All about Failure Mechanisms of C-steels according to API 571

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Creep and Creep at Temperature 1. All metals 1. Material 1. Heater tubes
Stress >370˚C depending on 2. Low creep 2. Load in fired heaters
Rupture material. Deformation ductility 3. Temperature 2. Tube support
(API 571/ may lead to a rupture 3. Cut of 3. Other furnace
GALIOM) Related Mechanism: remaining internals
1.Short term overheat. life 4. HAZ
Stress Rupture
2. Reheat cracking
in heavy wall equipm.

Mechanical sudden, unexpected 1. All metals 1. Geometrie 1. small

Fatigue failure exposed to 2. Stress level (Temp.) nozzles
(API 571) cyclic stresses for an 2. Fatigue 3. Number of cycles 2. rotating
Corrosion extented period limit 4. Material strength shafts on
Fatigue 5. Material Hardness pumps and
Cracking Related Mechanism: 3. Endurance 6. Material Mikrostruct. compressors
(GALIOM) Vibration induced limit
consider fatigue,Thermal fatigue
also Therm.
Vibration
Fatigue(API
Erosion/ Erosion: 1. All metals 1.Velocity 1. Bends
Erosion- mechanical removal 2.Hardness 2.Concentration of 2. Tees
Corrosion of surface material of the impacting medium 3. Reducers
(API 571/ Erosion- Corrosion: surface 3. Size and hardness 4. Nozzles
GALIOM) removing protective 3. Free of impacting particles 5. Valves
films corrosion 4. Hardness and 6. Pumps
Related Mechanism: potential corrosion resistance 7. Heatexch.
Cavitation, Fretting (V) 5. Angle of impact

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Reheat Cracking of a metal 1.Low alloy 1. Chemical composit. 1. Heavy wall
Cracking due to stress steels 2. Impurity elements vessels in areas
(API 571/ relaxation during 2. Loss of 3. Grain size of high restraint
GALIOM) PWHT or in service toughness 4. Residual stresses including
at elevated temperat. 3. Intergran. (cold working, welding) nozzle welds
It is most often cracking 5. Section thickness and heavy wall
observed in heavy wall 6. Notches and stress piping.
sections. concentrations 2. High strength
low alloy are
very susceptible
Galvanic occur at the junction 1. Free 1. Electrolyte any unit
Corrosion of dissimilar metals corrosion 2. Two different where there
(API 571/ when they are joined potential materials is a
GALIOM) together in a suitable (anode/cathode) conductive
electrolyte. 3. Electrical connection fluid and
Related Mechanism: between the anode and alloys are
Soil corrosion cathode coupled.

Atmosph. occur from moisture 1. Free 1. Physical location 1. any unit

corrosion associated with corrosion (marine) 2. under poor
(API 571/ atmospheric potential 2. Moisture coating
GALIOM) conditions. (humidity) system
Marine environments 3. Temperature 3. low temp.
are most severe. 4. not used
component
Related Mechanism: 5. open to
Corrosion under atmosphere
isulation

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Corrosion resulting from water 1. Free 1. Design of insulation 1. any unit
under trapped under corrosion system
Insulation insulation potential 2. Insulation typ
(CUI) fireproofing 3. Temperature
(API 571/ 4. Environment
GALIOM) Humidity, rainfall,
Related Mechanisms: chlorides from marine
1. Atmospheric environment
corrosion 5. Operating below the
2. Crevice/Under water dew point
Deposit

Cooling General or localized 1. Free 1.Fluid Temperature cooling water

Water corrosion caused by corrosion (increasing temp. tend corrosion is
Corrosion dissolved salts, potential to increase corr.-rate a concern
(API 579/ gases, organic and fouling) with water-
GALIOM) compounds or 2. Type of water cooled heat
don't use microbiological (fresh, brackish, salt) exchangers
activity >60˚C for fresh, >46˚C and cooling
for brackish and salt towers in all
 Related Mechanisms water cause scaling applications
1. Microbiologically 3. Type of cooling syst.
induced corrosion (once-through, open
(MIC) circulating, closed circ.)

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
continue 2. Chloride stress 4. Oxygen content
Cooling corrosion cracking (increasing oxygen
Water 3. Galvanic corrosion content tends to
Corrosion increase corr.-rates)
(API 579/ 5. Fluid velocities
GALIOM) <1m/s are likely to
don't use result in fouling,
sedimendation and
increased corr.-rates.
6. Fouling occur from
mineral deposits, silt,
suspended organic
materials, corrosion
products, mill scale,
marine and mircro-
biological growth

CO2 CO2 Corrosion results 1. Free 1. Partial Pressure of 1. Welds

Corrosion when CO2 dissolves corrosion CO2. Increasing partial 2. Bends
(API 571/ in water to form potential pressure of CO2 3. Reducer
GALIOM) carbon acid (H2CO3) result in lower pH 4. Tees
The acid may lower condensate and higher 5. Nozzles
the pH and sufficient rates of corrosion. (1.-5 are
quantities may 2. Corrosion occurs in turbulent
promote general the liquid phase, often areas of flow
corrosion and/or at locations where CO2 regime)
pitting corrosion condenses from the 6. Bottom of
vapor phase. pipe/
3. Increasing equipment
temperature increase (as the

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
continue Related Mechanisms corrosion rate up to the density of
CO2 1. Boiler water point where CO2 is water is
Corrosion condensate corrosion vaporized. larger than
(API 571/ 2. Carbonate cracking 4.In absence of of oil).
GALIOM) moisture is CO2 a non- 7. Dead legs
corrosive gas. 8. Top surface
 5. Whether or not free of the pipe if
water will be present condensation
in crude oil and gas in wet gas
depends upon factors systems is
as the water cut, flow anticipated
regime and process
parameters.

Flue-Gas 1. Sulfur and chlorine C-Steel, 1. Concentration of 1. All fired

Dew-Point species in fuel will C-Cr-Mo-St. contaminants (sulfur and process heaters
Corrosion form sulfur dioxide, chlorides) in the fuel and boilers that
(API 579/ sulfur trioxide and 2. Operating Temp. burn fuels
GALIOM) hydrogen chloride 3. Dewpoint of sulfuric in the econo-
within the combustion acid depends on the mizer sections
products. concentration of sulfur and in the
2. At low enough trioxide (about 138˚C). stacks.
temperature, these 4. Dewpoint of hydro-
gases and the water chloric acid (about 54˚C)
vapour in the flue gas
will condense to form
sulfurous acid, sulfuric
acid and hydrochloric
acid which can lead
to severe corrosion.

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Micro- corrosion caused by 1. Free 1. Where water is 1. Heat
biologically living organisms such corrosion present exchangers
Induced as bacteria, algae or potential 2. stagnant or low-flow 2. Bottom water
Corrosion fungi. It often 3. Organisms can of storage tanks
(MIC) associated with the survive and grow under 3. Piping with
(API 571) preence of tubercles severe conditions incl. stagnant or
or slimy organic a. lack of oxygen low flow
Biological substances b. light or dark 4. Piping in
Corrosion c. high salinity contact with
(GALIOM) Related Mechanisms: d. PH range: 0 to 12 some soils
Cooling water e. Temperature: 0˚ to 5. Open and not
corrosion 235˚F (-17˚ to 113˚C) used component
4. Organisms thrive on 6. Product
different nutrients incl. storage tanks
inorganic substances and water
(e.g. sulfur, ammonia, cooled heat
H2S) and organic exchangers
substances (e.g. in any unit
hydrocarbons, organic where cooling
acids). In addition, all water is not
organisms require a properly treated
source of carbon, 7. Fire water
nitrogen and phosphor. systems
 for growth.
5. In-leakage of process
contaminants such as
hydrocarbons or H2S
may lead to a massive
increase in biofouling
and corrosion

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Soil The deterioration of 1. Free 1. Temperature 1. Bottom of
Corrosion metals exposed to corrosion 2. Moisture storage tanks
don't use soils is refered to as potential 3. Oxygen 2. Production
soil corrosion. 4. Soil resistivity Separator
5. Soil type
6. Cathodic protection
Related Mechanisms 7. Coating type,age,
Galvanic corrosion condition
8. Soils having high
moisture content, high
dissolved salt concentr.
and high acidity are
usually the most
corrosive.
9. Soil-to-air interface
areas are often much
more susceptible to
corrosion than the rest
of the structure because
of moisture and oxygen
availability.
10. corrosion rates
increase with increasing
metal temperature
11. Other factors
a. galvanic corrosion
b. dissimilar soils
c. stray currents
d. differential aeration
corrosion cells
e. MIC

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Caustic Localized corrosion 1. Free 1. Presence of caustic 1. Boilers
Corrosion due to the corrosion (NaOH or KOH) 2. Steam
(API 579) concentration of potential 2. Caustic is sometimes generating
Caustic caustic or alkaline added to process equipments
Corrosion salts streams for neutralizat. incl. heat
and SCC 3. Caustic solutions exchangers
(GALIOM) Related Mechanisms: for removal of sulfur 3. Where
consider Steam Blanketing compounds caustic is added
also 4. A concentrating to crude unit
Caustic mechanism must exist charge
SCC to built up the caustic 4. Accelerated
(API 579) strength localized corr.
5. Caustic may become in preheat
concentrated by exchangers,
evaporation and furnace tubes
deposition and transfer
6. Exposure to high lines, unless
solution strength caustic the caustic is
can result in general effective mixed
corrosion above 175˚F in the oil stream
(79˚C) and very high 5. units use
corrosion rates above caustic for
200˚F (93˚C) removing
sulfur
compounds.

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Oxidation Oxygen reacts with C-Steel, 1. Temperatur >538˚C fired heaters and
(API 571) C-steel at high temp. C-Cr-Steel 2. Alloy Composition. boilers as well
High converting the metal as other
Temperat. to oxide scale. combustion
Corrosion It is most often equipment
(GALIOM) present as oxygen in
the surrounding air
used for combustion
in fired heaters/boilers

Sulfidation Corrosion of C-steel C-Steel, 1. Temperatur >260˚C 1.Heaters fired

(API 571) resulting from their C-Cr-Steel 2. Alloy Composition. with oil, gas
High Temp. reaction with sulfur 3. Concentration of 2. Boilers
H2 S compounds in high corrosive sulfur comp. 3. Piping
Corrosion temp. environments. 4. Sulfidation is primarily
(GALIOM) caused by H2S

Carburi- Carbon is absorbed 1.C-Steel, 1. Temperatur >593˚C 1.Fired heater

zation into a material at C-Cr-Steel 2. Alloy Composition. tubes
(API 571/ elevated temp. while 2.loss of high 3. Carburizing environm.
GALIOM) in contact with a temperature or carbonaceous mater.
carbonaceous mater. creep 4. Hydrocarbons, CO,
or carburizing environ. ductility; CO2, methane,ethane
Initially, carbon diffuse 3.loss of 5. Low O2 or steam
into the component at ambient temp
a high rate and then mech. Prop.
tapper off as the depth 4. loss of
of carburization weldability
increases. 5. loss of
Related: Metal dusting corros. resis.

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Decarbu- A condition where 1.C-Steels 1. Time 1. Components
rization steel loses strength C-Cr-Steels 2. Temperature exposed to
(API 579/ due the removal of 2. loss in 3. Carbon activity of the elevated temp.,
GALIOM) carbon and carbides room temp. process stream; gas heat treated or
leaving only an iron tensile phase (H2, CO2 ) that exposed to
matrix. Decarburizat. strength has a low carbon activity fire.
occurs during 3. loss in so that carbon in the 2. Piping in hot
exposure to high creep steel will diffuse to the hydrogen service
temperatures, during strength surface to react with gas 3. fired heater
heat treatment, from phase constituents. tubes
exposure to fire, or 4. Pressure
from high temperature vessel comp.
service in a gas envir. hot formed

Related Mechanism:
High temperature
Hydrogen Attack
(HTHA)

Metal Metal dusting is a see see see

Dusting form of carburization Carburization Carburization Carburization
(API 571/ resulting in accelerat.
GALIOM) localized pitting which
don't use occurs in carburizing
gases and/or process
streams containing
carbon and hydrogen.
Pits usually form on
the surface and may
contain soot or
graphite dust.

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Corrosion A form of fatigue 1. Free 1. Corrosive environment 1. Rotating
Fatigue cracking in which corrosion 2. Cyclic stresses Equipment
(API 571) cracks develop under potential 3. Cracking is more 2. Deaerators
Corrosion the combined affects 2.Endurance likely to occur in 3. Cyclic Boilers
Fatigue of cyclic loading and limit environments that 4. any equipm.
cracking corrosion. promote pitting or subjected to
(GALIOM) Cracking often localized corrosion cyclic stresses
consider initiates at a stress under cyclic stress due
also concentration such as to thermal stress,
Thermal a pit in the surface. vibration or differential
and Cracking can initiate expansion
Mechanical at multiple sites. 4. Contrary to a pure
Fatigue mechanical fatigue,
of API 571 Related Mechanisms: there is no fatigue limit
Mechanical fatigue load in corrosion-
Vibration induced assisted fatigue. Corr.
fatigue promotes failure at a
lower stress and number
of cycles than the
materials' normal
endurance limit in the
absence of corrosion
and often results in
propagating of multiple
parallel cracks.
5. Cracks initiation sites
include concentrators
such as pits, notches,
surface defects,
changes in section or
fillet welds.

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Caustic Caustic embrittlement 1. Free 1. Caustic Strength 1. Equipment
Stress is a form of stress corrosion Cracking can occur at that handles
Corrosion corrosion cracking potential low caustic levels if a caustic, incl.
Cracking characterized by concentrating mechan. H2S removal
(Caustic surface-initiated is present. units.
Embrittle- cracks that occur in Concentration can occur 2. Equipment
ment) piping and equipment as a result of alternating that uses
(API 571) exposed to caustic, wet and dry conditions, caustic for
Caustic primarily adjacent to localized hot spots or neutralization
Corrosion non-PWHT'd welds high temperature steam- in sulfuric acid
and SCC out. and HF
(GALIOM) In such cases, caustic alkylation units.
consider Related Mechanisms: concentrations of 50 to 3. Caustic is
also Amine cracking 100 ppm are sufficient sometimes
Caustic Carbonate cracking to cause cracking. injected into the
Corrosion 2. Metal Temperature feed (Inlet) to the
(API 571) Crack propagation rates crude tower
increase dramatically for chloride
with temperature. control.
3. Stress Level
Stresses that promote
cracking can be residual
that result from welding
or from cold working
(such as bending and
forming) as well as
applied stresses.
(Temp. and Stress
causing caustic embritt.
see Fig.4-85).

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
Ammonia Carbon steel is 1. Harness 1. Anhydrous ammonia 1. Ammonia is
Stress susceptible to SCC > 225 BHN with < 0.2% water will present as a
Corrosion in anhydrous cause cracking in process
Cracking ammonia. C-Steels. contaminant
(API 571) 2. PWHT eliminates in some
Ammonia Related Mechanism: susceptibility of most services or may
Corrosion not applicable common steels (< 70 be intentionally
and SCC ksi =482 Mpa) added as an
(GALIOM) 3. Contamination with acid neutralizer
air or oxygen increases2. ammonia
tendency toward storage tanks,
cracking piping and
equipment in
ammonia
refrigeration
units.
Hydrogen A loss in ductility of 1.Loss of Three conditions must 1.Mild steel
Embrittlem. high strength steels ductility be satisfied: for vessels and
(HE) due to the penetration 2. C-Steel 1. Critical concentration piping in most
(API 571/ of atomic hydrogen with ≥22 HRC of hydrogen within steel. refining, process
GALIOM) can lead to brittle Hydrogen can come from applications
cracking. HE can Welding-if wet electrode have low hard-
occur during are used. ness and are
manufacturing, High temper. Hydrogen usually not
welding, or from gas atmospheres. susceptible to
services that can Wet H2S or HF acid. HE (Pipe and
charge hydrogen into If the partial pressure Pressure vessel
the steel in an of H2S in the gas is steels classified
aqueous, corrosive, ≥ 0,3 kPa (0,05 psi) as P-No.1,
or a gaseous SSC (Sulfide stress Group 1 and 2.
Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected
Mechanism Properties related to service Units
continue environment. cracking)- resistant in Section IX of
Hydrogen steels, selected using ASME Boiler a.
Embrittlem. Related Mechanisms: Annex A.2 of ISO 15156 Pressure vessel
(HE) 1. hydrogen flaking Part 2, shall not show code.
(API 571/ 2. underbead cracking HE. 2. HAZ of welds
GALIOM) 3. delayed cracking 2. Strength level and if not PWHT is
4. hydrogen assisted microstructure must be done.
cracking susceptible to 3. Bolts and
5. hydrogen induced embrittlement. SSC- springs made
cracking. resistant steels shall of high stength
6. Sulfide stress not show HE. steel are very
cracking 3. A stress above the prone to HE.
7. Hydrogen stress threshold of HE must be
corrosion cracking present from residual
stresses and/or applied
stresses.

Amine general and/or local Primarily 1. Type of amine used 1. all units to
Corrosion corrosion that occurs C-steel From most aggressiv to remove H2S,
(API 571/ principally on carbon least: MEA,DGA,DIPA, CO2 and
GALIOM) steel in amine treating DEA,MDEA mercaptans
processes. 2. Amin-Concentration (a sulfur-contain
Corrosion is not >2% HSAS organic comp.)
caused by the amine 3. Temperature 2. Regenerator
itself, but results from Corr. Rates increase reboiler and
dissolved acid gases with Temperature regenerator
(CO2 and H2S), amine 4. Process stream 3.The rich amine
degradation products, velocity. Corrosion is side of the lean/
Heat Stable Amine generally uniform reach exchanger
Salts (HSAS) and however high velocities hot lean amine

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
continue other contaminants. (>2 m/s for rich amine piping, hot rich
Amine and >6 m/s for lean amine piping,
Corrosion Related Mechanisms: amine) and turbulence the amine
(API 571/ Amine stress corr. will cause localized solution pumps,
GALIOM) cracking thickness loss. reclaimer

Ammonium Aggressive corrosion Carbon 1. NH4HS-concentration 1. NH4HS salts

Bisulfide occuring in hydro steel is < 2 wt% solutions not precipitate in
Corrosion processing reactor less generally corrosive. the reactor
(Alkaline effluent streams and resistant 2. NH4HS salt deposits effluent streams
Sour in units handling lead to underdeposit when temperat.
Water) alkaline sour water corrosion and fouling. drop to within
(API 571/ (localized corrosion). 3. Oxygen and iron in the range of
GALIOM) the wash water injected 49 to 66˚C.
Related mechanisms: into hydroprocessing 2. Fouling and/
Erosion/Erosion corr. reactor effluent can lead or velocity
to increased corrosion accelerated
and fouling. corr. may be
found at:
air cooler head
exchanger tubes
inlet and outlet
piping.
3. Piping into
and out of the
reactor effluent
separators.
4. Vapor line
from the high

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
continue pressure
Ammonium separators.
Bisulfide 5. Hydrocarbon
Corrosion lines from
(Alkaline reactor effluent
Sour separators due
Water) to entrained
(API 571/ sour water.etc.
GALIOM)
Ammonium General or localized 1. Free 1. Concentration: 1. Crude tower
Chloride corrosion, often corrosion (NH3, HCl, H2O or overheads:
Corrosion pitting, normally occur potential amine salts) tower top, top
(API 571) under ammonium 2. PRE 2. Temperature: trays, overhead
chloride or amine salt (Pitting Ammonium chloride piping, exchang.
don't use deposits, often in the resistant salts may precipitate may be subject
absence of a free equivalent) from high temperature to fouling and
water phase streams as the they are corrosion.
cooled, and may corrode Deposits may
Related Mechanisms: piping and equipment occur in low
HCl corrosion at temperature well flow zones due
above the water dewpoint to ammonia and
(149˚C). or amine
3. Ammonium chloride chloride salts
salts are hygroscopic, condensing
and readily absorb water from the vapor
A small amount of water phase.
can lead to very 2. Hydroprocess
 aggressive corrosion Reactor effluent
(>100mpy or >2,5 mm/y streams.
4. Some neutralizing
amines react with

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
continue chlorides to form amine
Ammonium hydrochlorides that can
Chloride act in a simular fashion.
Corrosion 5. Corr. Rates increase
(API 571) with increasing temp.

High Temp. The presence of C-Steel, 1. Temperatur >260˚C 1. Hydro-

H2/H2S hydrogen in H2S C-Cr-Steel 2. Alloy Composition. processing
Corrosion streams increase the Cr-Mo-Steel 3. Prensence of H2
(API 571/ severity of high temp. 4. Concentration of H2S
GALIOM) sulfide corrosion. When H2 is present in
don't use significant quantities,
Related Mechanism: corrosion rates are
Sulfidation higher than those
associated with high
temp. sulfidation in the
absence of H2.

Sour Water Corrosion of steel due C-Steel 1. H2S content

Corrosion to acidic sour water 2. pH
(Acidic) cointaining H2S at a 3. Velocity
(API 571/ pH between 4.5 and 7. 4. O2 concentration
GALIOM) CO2 may also be 5. <4.5 pH corrosion
present. Sour water 6. >4.5 pH thin FeS
containing significant layer limits corr. Rate
amounts of ammonia, a thicker, porous FeS

Failure Description Affected Mat. Critical factors Affected

Mechanism Properties related to service Units
continue chlorides or cyanides layer can promote
Sour Water may significantly pitting under sulfide
Corrosion affect pH but are out- deposits.
(Acidic) side the scope of this 7. HCl and CO2 lower pH
(API 571/ mechanism. 8. Ammonia significantly
GALIOM) increases pH (alkalin
sour water and ammonia
bisulfide corrosion)
9. The presence of air or
oxidants may increase
the corrosion und
usually pitting or under
deposits.
Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to
Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
1. Hardening 1. Design Visual API 571:
2. Creep voids 2. Material UT,RT,EC, Chapter: 4.2.8
at grain bound. Selection WFMT Table 4-2
3. fissures 4. PWHT Figure:4-9, 4-10
4. cracks API 579: G.3.5
(bulging) Subsurface Crack.
and Microfissuring
Microvoid Format.

concentric 1. Good Design PT, MT and API 571:

rings (waves) 2. Material SWUT Chapter: 4.2.16
emanating Selection (shear wave Fig. 4-29 to 34
from the crack 3. Minimize US testing)
initiation site weld defects Vibration API 579:
4. use of UIT Monitoring G.3.4 Surface
5. Min. Stress connected
concentration cracking

localized loss 1. Geometry 1. Visual API 571:

in thickness, 2. Material inspection Chapter:4.2.14
in the form of Selection of suspected Table: 4-3
pits, grooves, 3. Surface areas Fig. 4-23,-24,-25
waves, rounded Hardening 2. UT, RT
holes and 4.Inhibitors (metal loss) API 579:
valleys G.3.3 Localized
metal loss

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
Reheat cracking 1. Minimize 1. Surface API 571:
is intergranular restraint during cracks:UT,MT Chapt.: 4.2.19
and can be welding and 2. Embedded API 579:
surface breaking PWHT. cracks: UT G.3.4./3.5.
or embedded 2. Small grain Surface and Sub-
depending on size surface Cracking
the state of 3. UIT to weld
stress and toe
geometry.
1. General 1. no contact 1.Visual API 571:
metal loss 2. Coating inspection Chapter: 4.3.1
2. Crevice (the more noble 2. UT Table: 4-4
3. Groove material should Thickness Fig. 4-36/-37
4. Pitting be coated)
3. electric API 579: G.3.3
insulating General or local
4. cathodic metal loss, Pitting
protection
1. general or 1. Surface 1.Visual API 571:
local metal loss preperation inspection Chapter: 4.3.2
2. Localized and proper 2. UT
coating failure coating Thickness API 579: G.3.3
will tend to application General or local
promote metal loss, Pitting
corrosion

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
often appears 1. High quality 1. Partial or API 571:
as loose, flaky coating full stripping Chapter: 4.3.3
scale covering 2. Selection 2. UT-Thickn. Fig. 4-38/-39
the corroded of insulation 3. Real-time
component material Profile X-ray API 579: G.3.3
(closed-cell for small bore General or local
foam glass piping metal loss, Pitting
better than 4. Neutron
mineral wool) backscater
3. Calcium or IR
Silicate insul. termography
contain identifying
chlorides wet insulation
4. inspection 5. Guided
plan wave UT
6. Deep
penetrating
Eddy-current

cooling water 1.Proper design Inspection API 571:

corrosion can 2.Operat. Data depending Chapter: 4.3.4
result in many 3.Chem.treatm. on the Fig. 4-40
different forms 4.Water velocity Morphology
of damage incl. 5.Periodic of Failure API 579:
1. General corr. mechanical G.3.2. General
when dissolved cleaning of tube G.3.3. Localized
oxygen is ID's and OD's Metal Loss
present. 6. Minimize
2. Local corr. stagnant areas
from under-
deposit, MIC

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
3. Pitting corr.
4. MIC
5. SCC
6. Fouling

1. Localized 1. Optimizing 1.VT, UT and API 571:

thinning and/or Process data RT inspection Chapter: 4.3.6
pitting corrosion 2. Corrosion techniques Fig.: 4-41 to 44
2. deep pitting inhibitors should focus API 579:
and grooving in steam on general G.3.2 General
in areas of condensate or local loss G.3.3 Localized
turbulence systems. in thickness Metal Loss
3. material where water
selection wetting
(300 series SS is anticipated.
are highly 2. Preferential
resistant) corrosion of
4. increase of weld seams

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
PH >6 may require
angle probe
UT or RT.
1. General 1. Wall thick- API 571:
wastage often ness: UT Chapter: 4.3.7
with broad,
shallow pits, API 579:
depending on G.3.3 Localized
the way the Metal Loss
sulfuric acid
condenses.

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
1. localized 1. Application 1. Measuring API 571:
pitting under of biocides biocide Chapter: 4.3.8
deposits or 2. minimize residual, Fig.: 4-45 to -50
tubercles that low flow or microbe API 579:
shield the stagnant zones counts and G.3.3 Localized
organisms. 3. Wrapping visual Metal Loss
2. cup-shaped and appearance.
pits cathodically 2. Special
protecting probes have
underground been designed
structures to monitor for
have been evidence of
effective in fouling which
preventing may precede
MIC. or coincide
with MIC
damage
3. An increase
in the loss of
duty of a
heat exchang.
may be
indicative of
 fouling and
potential MIC
4.VT, UT and
RT

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
1.localized loss 1. Coating 1.Visual API 571:
due to pitting 2. Cathodic inspection Chapter: 4.3.9
2. Poor protection 2. UT, RT Fig.: 4-51 to -53
condition of a
protective
coating is a
tell tale sign of
potential
corrosion
damage.

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
1.Localized 1. Design 1.For process API 571:
metal loss 2. Process equipment, Chapter:4.3.10
which may 3. In process UT thickness Fig.: 4-54 to 55
appear as equipment, gauging is
grooves in a caustic useful to API 570:
boiler tube or injection detect general Chapter:5.3.1
locally thinned facilities should corrosion. Injection points
areas under be designed Localized
insulating to allow proper losses may
deposits mixing and be difficult
2. Deposits may dilution to locate.
fill corroded of caustic in 2. Injection
depressions order to avoid points should
and mask the be inspected
damage below. concentration in acc. with
Probing suspect of caustic on API 570
areas with a hot metal 3. UT scans
sharp instrument surface and RT
may be required 4. Steam
3. Localized generation
gouging may equipment
result along a may require
waterline where visual inspect.
corrosive with the use a
concentrate. boroscope.
In vertical tubes
circumferential
in horizontal at
the top or
longitudinal.

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
1. General 1. Material UT API 571:
2. covered out- selection Chapter 4.4.1
side surface Table 4-6:
with oxide scale Corrosion Rates
Fig. 4-62 to 4.64

API 579:
G.3.2. General
metal loss

1. General 1. Material UT,RT API 571:4.4.2

2. localized selection Fig. 4-65/66
3. high velocity Corr.-Rates
erosion-corr. Fig. 4-67
4. sulfide scale API 579/G.3.2/3
General/Localized
Metal loss
1. Increase of 1. Material Initial stage: API 571: 4.4.3
hardness selection Hardness Fig.4-68/69
 2. loss in EC
ductility Advanced API 579/G.3.6
3. volumetric stage:cracks Metallurgical
increase RT,UT,MP Changes

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
1.The decarbur. 1. Material Hardness API 571:
layer will be free selection Chapter 4.4.4
of carbide
phases. API 579: G.3.6
Metallurgical
Changes

ogen service

see see see see

Carburization Carburization Carburization Carburization

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
1. The fatigue 1. Using 1. cracking API 571:
fracture is brittle coatings and is generally Chapter: 4.5.2
and the cracks and/or detected with Fig.: 4-83 to 84
are most often inhibitors WFMT (wet
transgranular, 2. Minimize fluorescent API 579:
as in stress- residual magnetic G.3.4 Surface
corrosion welding and particle testing connected
cracking, but not fabrication 2. Many of the cracking
branched, and stresses cracks are
often results in through PWHT. very tight and
propagation of 3. Minimize difficult to
multiple weld reinforce- detect.
parrallel cracks. ment by 3. Cracking
2. Fatigue grinding weld may occur at
cracking will be contours the
evidenced by smooth. membranes
very little plastic Better is in the highly
deformation Ultrasonic stressed
except that final Impact Treatm. regions,
fracture may (UIT) or WIG- particularly
occur by dressing corners at
mechanical buckstays.
overload
accompanied
by plastic
deformation.

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
1. cracking 1. PWHT 1. Although API 571:
typically 2. Steamout cracks may Chapter: 4.5.3
propagates of non-PWHT'd be seen Fig.4-85 to 92
parallel to the carbon steel visually, crack
weld in adjacent piping and detection is API 579: G.3.4
base metal but equipment best perfored Surface connect.
can also occur should be with WFMT cracking
in the weld avoided. (wet flouresc.
deposit or HAZ Equipment magnetic
2. sometimes should be particle test.),
described as a water washed RT, ACFM
spider web of before steam- (alternating
small cracks. out. current
3. oxide-filled 3. Proper magnetic
cracks design and flux leakage
(Inlet) to the operation of the testing).
injection 2.PT (Liquid
system is penetrant
required to testing) is not
ensure that effective for
caustic is finding tight,
properly scale-filled
dispersed cracks and
before should not be
entering the used for
high-temp. detection.
crude preheat 3. Crack
system. depths with
shear wave
UT (SWUT)

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
1. Cracking will 1. PWHT 1. WFMT API 571:
occur at 2. Addition of welds inside Chapter: 4.5.4
exposed non- small quantit. tanks Fig.: 4-93 to 95
PWHT welds of water to the 2. External
and HAZ ammonia (0.2% UT Shear API 579: G.3.4
3. Hardness wave Surface connect.
≤ 225 BHN cracking
4. prevent
ingress of
oxygen into
storage
facilities.

1.Cracking due 1. Use lower 1. For suface API 571:

to HE can strength steels cracking Chapter: 4.5.6
initiate sub- 2. PWHT use PT Fig. 4-99
surface, but in 3. Use low (liquid penetr.
most cases is hydrogen, dry testing), MT ISO 15156-1/2
surface breaking electrodes and (magnetic Petroleum and
2. HE occurs preheating particle test.) natural gas
at locations of methods. or WFMT industries-
high residual or (wet flouresc. Materials for use
tri-axial stresses magn. Part. in H2S containing
(notches, testing) environments in
restraint) and 2. UT may oil and gas
where the also be useful production
microstructure in finding HE Part 1:
 Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to
Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
is conducive, cracks. General principles
such as in weld 3. RT often is for selection of
HAZ's (≤22 HRC not sufficiently cracking-resistant
is acceptable). sensitive to materials.
detect HE Part 2:
cracks cracking-resistant
carbon and low
alloy steels, and
the use of cast
irons

API 579:
G.2. Pre-Service
Deficiencies
G.3.5 Subsurface
Cracking

General uniform 1. proper 1. visual and API 571:

thinning, operation UT Thickness Chapter: 5.1.1
localized 2. temperature 2. UT scans Fig. 5.1
corrosion or limits or profile
localized 3. Oxygen radiography API 579: G.3.3
underdeposit inleakage are used for Localized metal
attack. causes high external loss
Localized if the corrosion rates inspection.
velocity is high and contributes 3. hot areas
or with to HSAS. such as the
turbulence. 4. Filtration reboiler feed
h exchanger of solids and and return
hydrocarbons line, the hot

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
from amine lean/rich
solution. amine piping,
5. Corrosion the stripper
inhibitors overhead
condenser
piping.

1.General 1. Flow regime 1. UT scans API 571:

metal loss with 2. Relation and/or RT Chapter: 5.1.1.2
potential for between profile thickn. Fig.: 5-2
extremely high concentration of high and
localized rates and velocity. low velocity API 579:G.3.3
of wall loss if 3. velocity areas. Localized Metal
turbulent flow between 2. UT Loss
> 2 wt%. 3 and 6 m/s. downstream
2. Low velocity 4. C-steel may of control
may result in be suceptible valves at high
extremely to high corr. NH4HS
localized under- rates >8 wt% concentrat.
deposit corr. if 5. Properly 3. RFEC
insufficient design and (remote field
water is maintain water eddy current
available to wash injection testing) and
dissolve the with low oxygen flux leakage
NH4HS salts content. inspection of
that precipitated steel air
3. Heat cooler tubes.
exchangers
may show
plugging and

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
loss of duty due
to fouling.

1.The salts have 1. Crude Unit: 1. Accumulat. API 571:

a whitish, a.Limit salts by of ammonium Chapter: 5.1.1.3
greenish or limiting chloride salts
brownish chlorides in the can be very
appearance. tower feed localized and
Water washing through the resulting
and/or steamout desalting and/ corrosion may
will remove or the addition be difficult to
deposits so that of caustic to detect.
evidence of the desalted 2. RT, UT
fouling may not crude. tickness
be evident b. A water Monitoring
during an inter- wash may be
nal visual required in the
inspection. crude tower
2. Corrosion overhead line
underneath the to flush the
salts is typically salt deposits.
very localized c. Filming
and results in amine inhibitor
pitting. are often added
3. Corrosion to control corr.

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579
rates can be 2.Hydroprocess
extremely high a.Limit
chlorides in the
hydrocarbon
feed to the
reactor and the
make-up
hydrogen
supply.

1. General 1. Material UT,RT API 571:5.1.1.5

selection Fig. 5-3/4
Corr.-Rates
Tab. 5-1
API 579/G.3.2
General
Metal loss

1. General 1. Material UT,RT API 571:5.1.1.10

Thinning selection
2. Localized API 579:G.3.2/3
3. under deposit General and
Localized metal
loss

Appearance Prevention Inspection Remarks acc. to

Morphology Mitigation Monitoring API 571 and 579