor is directly proportional
 to the field current below the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve.
From general torque equation of DC motor it is found that, torque T ∝φIa. Where, φ is
field flux and Ia is armature current. But in field controlled DC servo motor, the armature is
excited by constant current source, hence Ia is constant here. Hence, T ∝ φ
As field of this DC servo motor is excited by amplified error signal, the torque of the
motor i.e. rotation of the motor can be controlled by amplified error signal. If the constant
armature current is large enough then, every little change in field current causes
corresponding change in torque on the motor shaft. The direction of rotation can be changed
by changing polarity of the field. The direction of rotation can also be altered by using split
field DC motor, where the field winding is divided into two parts, one half of the winding is
wound in clockwise direction and other half in wound in anticlockwise direction. The
amplified error signal is fed to the junction point of these two halves of the field as shown in
the figure. The magnetic field of both halves of the field winding opposes each other. During
operation of the motor, magnetic field strength of one half dominates other depending upon
the value of amplified error signal fed between these halves. Due to this, the DC servo motor
rotates in a particular direction according to the amplified error signal voltage.
The main disadvantage of field control DC servo motors, is that the dynamic response
to the error is slower because of longer time constant of inductive field circuit. The field is an
electromagnet so it is basically a highly inductive circuit hence due to sudden change in error
signal voltage, the current through the field will reach to its steady state value after certain
period depending upon the time constant of the field circuit. That is why field control DC
servo motor arrangement is mainly used in small servo motor applications. The main
advantage of using field control scheme is that, as the motor is controlled by field - the
controlling power requirement is much lower than rated power of the motor.
Transfer Function:

Let
Rf = Field resistance, Ω,
Lf = Field inductance, H,
If = Field current, A,
Vf = Field voltage, V
T = Torque developed by motor, N-m,
Ktf = Torque constant, N-m/A
J = Moment of inertia of rotor and load, Kg-m2/rad,
B = Frictional coefficient of rotor and load, N-m/(rad/sec)
We know
Tiai f
T  KTF i f
T ( s)  K TF I f ( s) [1]
The differential equation of armature circuit is
di
Lf f  Rf i f  ef
dt
L f SI f ( s)  R f I f ( s)  E f ( s)
I f ( s)( L f S  R f )  E f ( s) [2]
According to Newton‟s second law the Rotational mechanical differential equation is given
by
d 2 d
J 2 B T
dt dt
Taking Laplace transform
JS 2 (s)  BS (s)  T (s) [3]
Substituting [1] we get,
JS 2 ( s)  BS ( s)  KTF I f ( s)
 ( s)( JS 2  BS )
I f ( s)  [4]
KTF
Substituting [4] in [2] we get,
 ( s)( JS 2  BS )
( L f S  R f )  E f ( s)
KTF
 ( s) KTF

E f ( s) ( JS  BS )( L f S  R f )
2

AC SERVOMOTOR
An AC servo motor is essentially a two phase induction motor with modified
constructional features to suit servo applications.The schematic of a two phase or servo motor
is shown

It has two windings displaced by 90oon the stator One winding, called as reference
winding, is supplied with a constant sinusoidal voltage.The second winding, called control
winding, is supplied with a variable control voltage which is displaced by -- 90o out of phase
from the reference voltage.The major differences between the normal induction motor and an
AC servo motor are
 The rotor winding of an ac servo motor has high resistance (R) compared to its
inductive reactance (X) so that its X / R ratio is very low.
 For a normal induction motor, X / R ratio is high so that the maximum torque is
obtained in normal operating region which is around 5% of slip.
The torque speed characteristics of a normal induction motor and an ac servo motor
are shown in fig
 The Torque speed characteristic of a normal induction motor is highly nonlinear and
has a positive slope for some portion of the curve. This is not desirable for control
applications. as the positive slope makes the systems unstable. The torque speed
characteristic of an ac servo motor is fairly linear and has negative slope throughout. The
rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag cup type for an ac servo motor. The
diameter is small compared to the length of the rotor which reduces inertia of the moving
parts. Thus it has good accelerating characteristic and good dynamic response.
The supplies to the two windings of ac servo motor are not balanced as in the case of
a normal induction motor. The control voltage varies both in magnitude and phase with
respect to the constant reference vulture applied to the reference winding. The direction of
rotation of the motor depends on the phase (± 90°) of the control voltage with respect to the
reference voltage. For different rms values of control voltage the torque speed characteristics
are shown in Fig.

The torque varies approximately linearly with respect to speed and also controls
voltage. The torque speed characteristics can be linearized at the operating point and the
transfer function of the motor can be obtained.

From the torque speed characteristics, we observe that even when Ec=0, the
characteristics line runs through origin, which enables the stop of motor rapidly (decelerating
torque). From torque-control voltage characteristics, we obtain that the high speed are
nonlinear, so the AC servo motor is employed only for low speed.
With reference to the above characteristics, we assume that all lines are traight lines
parallel to each other at rated input voltage ad are equally spaced for equal increments of
input voltage.Under this assumption, the torque developed by the motor is,
d
Tm  K1ec  K 2 [1]
dt
From the mechanical system we get,
d 2 d
Tm  J 2  B [2]
dt dt
At equilibrium the motor torque is equal to load torque
d d 2 d
K1ec  K 2 J 2 B
dt dt dt
K1Ec (s)  K 2 S ( s)  JS  ( s)  BS ( s)
2
K1Ec ( s)   ( s)( JS 2  BS  K 2 S )
 (s) K1

Ec ( s ) ( JS  BS  K 2 S )
2

K1
 ( s) (B  K2 )

Ec ( s)  J  
S   S  1
 B  K 2  
K1 J
Let K m  be the motor gain constant and  m be the motor time constant,
B  K2 B  K2
therefore
 ( s) Km

E c ( s) S ( m S  1)

SYNCHROS
The other names for synchros are Selsyn and autosyn. It is an electromagnetic
transducer that produces an output voltage depending upon the angular displacement.it
consists of two devices called Synchro Transmitter and Synchro Receiver. It is mostly used
as an error detector in control system.
Synchro Transmitter:
It is similar to a Y connected 3-phase alternator. Stator winding are concentric coils displaced
120deg apart. Rotor is a salient pole type wound with concentric coils excited with single
phase AC through slip rings. The Synchro transmitter acts as a transformer with single
primary winding (Rotor) and there secondary winding displaced apart from each other.
The flux produced by the rotor is displaced along its axis and distributed sinusoidally
in the air gaps depending upon its angular positions with rotor. Therefore the flux linked with
the stator winding will induce an emf proportional to the cosine of the angle between the
rotor and stator winding.
AC voltage applied across rotor Vr (t )  A sin t
Phase voltage induced in stator coils S1, S2 and S3 are
Vs1 (t )  kA sin t cos
Vs2 (t )  kA sin t cos(120   )
Vs3 (t )  kAsin t cos(240   )
Corresponding line voltage are
VL1  Vs2  Vs1
VL1  kA sin t[cos(120   )  cos ]
VL1  kA sin t (2 sin(60   ) sin 60)
VL1  kA sin t 3 sin(60   )
VL 2  Vs3  Vs 2
VL 2  kA sin t[cos(240   )  cos(120   )]
VL 2  kA sin t (sin(180   ) sin 60)
VL 2  3kA sin t sin(180   )
VL 3  Vs1  Vs3
VL 3  kA sin t[cos  cos(240   )]
VL 3  2kA sin t (sin(120   ) sin120)
VL 3  3kA sin t sin(300   )
When θ=0; Vs1 (t )  kA sin t and VL 2  0
The position at which Vs1 is maximum and VL0 is zero is known as “electrical zero” or
reference point of transmitter. The output of Synchro control transformer is the error signal
which is proportional to the angular displacement between the two rotor of Synchro control
transformer and Synchro transmitter.
Synchro control transformer:
The control transformer is similar in construction to a Synchro transmitter except the
rotor is cylindrical in shape so that the air gap is uniform. Stator of both transmitter and
transformer are identical and the output of the transmitter is given as input to the stator of
Synchro transformer. A voltage will be induced in the rotor of control transformer by
transformer action. This voltage is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the two
rotors.
Therefore, e(t )  k ' A sin t cos 
Where ϕ- angular displacement between two rotors
When ϕ=90; e(t)=0, that is error voltage is zero.
The position is known as electrical zero or reference.
Let the initial position of rotor be 90 deg out of phase as in figure
e(t )  k ' Asin t cos 90  0
Let rotor transmitter is displaced by an angle θ and rotor of control transformer displaced by
an angle α. Then the net displacement between the rotor is (90+θ-α).
e(t )  k ' A sin t cos(90     )  k ' A sin t sin(   )
For small angular displacement
e(t )  k ' A(   ) sin t
Thus Synchro transmitter and control transformer acts as an error detector bygiving an
error signal proportional to the angular difference between the transmitter and control
transformer shaft position.
Input to the transmitter is a carrier signal error (θ-α) acts as modulating signal error
signal e(t) is a modulating signal .

FEEDBACK AND FEEDFORWARD CONTROL THEORY

In feedback system, when a disturbance enters the system, the process deviates, the
error is sensed from the feedback. The control action is based on the error signal. The main
disadvantage is that only after the disturbance enters the process, the controlled variable is
deviated, then only the corrective action is taken.

Fig: Feedback control

Whereas, in feed forward control system, the controller compensates before the
disturbance affects the process. The efficiency of disturbance control depends on the ability
to measure the disturbance. It estimates the effect of disturbance on the controlled variable, so
that we can compensate for it.
For example, in a heat exchanger, the feedback control action depends on the sensed
temperature. The input parameters to the plant are flow and temperature of the input fluid and
the steam flow.
Any disturbance affecting the plant is sensed by the temperature sensor and then the
control action is done by controlling the steam flow.
In feedforward control strategy the steam flow into the plant depends on the flow and
temperature of the fluid. It is a kind of open loop control. The disturbance is anticipated prior
to it affecting the plant. This control can minimize the transient error, with limited accuracy
since it cannot cancel un-measurable disturbance.

Fig: Feed forward control

Fig: Feed forward control scheme

Another control scheme uses both Feed-forward and feedback control together, such
that the system uses compensator and also provides the feedback control for unmeasurable
disturbance.

Fig: Combined Feed-forward and feedback control

MULTIVARIBLE CONTROL SCHEMES
Complex process and machines often have several variables (output) that we wish to
control, and several manipulated input variables available to provide this control. Sometimes
the control situation is simple; one input affects primarily one output and has only weak
effect in the other outputs. In such situations, it is possible to ignore weak interactions
(coupling) and design controllers under the assumption that one input affects only one output.
Input-output paring to minimize the effects of interactions and application of SISO control
schemes to obtain separate controllers for each input-output pair, results in an acceptable
performance. This, in fact, amounts to considering the multivariable system as constituting of
an appropriate number of separate SISO systems. Coupling effects are considered as
disturbance to the separate control systems and may not cause significant degradation in their
performance if the coupling is weak.
A multivariable system is said to have strong interaction (coupling) if one input
affects more than one output appreciably. There are two approaches for the design of
controllers for such system.
 Design a decoupling controller to cancel the interaction inherent in the system.
Consider the resulting multivariable system as consisting of an appropriate number of
SISO systems, and design a controller for each system.
 Design s single controller for the multivariable system, taking interacting into
account.