SUBJECT CODE: MATH 116

SUBJECT NAME: College Algebra (Integrated in Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists)
EDITOR: John Aaron Custodio
EDIT DATE: June 22, 2019

ALGEBRA
Algebra is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. In its most general
form, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols;[2] it is a unifying thread
of almost all of mathematics. It includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such
as groups, rings, and fields. Here we review the basic rules and procedures of algebra.

ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
The real numbers have the following properties:

a+b=b +a ab = ba (Commutative Law)

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (Associative Law)

a(b + c) = ab + ac (Distributive law)

In particular, putting a = -1 in the Distributive Law, we get

-(b + c) = (-1)(b + c) = (-1)b + (-1)c
and so

- (b + c) = -b - c

EXAMPLE
(a) (3xy) (-4x) = 3(-4)x 2y = -12x 2y
(b) 2t (7x + 2tx - 11) = 14tx + 4t2x - 22t
(c) 4 -3(x - 2) = 4 - 3x + 6 = 10 - 3x

If we use the Distributive Law three times, we get

(a + b)(c + d) = (a + b)c + (a + b)d = ac + bc + ad + bd

This says that we multiply two factors by multiplying each term in one factor by each term in the other factor and adding
the products. Schematically, we have

(a + b)(c + d)
In the case where c = a and d = b, we have
(a + b)2 = a2 + ba + ab + b2
or

(a + b)2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2

Similarly, we obtain

(a — b)2 = a2 — 2ab + b2

FRACTIONS
To add two fractions with the same denominator, we use the Distributive Law:
𝑎 𝑐 1 1 1 𝑎+𝑐
+ = × 𝑎 + × 𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑐) =
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
Thus, it is true that
𝑎+𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
= +
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

But remember to avoid the following common error:

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
= +
𝑏+𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
(For instance, take a = b = c = 1 to see the error.)
To add two fractions with different denominators, we use a common denominator:
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐
+ =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
We multiply such fractions as follows:
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
× =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑

In particular, it is true that

−𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
=− =
𝑏 𝑏 −𝑏

To divide two fractions, we invert and multiply:

𝑎
𝑏 = 𝑎 × 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑑
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐
𝑑
FACTORING
We have used the Distributive Law to expand certain algebraic expressions. We some- times need to reverse this process
(again using the Distributive Law) by factoring an expression as a product of simpler ones. The easiest situation occurs
when the expres- sion has a common factor as follows:

Expanding
3x(x-2)=3x2-6x
Factoring

To factor a quadratic of the form x2 + bx + c we note that

(x + r)(x + s) = x 2 + (r + s) x + rs
so we need to choose numbers r and s so that r + s = b and rs = c.

EXAMPLE Factor x 2 + 5x - 24.

Solution: The two integers that add to give 5 and multiply to give -24 are -3 and 8. Therefore
x 2 + 5x - 24 = (x - 3)(x + 8)

EXAMPLE Factor 2x 2 - 7x - 4.
Solution: Even though the coefficient of x2 is not 1, we can still look for factors of the form 2x + r and x + s, where rs
= -4. Experimentation reveals that
2x 2 - 7x - 4 = (2x + 1)(x - 4)
Some special quadratics can be factored by using Equations 1 or 2 (from right to left) or by using the formula for a
difference of squares:

a2 — b2 = (a — b)(a + b)

The analogous formula for a difference of cubes is

a3 — b3 = (a — b)(a2 + ab + b2)

For a sum of cubes we have,

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 — ab + b2)

The Factor Theorem If P is a polynomial and P(b) = 0, then x — b is a

factor of P(x).
COMPLETING THE SQUARE
Completing the square is a useful technique for graphing parabolas or integrating rational functions. Completing the
square means rewriting a quadratic ax 2 + bx + c in the form a (x + p)2 + q and can be accomplished by:
1. Factoring the number a from the terms involving x.
2. Adding and subtracting the square of half the coefficient of x.
In general, we have

𝑏
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 [𝑥 2 + 𝑥] + 𝑐
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 2 𝑏 2
= 𝑎 [𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + ( ) − ( ) ] + 𝑐
𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎

𝑏 2 𝑏2
= 𝑎 (𝑥 + ) + (𝑐 − )
2𝑎 4𝑎

QUADRATIC FORMULA
By completing the square as above we can obtain the following formula for the roots of a quadratic equation.

The quantity b2-4ac that appears in the quadratic formula is called the discriminant. There are three possibilities:
If b2 — 4ac > 0, the equation has two real roots.
If b2 — 4ac = 0, the roots are equal.
If b2 — 4ac < 0, the equation has no real root. (The roots are complex.)
These three cases correspond to the fact that the number of times the parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c crosses the x-axis is 2,
1, or 0 (see Figure 1). In case (3) the quadratic ax 2 + bx + c can’t be factored and is called irreducible.

0 0 0

b2 — 4ac > 0 b2 — 4ac = 0 b2 — 4ac < 0

BINOMIAL THEOREM
Recall the binomial expression from Equation 1:
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
If we multiply both sides by (a + b) and simplify, we get the binomial expansion

(a + b)3 = a 3 + 3 a 2b + 3 a b2 + b3

Repeating this procedure, we get

(a + b)4 = a 4 + 4 a 3b + 6 a 2b2 + 4 a b3 + b4

In general, we have the following formula.

The Binomial Theorem If k is a positive integer, then

k(k — 1) k—2 2
(a + b)k = a k + k a k—1b + a b
1·2

a
1·2·3

k(k — 1)···(k — n + 1) a
+ ··· +
1 · 2 · 3 · ··· · n

+ ··· + k a bk—1 + bk

RADICALS
The most commonly occurring radicals are square roots. The symbol √positive square root of.” Thus

𝑥 = √𝑎 means 𝑥 2 = 𝑎 and x≥0

Since 𝑎 = 𝑥 2 ≥ 0, the symbol √𝑎 makes sense only when a≥0. Here are two rules for
working with square roots:

𝑎 √𝑎
√𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 √𝑏 √𝑏 = √𝑏

However, there is no similar rule for the square root of a sum. In fact, you should remember to avoid the following common
error:
 √𝑎 + 𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 + √𝑏

(For instance, take a = 9 and b = 16 to see the error.)

In general, if n is a positive integer,

𝑛
𝑥 = √𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎

If n is even, then a≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 x ≥ 0

To rationalize a numerator or denominator that contains an expression such as √𝑎 − √𝑏 , we multiply both the
numerator and the denominator by the conjugate radical √𝑎 + √𝑏 . Then we can take advantage of the formula
for a difference of squares:

2 2
(√𝑎 − √𝑏) (√𝑎 + √𝑏) = (√𝑎) − (√𝑏) = a - b

EXPONENTS
Let be any positive number and let be a positive integer. Then, by definition,
1. 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙∙∙∙ 𝑎
2. 𝑎0 = 1
1
3. 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑛
4. 𝑎1/𝑛 = √𝑎
𝑛 𝑛 𝑚
5. 𝑎𝑚/𝑛 = √𝑎𝑚 = ( √𝑎)

Laws of Exponents Let a and b be positive numbers and let r and s be

any rational numbers (that is, ratios of integers). Then
𝑎r
𝑎 r × 𝑎 s = 𝑎 r+s 𝑎s =
𝑎 r—s
(𝑎 r)s= 𝑎 rs

𝑎 𝑟 𝑎𝑟
𝑎 𝑎 ( ) = 𝑟 𝑏≠0
𝑏 𝑏

In words, these five laws can be stated as follows:

1. To multiply two powers of the same number, we add the exponents.
2. To divide two powers of the same number, we subtract the exponents.
3. To raise a power to a new power, we multiply the exponents.
4. To raise a product to a power, we raise each factor to the power.
5. To raise a quotient to a power, we raise both numerator and denominator to the power.
SOLVING SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

System of Linear Equations

The number of equations should be at least the number of unknowns in order to solve the variables. System of linear
equations can be solved by several methods, the most common are the following,

1. Method of substitution
2. Elimination method
3. Cramer's rule

Two important rules:

Rule 1: When the same constant is added to or subtracted from both sides of an equation, the equality is preserved
and the new equation is equivalent to the original equation.
Rule 2: When both sides of an equation are multiplied or divided by the same nonzero constant, the equality is
preserved and the new equation is equivalent to the original equation.

Linear Equations in One Variable

To solve a linear equation in one variable, simplify each side of the equation by combining like terms. Then use the
rules for producing simpler equivalent equations.
Example: Solve the equation 11x – 4 - 8x = 2 (x + 4) - 2x

Combine like terms to get 3x - 4 = 2x + 8 - 2x

Simplify the right side to get 3x - 4 = 8
Add 4 to both sides to get 3x - 4 + 4 = 8 + 4
Divide both sides by 3 to get 3x /3 = 12 /3

Simplify to get x=4

You can always check your solution by substituting it into the original equation.
Note that it is possible for a linear equation to have no solutions. Also, it is possible that what looks to be a linear
equation turns out to be an identity when you try to solve it.

Linear Equations in Two Variable

A linear equation in two variables, x and y, can be written in the form a x + b y = c, where a, b, and c are real numbers
and a and b are not both zero. For example, 3x + 2y = 8, is a linear equation in two variables.

A solution of such an equation is an ordered pair of numbers (x,y) that makes the equation true when the values x and
y are substituted into the equation.

A linear equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions. If another linear equation in the same variables is
given, it may be possible to find a unique solution of both equations. Two equations with the same variables are called
a system of equations, and the equations in the system are called simultaneous equations. To solve a system of two
equations means to find an ordered pair of numbers that satisfies both equations in the system.

There are two basic methods for solving systems of linear equations, by substitution or by elimination. In the
substitution method, one equation is manipulated to express one variable in terms of the other. Then the expression is
substituted in the other equation.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

A quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation that can be written in the form ax2+ bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c
are real numbers and a is not equal to 0.
When such an equation has solutions, they can be found using the quadratic formula:

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 2𝑎

where the notation ± is shorthand for indicating two solutions, one that uses the + and the other that uses -.
Quadratic equations have at most two real solutions. However, some quadratic equations have only one real solution.
Other quadratic equations have no real solutions. Also note that some quadratic equations can be solved more quickly
by factoring.

LINEAR INEQUALITIES
A mathematical statement that uses one of the following four inequality signs is called an inequality.

the less than sign

the greater than sign
the less than or equal to sign
the greater than or equal to sign

Inequalities can involve variables and are similar to equations, except that the two sides are related by one of the
inequality signs instead of the equality sign used in equations. For example, the inequality 4𝑥 − 1 ≤ 7 is a linear
inequality in one variable. To solve an inequality means to find the set of all values of the variable that make the
inequality true. This set of values is also known as the solution set of an inequality. Two inequalities that have the same
solution set are called equivalent inequalities.

The procedure used to solve a linear inequality is similar to that used to solve a linear equation, which is to simplify
the inequality by isolating the variable on one side of the inequality, using the following two rules.

Rule 1: When the same constant is added to or subtracted from both sides of an inequality, the direction of the
inequality is preserved and the new inequality is equivalent to the original.

Rule 2: When both sides of the inequality are multiplied or divided by the same nonzero constant, the direction
of the inequality is preserved if the constant is positive but the direction is reversed if the constant is negative.
In either case, the new inequality is equivalent to the original.

FUNCTIONS

An algebraic expression in one variable can be used to define a function of that variable. Functions are usually denoted
by letters such as f, g, and h. For example, the algebraic expression 3x + 5 can be used to define a function f by

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5
where f (x) is called the value of f at x and is obtained by substituting the value of x in the expression above. For
example, if x = 1 is substituted in the expression above, the result is f (1) = 8.
It might be helpful to think of a function f as a machine that takes an input, which is a value of the variable x, and
produces the corresponding output f (x). For any function, each input x gives exactly one output f (x). However, more
than one value of x can give the same output f (x).

The domain of a function is the set of all permissible inputs, that is, all permissible values of the variable x. For the
functions f and g defined above, the domain is the set of all real numbers. Sometimes the domain of the function is
given explicitly and is restricted to a specific set of values of x.

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
Arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers in which the difference of any two adjacent terms is constant. The
constant difference is commonly known as common difference and is denoted by d. Examples of arithmetic
progression are as follows:

Example 1: 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, 28 33, 38, 43, 48

The above sequence of numbers is composed of n = 10 terms (or elements). The first term a1 = 3, and the last
term an = a10 = 48. The common difference of the above AP is d = 8 - 3 = 13 - 8 = ... = 5.

Example 2: 5, 2, -1, ...

This AP has a common difference of -3 and is composed of infinite number of terms as indicated by the three ellipses
at the end.

Formulas for Arithmetic Progression

Common difference, d
The common difference can be found by subtracting any two adjacent terms.

d=am+1−am or
d=a2−a1=a3−a2=a4−a3=...

Value of each term

Each term after the first can be found by adding recursively the common difference d to the preceding term.

am+1=am+d

nth term of AP
The nth term of arithmetic progression is given by

an=a1+(n−1)d

or in more general term, it can be written as

an=am+(n−m)d

Sum of n terms of AP
The sum of the first n terms of arithmetic progression is n times the average of the first term and the last term.
 𝑛
S= (a1+an)
2

If the last term an is not given, the following may be useful

𝑛
S=2 [2a1+(n−1)d]

If required for the partial sum from mth to nth terms, the following formula can be used

𝑛−𝑚+1 𝑛−𝑚+1
S= (am+an) or S= ( [2am+(n−m)d]
2 2

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
Geometric progression is a sequence of numbers in which any two adjacent terms has a common ratio denoted by r.
Example of geometric progression is

1, 3, 9, 27, ...

which is composed of infinite number of terms and with common ratio equal to 3.

Formulas for Geometric Progression

Common ratio
The common ratio can be found by taking the quotient of any two adjacent terms.

𝑎𝑚 +1
r= 𝑎𝑚
=a2a1=a3a2=a4a3=...

nth term of GP
The nth term of the geometric progression is given by

an=a1r n−1 or an=amrn−m

Sum of n terms of GP
The sum of the first n terms of geometric progression is

𝑎1 (1−𝑟𝑛)
S= 1−𝑟

Sum of Infinite Geometric Progression

A finite sum can be obtained from GP with infinite terms if and only if -1.0 ≤ r ≤ 1.0 and r ≠ 0.

1𝑎
S=1−𝑟
HARMONIC PROGRESSION

Harmonic progression is a sequence of numbers in which the reciprocals of the elements are in arithmetic
progression. Example of harmonic progression is

1/3, 1/6, 1/9, ...

If you take the reciprocal of each term from the above HP, the sequence will become

3, 6, 9, ...

which is an AP with a common difference of 3.

Another example of HP is 6, 3, 2. The reciprocals of each term are 1/6, 1/3, 1/2 which is an AP with a common
difference of 1/6.

To find the term of HP, convert the sequence into AP then do the calculations using the AP formulas. Then take the
reciprocal of the answer in AP to get the correct term in HP.

Relationship Between Arithmetic, Geometric, and Harmonic Means

AM×HM=GM2

VARIATION / PROPORTIONAL

Direct Variation / Directly Proportional

y is directly proportional to x, y ∝ x:

$y = kx$

k = constant of proportionality
y varies directly as x is another statement equivalent to the above statement.

Inverse Variation / Directly Proportional

y is inversely proportional to x, y ∝ 1/x:

𝑘
y= 𝑥

k = constant of proportionality
y varies inversely with x holds the same meaning as the sentence above.

Joint Variation / Jointly Proportional

y is directly proportional to x and z:

y=kxz
 y is directly proportional to x and inversely proportional to z:

𝑘𝑥
y= 𝑧

k = constant of proportionality

Variation to nth power of x and mth power of z

y is directly proportional to the square of x and varies inversely to the cube of z:

𝑘𝑥 2
y= 𝑧3

k = constant of proportionality

VERBAL PROBLEMS IN ALGEBRA

Number-related problems

Number-related problems are considered as the most basic type of verbal problems. It is taken as the base point of
analysis for more complex type of problems.

Digit-related problems

This type of problems focuses on how the digits of a number are related. In many problems, digits are treated as
individual number and will make the problem similar to number-related problems only that the integers involved are
0 to 9.

Money-related problems

Money-related verbal problems in Algebra involves primarily in determining the number of denomination (coin or
bill) in a collection of different denominations.

Lever-related problems

Also called balance-related problems, lever word problems are concerned on balancing a lever at its fulcrum. This
topic introduces the computation of moment of a force about a point in Engineering Mechanics.

Geometry-related problems

Geometry verbal problems put together Algebra and Geometry in a single problem. Basic knowledge and familiarity
with the formulas in Geometry is necessary. Problems may involve line segments, angles, triangles, rectangles,
squares, circles, and some solid shapes like cube and rectangular parallelepiped.

Clock-related problems

Most clock-related problems involved in determining the time from a given start-off position after which the hands of
the clock moves to the desired position. Common problems are when the hands are together, form a right angle, and
being opposite each other.

Age-related problems
In age-related problems, the relationship of the ages of two persons is indicated. The comparison of the ages may be
in the past, present, or future. Some problems also involve the relationship of the sum of the ages of several persons.

Mixture-related problems

Mixture-related problems are involved with some pure substance or some prepared mixture to be added or withdrawn
as such to obtain a desired mixture. It also involves in unit price and quantity of two or more items being combined as
such in relation to costing and selling.

Work-related problems

Work-related problems may involved in determining the time to finish the job, the rate of doing the job, and the
amount of job done by a worker at a given period of time. Workers may be have the same rate and working as a team
or may work individually at different rates.

Motion-related problems

Motion-related problems considered the relationship between speed, distance traveled, and the time the object is
moving. The situations may involve overtaking, departing, stalling, moving in the air or water, or motions in a closed
loop.
Sources:

https://www.stewartcalculus.com/data/default/upfiles/AlgebraReview.pdf
https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/algebra/variation-proportional
https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/algebra/arithmetic-geometric-and-harmonic-progressions
https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/college-algebra/verbal-problems-algebra