Ehsan Khaled Gouda El-Shahhat

(Design and Production Engineering Department)

Report about:
Engineering Materials and Their Applications

Presenting to:
Dr. Ahmed Shaker
 Chapter (1)
1.Composites
1.1 Introduction
• Composites are artificially produced multiphase materials having desirable combinations
of the best properties of the constituent phases.
• Usually, one phase (the matrix) is continuous and completely surrounds the other
(the dispersed phase).
• In this discussion, composites were classified as particle-reinforced, fiber-reinforced,and
structural.

Figure1.1 classification scheme for the various composite types discussed in this chapter.

1.2 Large particle composites

Large-particle composites are polymeric materials with fillers, improving properties and/or
replacing some polymer volume with a less expensive material. Concrete is a common example,
composed of cement (the matrix) and sand and gravel (the particulates).

• Rule of mixtures
The behavior of a two-phase composite is influenced by the volume fraction of the constituent
phases, with mechanical properties being enhanced with increasing particulate content. Two
mathematical expressions predict that the elastic modulus should fall between upper and lower
bounds.
1
In these expressions, E and V denote the elastic modulus and volume fraction, respectively,
whereas the subscripts c, m, and p represent composite, matrix, and particulate phases.

Figure 1.2 Modulus of elasticity versus volume percent tungsten for a composite of tungsten particles
dispersed within a copper matrix.

1.3 Influence of fiber length

The mechanical properties of a fiber-reinforced composite depend on the fiber's properties and
the load transmitted by the matrix phase. The interfacial bond between the fiber and matrix
phases is crucial for load transmittance, which ceases under stress, resulting in matrix
deformation.

Figure 1.3 The deformation pattern in the matrix surrounding a fiber that is subjected to an applied
tensile load. 2
Critical fiber length (lc) is crucial for composite material strengthening and stiffening,
influenced by fiber strength (𝜎𝑓∗ ), diameter (d), and fiber-matrix bond strength/matrix shear
yield strength (τc).

Figure 1.4 Stress–position profiles when fiber length l (a) is equal to the critical length lc, (b) is greater than the
critical length, and (c) is less than the critical length for fiber-reinforced composite that is subjected to a tensile
stress equal to the fiber tensile strength.

As shown in figure 1.4 the maximum fiber load is achieved only at the axial center of the fiber.
As fiber length l increases, the fiber reinforcement becomes more effective.

1.4 Influence of fiber orientation and concentration

Fiber orientation, concentration, and distribution significantly impact the strength and properties
of fiber-reinforced composites, with two possible extremes in orientation.
(1) a parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of the fibers in a single direction, and
(2) a totally random alignment.

3
 Figure 1.5 Schematic representations of (a) continuous and aligned, (b) discontinuous and aligned, and (c)
discontinuous and randomly oriented fiber–reinforced composites.

Continuous and Aligned Fiber Composites

Tensile Stress–Strain Behavior—Longitudinal Loading
The mechanical properties of this type of composites depend on factors like fiber and matrix
phase stress-strain behaviors, phase volume fractions, and load direction. The properties of an
aligned composite are highly anisotropic, influenced by measurement direction.

Figure1.6 (a) Schematic stress–strain curves for brittle fiber and ductile matrix materials. Fracture stresses
and strains for both materials are noted. (b) Schematic stress–strain curve for an aligned fiber–reinforced
composite that is exposed to a uniaxial stress applied in the direction of alignment.

4
Elastic Behavior—Longitudinal Loading
The total load sustained by the composite Fc is equal to the sum of the loads carried by the
matrix phase Fm and the fiber phase Ff .
Fc =Fm +Ff
But, F= σA
then, σc Ac = σm Am + σf Af
and then, dividing through by the total cross-sectional area of the composite, Ac,
𝑨𝒎 𝑨𝒇
we have σc = 𝝈 𝒎 + 𝝈𝒇
𝑨𝒄 𝑨𝒄

then, σc = σm Vm + σf Vf
Where Vm ,Vf are the area fractions of the matrix and fiber phases, respectively.
Assuming an isostrain state which means that, ϵc = ϵm + ϵf and when each term in the
previous Equation is divided by its respective strain then,
𝝈𝒄 𝝈𝒎 𝝈𝒇
= 𝑽𝒎 + 𝑽𝒇
𝝐𝒄 𝝐𝒎 𝝐𝒇
𝝈
but E (The modulus of elasticity) = .Finally we have the expression:
𝝐

or

where Ecl is the modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction for a continuous and aligned
fiber–reinforced composite.
Because the composite consists of only matrix and fiber phases; that is, Vm+ Vf = 1.
For longitudinal loading, that the ratio of the load carried by the fibers to that carried by the
matrix is:
𝑭𝒇 𝑬𝒇 𝑽𝒇
=
𝑭𝒎 𝑬𝒎 𝑽𝒎

5
Elastic Behavior—Transverse Loading
A continuous fiber composite can be loaded in the transverse direction at a 90-degree angle to
the direction of fiber alignment, resulting in the same stress for the composite and both phases.
σc = σm = σf = σ
This is termed an isostress state. Also, the strain or deformation of the entire composite ϵc is:
𝝐𝒄 = 𝝐𝒎 𝑽𝒎 + 𝝐𝒇 𝑽𝒇
But because 𝝐 = 𝝈⁄𝑬 then,
𝝈 𝝈 𝝈
= 𝑽 + 𝑽
𝑬𝒄𝒕 𝑬𝒎 𝒎 𝑬𝒇 𝒇
where Ect is the modulus of elasticity in the transverse direction for a continuous and aligned
fiber–reinforced composite.
Now, dividing through by σ yields:

which reduces to:

Longitudinal Tensile Strength

Strength characteristics of continuous fiber-reinforced composites loaded in the longitudinal
direction are considered. The strength typically defined as the maximum stress on the stress-
strain curve.
For a continuous and aligned fiber–reinforced composite, longitudinal strength in tension (𝜎𝑐𝑙∗ )
is:

Here 𝝈′𝒎 is the stress in the matrix at fiber failure and 𝝈∗𝒇 is the fiber tensile strength.
Transverse Tensile Strength
• Continuous and unidirectional fibrous composites are highly anisotropic and designed for
high strength, longitudinal loads.

6
 • However, transverse tensile loads that may also be present during in-service applications
can cause premature failure due to their low transverse strength, which can be below the
matrix's tensile strength.
• Factors influencing transverse strength include fiber and matrix properties, fiber-matrix
bond strength, and void presence.
• To improve transverse strength, matrix properties are typically modified.
Discontinuous and Aligned-Fiber Composites
Discontinuous and aligned-fiber composites are increasingly important in the commercial
market, with chopped-glass fibers being the most commonly used. These short-fiber composites
have moduli of elasticity and tensile strengths approaching 90% and 50% of continuous fibers.

For a discontinuous ( ɭ > ɭc) and aligned fiber–reinforced composite, longitudinal strength in
∗
tension (𝜎𝑐𝑑 ) is:

Where 𝜎𝑓∗ and 𝜎𝑚

′
represent, respectively, the fracture strength of the fiber and the
stress in the matrix when the composite fails.

For a discontinuous ( ɭ < ɭc) and aligned fiber–reinforced composite, longitudinal strength in
∗
tension (𝜎𝑐𝑑′ ) is:

where d is the fiber diameter and τc is the smaller of either the fiber–matrix bond strength or the
matrix shear yield strength.
Discontinuous and Randomly Oriented–Fiber Composites
For a discontinuous and randomly oriented fiber–reinforced composite, modulus of elasticity
(Ecd) is:

Where K is a fiber efficiency parameter that depends on Vf and the Ef /Em ratio.

1.5 Polymer-matrix composites

Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) consist of a polymer resin as the matrix, with fibers as the
reinforcement medium. These materials are used in the greatest diversity of composite

7
applications, as well as in the largest quantities, considering their room-temperature properties,
ease of fabrication, and cost.
Various classifications of PMCs are discussed according to reinforcement type (i.e., glass and
carbon)
Glass Fiber–Reinforced Polymer Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Polymer
(GFRP) Composites (CFRP) Composites
Advantages • Easily drawn into high-strength • Carbon fibers have the highest specific
fibers from molten state. modulus and specific strength of all
• Economically fabricated into reinforcing fiber materials.
glass-reinforced plastic using • Retains high tensile modulus and
various composite manufacturing strength at elevated temperatures.
techniques. • Unaffected by moisture, solvents, acids,
• Produces high specific strength bases at room temperature.
when embedded in a plastic matrix. • Provides specific engineered properties
• Possesses chemical inertness, in composites.
making it useful in corrosive • Manufacturing processes are cost-
environments when coupled with effective and inexpensive.
various plastics.
Limitations • Lacks stiffness for certain Manufacturing techniques for producing
applications. carbon fibers are relatively complex.
• Limited to service temperatures
below 200 oC (400 oF).
Applications Automotive and marine bodies, plastic sports and recreational equipment (fishing
pipes, storage containers, and rods, golf clubs), filament-wound rocket
industrial floorings. motor cases, pressure vessels, and aircraft
structural components.

Why is the surface protection of glass fibers so important?

Surface characteristics of glass fibers are crucial as even minor flaws can negatively impact
their tensile properties. Surface flaws can be introduced by rubbing or abrading, and weakened
surfaces from normal atmosphere exposure can interfere with matrix bonding.

What measures are taken to protect the surface of glass fibers?

Newly drawn fibers are typically coated with a protective layer, which is removed before
composite fabrication and replaced with a coupling agent or finish, which creates a chemical
bond between the fiber and matrix.

Cite the distinction between carbon and grafite.

Carbon is an element, and the stable form of crystalline carbon at ambient conditions is
graphite.

8
1.6 Processing of fiber-reinforced composites
This section discusses techniques like pultrusion, filament winding, and prepreg production
processes for uniformly distributed fibers within a plastic matrix to meet design specifications.

Pultrusion
Overview
• Continuous-fiber rovings impregnated with thermosetting resin.
• Stock pulled through a steel die to preform desired shape and establish resin/fiber ratio.
• Stock passes through precision machined curing die for final shape.
• Pulling device determines production speed.
• Used for manufacturing components with continuous lengths and constant cross-sectional
shape.
• Continuous process, easily automated, high production rates, cost-effective.
• Variety of shapes possible, no practical limit to stock length.

Figure 1.7 Schematic diagram showing the pultrusion process.

Prepreg
Overview
• Prepreg refers to continuous-fiber reinforcement pre-impregnated with a partially cured
polymer resin.
• The material is delivered in tape form to the manufacturer, who molds and fully cures the
product without adding any resin.
• The process involves collimating spool-wound continuous-fiber tows, sandwiching and
pressing between sheets of release and carrier paper, and coating the release paper sheet with a
thin film of heated resin solution.
• The resin is spread into a uniform film, and the final product is prepared for packaging by
winding onto a cardboard core.

9
 Figure 1.8 Schematic diagram illustrating the production of prepreg tape using a thermoset polymer.

Filament winding
Overview
• Positions continuous reinforcing fibers in a predetermined pattern.
• Fibers fed through resin bath and wound onto mandrel.
• Uses automated winding equipment.
• Applyed layers are cured in oven or room temperature.
• Mandrel removed after curing.

Figure 1.9 Schematic representations of helical, circumferential, and polar filament winding techniques.
10
1.7 Laminar composites
A laminar composite is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels that have a preferred
high-strength direction, such as is found in wood and continuous and aligned fiber–reinforced
plastics. The layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together such that the orientation of
the high-strength direction varies with each successive layer.

Figure 1.10 The stacking of successive oriented fiber–reinforced layers for a laminar composite.

1.8 Sandwich panels

Sandwich panels are lightweight, high-strength structural composites consisting of two outer
sheets separated by and adhesively bonded to a thicker core. These sheets, typically made of
materials like aluminum alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics, titanium, steel, or plywood, provide
high stiffness and strength to the structure, ensuring it can withstand tensile and compressive
stresses from loading. (the functions of the faces)

The core material, typically lightweight and low in elasticity, serves multiple functions,
including continuous support for faces, sufficient shear strength to withstand transverse stresses,
and high shear stiffness to resist panel buckling, with lower tensile and compressive stresses on
the core than on the faces.

Figure 1.11 Schematic diagram showing the cross section of a sandwich panel.
11
 Figure 1.12 Schematic diagram showing the construction of a honeycomb core sandwich panel.

Strength and stiffness of honeycomb structures depend on cell size, cell wall thickness, and the
material from which the honeycomb is made.

Sandwich panels are used in a wide variety of applications including roofs, floors, and walls of
buildings and in aerospace and aircraft (i.e., for wings, fuselage, and tailplane skins).
1.9 Solved Examples
Example (1)
Property Determinations for a Glass Fiber–Reinforced Composite-Longitudinal Direction
A continuous and aligned glass fiber–reinforced composite consists of 40 vol% of glass fibers
having a modulus of elasticity of 69 GPa (10 ×106 psi) and 60 vol% of a polyester resin that,
when hardened, displays a modulus of 3.4 GPa (0.5× 106 psi).
(a) Compute the modulus of elasticity of this composite in the longitudinal direction.
(b) If the cross-sectional area is 250 mm2 (0.4 in2.) and a stress of 50 MPa (7250 psi) is applied
in this longitudinal direction, compute the magnitude of the load carried by each of the fiber and
matrix phases.
(c) Determine the strain that is sustained by each phase when the stress in part (b) is applied.
Solution
(a) Ecl = ?
Ecl = Em Vm + Ef Vf

Ecl = (3.4)(0.6) + (69)(0.4) = 29.64 Gpa

12
(b) Ff, Fm = ?
𝐹𝑓 𝐸𝑓 𝑉𝑓
=
𝐹𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝑉𝑚

𝐹𝑓 (69)(0.4)
= = 13.53
𝐹𝑚 (3.4)(0.6)

Ff = 13.53 Fm

Fc = Ac σc = (250)(50) = 12500 N

Fc = Ff + Fm = 13.53 Fm + Fm = 12500 N

Fm = 860.3 N

Ff = 11639.7 N

(c) ϵm , ϵf = ?
Am = Vm Ac = (0.6)(250) = 150 mm2

Af = Vf Ac = (0.4)(250) = 100 mm2

Fm 860.3
σm = = = 5.735 Mpa
Am 150

𝐹𝑓 11639.7
σf = = = 116.4 Mpa
𝐴𝑓 100

𝜎𝑚 5.735
ϵm = = = 1.687× 10-3
𝐸𝑚 3400 𝑀𝑝𝑎

𝜎𝑓 116.4
ϵf = = = 1.687× 10-3
𝐸𝑓 69000 𝑀𝑝𝑎

13
Example (2)
Elastic Modulus Determination for a Glass Fiber–Reinforced Composite-Transverse
Direction
Compute the elastic modulus of the composite material described in Example (1), but assume
that the stress is applied perpendicular to the direction of fiber alignment.
Solution
Ect = ?

𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑓 (3.4)(69)
Ect = = (0.6)(69)+(0.4)(3.4)
= 5.5 Gpa
𝑉𝑚 𝐸𝑓 + 𝑉𝑓 𝐸𝑚

Example (3) (Design Example)

Design of a Tubular Composite Shaft
A tubular composite shaft is to be designed that has an outside diameter of 70 mm (2.75 in.), an
inside diameter of 50 mm (1.97 in.), and a length of 1.0 m (39.4 in.); such is represented
schematically in Figure 1.13 .The mechanical characteristic of prime importance is bending
stiffness in terms of the longitudinal modulus of elasticity; strength and fatigue resistance are
not significant parameters for this application when filament composites are used. Stiffness is to
be specified as maximum allowable deflection in bending; when subjected to three-point
bending (i.e., support points at both tube extremities and load application at the longitudinal
midpoint), a load of 1000 N (225 lbf) is to produce an elastic deflection of no more than 0.35
mm (0.014 in.) at the midpoint position. Continuous fibers that are oriented parallel to the tube
axis will be used; possible fiber materials are glass, and carbon in standard-, intermediate-, and
high-modulus grades. The matrix material is to be an epoxy resin, and the maximum allowable
fiber volume fraction is 0.60.
This design problem calls for us to do the following:
(a) Decide which of the four fiber materials, when embedded in the epoxy matrix, meet the
stipulated criteria.
(b) Of these possibilities, select the one fiber material that will yield the lowest- cost composite
material (assuming fabrication costs are the same for all fibers).

Figure 1.13 Schematic representation of a tubular composite shaft, the subject of Example 3
14
Elastic modulus, density, and cost data for the fiber and matrix materials are contained in the
following table:

Solution
(a) The composite material's longitudinal modulus of elasticity must be determined using the
three-point deflection expression:
𝐹 𝐿3
𝛥𝑦 =
48 𝐸𝐼
𝜋 4
𝐼= (𝑑𝑜 − 𝑑𝑖4 )
64

Then,
4𝐹𝐿3
𝐸=
3𝜋𝛥𝑦(𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 )
4(1000)(13 )
𝐸= = 68.3 𝐺𝑝𝑎
3𝜋(0.35 × 10−3 )((70 × 10−3 )4 − (50 × 10−3 )4 )
The next step is to determine the fiber and matrix volume fractions for each of the four
candidate fiber materials.
𝐸𝑐𝑠 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑉𝑚 + 𝐸𝑓 𝑉𝑓 = 𝐸𝑚 (1 − 𝑉𝑓 ) + 𝐸𝑓 𝑉𝑓
Using this equation and the moduli data in the given table, the Vm and Vf values required for Ecs
= 68.3 GPa is listed in the following table:
Fiber type Vf Vm
Glass 0.94 0.06
Carbon (standard modulus) 0.29 0.71
Carbon (intermediate modulus) 0.23 0.77
Carbon (high modulus) 0.166 0.834

15
Then, only the three carbon-fiber types are possible candidates because their Vf values are less
than 0.6.

(b) At this point it becomes necessary to determine the volume of fibers and matrix for each
of the three carbon types. The total tube volume Vc is:
𝜋𝐿 4 𝜋(100 𝑐𝑚)
𝑉𝐶 = (𝑑𝑜 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) = ((7𝑐𝑚)2 − (5𝑐𝑚)2 ) = 1885 𝑐𝑚3
4 4
Thus, fiber and matrix volumes result from products of this value and the Vf and Vm values cited
in previous table. These volume values are presented in a following table, which are then
converted into masses using densities (in the given table), and finally into material costs, from
the per unit mass cost (also in the given table).

Fiber type Fiber Fiber Fiber cost Matrix Matrix Matrix Total cost
volume mass ($US) volume mass cost ($US)
(cm3) (kg) (cm3) (kg) ($US)
Carbon 546.65 0.984 59.04 1338.35 1.53 9.18 68.22
(standard modulus)

Carbon 433.55 0.780 74.1 1451.45 1.65 9.9 84

(intermediate modulus)

Carbon 312.91 0.563 140.75 1572.1 1.8 10.8 151.55

(high modulus)

Then, the material of choice (i.e., the least expensive) is the standard-modulus carbon-fiber
composite; the relatively low cost per unit mass of this fiber material offsets its relatively low
modulus of elasticity and required high volume fraction.

16
 Chapter (2)
2.Thermal Properties
2.1 Introduction

Thermal property refers to a material's response to heat, affecting its temperature and
dimensions. It is crucial in the practical utilization of solids, with properties like heat capacity,
thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity being essential.

2.2 Heat capacity

Heat capacity is a material's capacity to absorb heat from external sources, indicating the energy
needed to increase a unit temperature. In mathematical terms, the heat capacity C is expressed as
follows:

Where dQ is the energy required to produce a dT temperature change. Ordinarily, heat capacity
is specified per mole of material (e.g., J/mol K, or cal/mol K).

Specific heat (often denoted by a lowercase c) is sometimes used; this represents the heat capacity
per unit mass and has various units (J/kg.K, cal/g.K, Btu/lbm .oF).

Cv : The heat capacity while maintaining the specimen volume constant.

CP : The heat capacity while maintaining external pressure constant.

Vibrational Heat Capacity

Solid materials' atoms vibrate at high frequencies and small amplitudes, generating vibrational
thermal energy. This energy is quantized into elastic waves with varying distributions and
frequencies, with a single quantum called a phonon, (A phonon is similar to the quantum of
electromagnetic radiation)

The thermal scattering of free electrons during electronic conduction is by these vibrational
waves, and these elastic waves also participate in the transport of energy during thermal
conduction.

17
Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of the generation of lattice waves in a crystal by means of atomic vibrations.

Temperature Dependence of the Heat Capacity

Figure 2.2 The temperature dependence of the heat capacity at constant volume; θD is the Debye temperature,
above it Cυ levels off and becomes essentially independent of temperature at a value of approximately 3R, R
being the gas constant.

As shown in the previous figure The Cυ is zero at 0 oK, but it rises rapidly with temperature; this
corresponds to an increased ability of the lattice waves to enhance their average energy with
ascending temperature. At low temperatures the relationship between Cυ and the absolute
temperature T is:

Where A is a temperature-independent constant.

18
2.3 Thermal expansion
Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled. The change in length with
temperature for a solid material may be expressed as follows:

Or

Where l0 and lf represent, respectively, initial and final lengths with the temperature change from
T0 to Tf The parameter αι is called the linear coefficient of thermal expansion; It is a material
property that indicates the degree to which a material expands upon heating, and has units of
reciprocal temperature [(oC)-1 or (oF)-1].

Volume changes with temperature may be computed from:

Where ΔV and V0 are the volume change and the original volume, respectively, and αυ symbolizes
the volume coefficient of thermal expansion.
For materials in which thermal expansion is isotropic, αυ is approximately 3αι .

2.4 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conduction is the phenomenon by which heat is transported from high-to low-
temperature regions of a substance. The ability of a material to transfer heat is thermal
conductivity, which is defined as follows:

(Valid only for steady-state heat flow)

Where q denotes the heat flux (W/m2 (Btu/ft2. H)), or heat flow, per unit time per unit area (area
being taken as that perpendicular to the flow direction), k is the thermal conductivity (W/m.K
(Btu/ft.h.of)), and dt/dx is the temperature gradient through the conducting medium.
Mechanisms of Heat Conduction
Heat in solid materials is transported through lattice vibration waves (phonons) and free
electrons, resulting in thermal conductivity, which is the sum of these two contributions, or:

Where kl and ke represent the lattice vibration and electron thermal conductivities, respectively.
19
Metals
• High-purity metals have a more efficient electron mechanism of heat transport than
phonons due to their higher velocities and less scattering.
• Metals are excellent heat conductors due to their large number of free electrons, with
thermal conductivities ranging between 20 and 400 W/m.K.
• The Wiedemann-Franz law should be used to relate these conductivities.

Where σ is the electrical conductivity, T is the absolute temperature, and L is a constant,

(2.44×10-8 Ω.W/(K)2) ,which should be independent of temperature and the same for all metals
if the heat energy is transported entirely by free electrons.
Ceramics
• Nonmetallic materials which are thermal insulators due to their lack of free electrons.
• Phonons are responsible for thermal conduction, but are less effective in heat energy
transport due to efficient phonon scattering by lattice imperfections.
• Their thermal conductivities range from 2 to 50 W/m.K.
• Amorphous ceramics, like glass, have lower conductivities because the phonon scattering
is much more effective when the atomic structure is highly disordered and irregular.

Figure 2.3 Dependence of thermal conductivity on temperature for several ceramic materials.

20
For some ceramic materials, why does the thermal conductivity first decrease and then
increase with rising temperature?
As shown in the previous figure, thermal conductivity of ceramic materials typically decreases
with temperature due to lattice vibration scattering. However, at higher temperatures,
conductivity increases due to radiant heat transfer, where infrared radiant heat can be transported
through transparent ceramic materials.

Why does porosity decrease the thermal conductivity of ceramic materials?

Increasing pore volume reduces thermal conductivity in porous ceramics used for thermal
insulation, as heat transfer is slow and inefficient. Internal pores typically contain still air with
low thermal conductivity, approximately 0.02 W/m.K, and gaseous convection is ineffective.
Polymers
• Thermal conductivities for most polymers are on the order of 0.3 W/m.K.
• The magnitude of the thermal conductivity depends on the degree of crystallinity; a
polymer with a highly crystalline and ordered structure will have a greater conductivity
than the equivalent amorphous material.
• Polymers are often used as thermal insulators because of their low thermal conductivities
as with ceramics.

2.5 Thermal stresses

Thermal stresses are stresses induced in a body as a result of changes in temperature.

Stresses Resulting from Restrained Thermal Expansion and Contraction

A homogeneous, isotropic solid rod heated or cooled uniformly without temperature gradients
is stress-free for free expansion or contraction, but thermal stresses may be introduced if rigid end
supports restrain axial motion. The magnitude of the stress σ resulting from a temperature change
from T0 to Tf is:

Where E is the modulus of elasticity and αι is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion.

Stresses Resulting from Temperature Gradients

• Thermal stresses are formed by temperature gradients across a body, often caused by rapid
heating or cooling.
• Upon heating, the exterior of a specimen expands more than the interior, causing
compressive surface stresses and tensile interior stresses; Rapid cooling reverses these
stress conditions.
21
Thermal Shock of Brittle Materials
Ductile metals and polymers can alleviate thermally induced stresses through plastic deformation,
but nonductility in ceramics increases the risk of brittle fracture. Rapid cooling of brittle bodies
causes more thermal shock due to tensile surface stresses, leading to crack formation and
propagation. The capacity of a material to withstand this kind of failure is termed its thermal
shock resistance (TSR), expressed by:

Where σf is fracture strength , and k is thermal conductivity.

What measures may be taken to reduce the likelihood of thermal shock of a ceramic piece
or any other material?
Thermal shock can be prevented by reducing cooling or heating rates, minimizing temperature
gradients, and modifying thermal and mechanical characteristics in the previous equation. Large
pores or a ductile second phase can also enhance thermal shock resistance, preventing the
propagation of thermally induced cracks.
2.6 Solved Examples
Example (1)
Thermal Stress Created upon Heating
A brass rod is to be used in an application requiring its ends to be held rigid. If the rod is stress
free at room temperature [20oC (68oF)], what is the maximum temperature to which the rod may
be heated without exceeding a compressive stress of 172 MPa (25,000 psi)? Assume a modulus
of elasticity of 100 GPa (14.6×106 psi) for brass.
Solution
Tf = ?
𝜎 = 𝐸𝛼𝑙 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑓 )

𝜎 −172
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑜 − = 20 − (100×103 )(20×10−6 ) =106oc
𝐸𝛼𝑙

22