MODULE III

LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 Language Acquisition

1.1 Theories of Language Development: Nativist, Behaviorist
and Interactionist
Lesson 2 Bilingual Language Development
Lesson 3 Emergent and Early Literacy, Reading Development and
Performance
Lesson 4 Factors Affecting Development: Early Language
Stimulation, Literate Communities and Environment,
Story Reading

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MODULE III

LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1

 Language Acquisition

The Concept of Language Acquisition

Before we proceed to the lesson on language acquisition, it is

important at this stage to understand the concept of language as being species
specific. What does this mean? It means that language is uniquely human.
Only the humans have language. However, every living creature has a
communication system: animals have cries and calls while plants and some
insects communicate through chemicals released from their system. Humans
communicate using language. Although some higher forms of primates like
the gorillas and chimpanzees can be taught sign language, it cannot be
claimed that they already possess language. This is because these primates
cannot speak the language. Language, primarily is spoken. Animals cannot
speak. Furthermore, for the primate to be qualified as having a language,
the primate should be able to generate novel utterances and invent words,
can even lie, and must increase vocabulary size on its own.
The moment a cat is born, it meows and until it grows old, it meows.
That is its communication tool. The moment an infant is out of the mother’s
womb it cries. The infant does not immediately talk and curse the doctor for
slapping his behind and making him cry. The infant has yet to acquire and/or
learn the language.
There is a distinction between language acquisition and language
learning. Sometimes, these two occurs in the process of language
development. Simply put, language acquisition is “picking up a language”
from the speakers of the language around you. The language spoken may
come from immediate family, neighbors, playmates, television shows, radio
etc. The process of acquisition is not a conscious “getting” of the language.
It does not involve thinking about the language (grammar, structure, usage)
which is among the features of language learning. So, as mentioned, unlike
language acquisition, language learning is intentional and conscious study of
the language. It may involve formal or informal instruction. This usually
occurs when you enroll in a language class or if you find yourself in a different
place with people who speaks a different language like in the case of
migrants.
There are two types of language acquisition: First language (L1)
acquisition which happens as a result of language development and there is
Second language (L2) acquisition where the individual already possesses a
language but is exposed to a different speech community.
When it comes to language acquisition among children, the following
are predominant characteristics of the phenomenon.

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 For the most part, children are not taught to speak in their native
language. They learn it by exposure to people who talk to them. (That
is why it is important to use only one language when addressing the
child or else it will confuse the child and cause a delay in speech;
particularly, when you use any of the Philippine
Languages and English which belong to two BTW
different language systems/families.)
Motherese language is the term
 Children pick up the language spoken around used for the way how caregivers
them with very little effort, and often with very like mothers, aunts, grandmas,
little input. In fact, children are provided with and yayas talk to babies and
poor examples of correct speech as adults talk to toddlers. Examples in the Iloco
them in motherese language or “baby talk”. language instead of saying
uminom ka meaning to drink, the
caregiver would say mom mom,
 Yet by the age of two or three, most children are or am am for eat instead of
usually communicating well enough for parents saying mangan.
and most others to understand them.
 The first step that an infant does is to find some
way to learn the phonological system. To
reproduce the speech sounds of any particular
language when they begin to talk, infants must learn to discriminate
among sounds that may be quite similar. (like bill, pill or thin , etc.)

 Some tests established that infants are born with the ability to
differentiate between even closely similar sounds, but that this ability
diminishes or disappears by the age of about one year in favor of
perceiving only the differences crucial to the native language.

 The acuity or keenness of voice perception in newborn babies has also

been attested. It has been established that three-day-old infants are
able to distinguish their mothers’ voices from among other female
voices. And it has also been shown to newborn infants prefer to listen
to their mother tongue rather than another language.

 Although the rate of speech development in normal children varies

somewhat, it is possible to generalize about the stages that
characterize language acquisition.

o 1st eight to ten weeks - Only Reflexive (basic biological) noises

such as burping, crying and coughing are produced . These are
supplemented by cooing and laughing during the next 12 or so
weeks
o 6 Months – Vocal Play, consisting of the production of a fairly
wide range of sounds resembling consonants and vowels
becomes noticeable.
o 6mos – 12mos. The second half of an infant’s first year is
characterized by babbling. Babbling appears to be largely

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instinctive because even children who do not hear go through

the babbling stage. In general, even before the onset of
babbling, infants show eagerness to communicate and begin to
process the information they are receiving through various
channels. It also appears that regardless. It also appears that
regardless of the language they are acquiring, children learn to
use the maximally distinct vowel sounds of their language
(usually a, i, and u) before other vowels, and the consonants
articulated with the help of the lips and teeth (commonly p, b,
m, t and d) before those produced farther back in the mouth.
(although subsequent research has indicated that the order on
which the sounds of languages are acquired is not universal
o Intonational contours (such as the sound or intonation done at
the end of a question) begin to appear around the end of the
first year, at about the same time as the one-word stage (for
example mama, cup, and doggie).
o Two years old – Multiword stage . At first the child combines
two words (ex. See doggie, baby book. Nice kitty, daddy gone),
but soon expands to phrases and to short sentences. On the
average, the spoken vocabulary of two-year-olds amounts to two
hundred words or more, although they understand several times
that many.
o By the age of five years old or so, all normal children are able
to ask questions, make negative statements, produce complex
sentences (consisting of main and subordinate clauses), talk
about things removed in time and space, and in general carry on
an intelligent conversation on topics they are able to
comprehend.
 Even though much of the speech to which children are exposed is quite
variable and casual, they gain command of the many sounds, forms,
and rules so well that they are able to say, and do say, things they have
never before heard said- and all of this without the benefit of formal
teaching.

The following table shows a summary of the stages of language

development.
Stage Typical Description
age
Babbling 6-8 Repetitive CV patterns
months (ex. Nana, dada , mimi, mama)
One-word stage 9-18 Single open-class words or word stems
(better one- months (ex. Daddy could mean “where is daddy?”
morpheme or one- or “Daddy is here”
unit)

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or holophrastic
stage
Two-word stage 18-24 "mini-sentences" with simple semantic
months relations
Telegraphic stage 24-30 "Telegraphic" sentence structures
or early multiword months of lexical rather
stage than functional or grammatical morphemes
(better multi-
morpheme)
Later multiword 30+ Grammatical or functional structures
stage months emerge

Lesson 1.1 Theories of Language Acquisition

There are different theories of how language is acquired. At this point,

we are referring to the first language (L1) acquisition. These are: behavioral
approaches, nativist approach, and functional approaches.

Behaviorist Theory
Behaviorism is a theory of learning which states that all behaviors are
learned through interaction with the environment through a process called
conditioning. This process involves the strengthening or weakening a
response to a stimulus through reinforcement or punishment. A reinforced
behavior becomes a habit.
In terms of language acquisition, behaviorists see language as a
fundamental part of human behavior (linguistic behavior). The behavioral
approach focused on the observed responses and the relationships or
associations between those responses and the events in their surroundings. A
behaviorist might consider effective language behavior to be the production
of correct responses to stimuli.
If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or
conditioned. For example, mothers usually teach their children to say
‘please’ when asking for something. Reinforcement can be in the form of
reward like praising (saying very good) the child for saying ‘please’ or by
repeated action: when the child forgets , the mother would remind the child
to “say please” before giving what he or she wants. In this manner, children
produce linguistic responses that are reinforced.
A behavioral model of linguistic behavior has been thoroughly discussed
in B.F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (1957). Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior
was an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the organism (in
this case, the human being) emits a response (the operant in the form of a
sentence or utterance); that such operant is maintained (learned) by
reinforcement (for example, a positive verbal or nonverbal response from
another person). If a child says ‘want milk’ and a parent gives the child some
milk, the operant is reinforced, and as the response is repeated over a period
of time, it becomes conditioned.

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According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other behavior is controlled

by its consequences. When consequences are rewarding, behavior is
maintained and is increased in strength and even frequency. When
consequences are punishing, or when there is a total lack of reinforcement,
the behavior is weakened and eventually extinguished.
For instance, positive reinforcements can be the granting of what is
asked for , or giving praises like ‘good job’ or ‘very good’. Negative
reinforcements are punishments or anything that inhibits behavior. For
instance , when a child speaks bad words, gets scolded for doing so. The
punishment prevents him from doing it again (speaking bad words) for fear of
getting the same negative response (being scolded).
A verbal behavior that does not get reinforced also is extinguished. For
instance, if you want to talk and call the attention of someone and this person
ignores you instead of listening or talking to you, soon, the desire to speak to
that person is extinguished - (It is useless to talk to him, he wouldn’t listen
anyway.) - something to this effect.

The Nativist Theory

The term native in this context refers to the innate , inherent, or
inborn characteristic of a person. In the case of language development, the
nativist approach insists that language acquisition is innately determined,
that we are born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a systematic
perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an
internalized system of language. Simply put, we are born with a capacity for
language that is why it becomes natural for an individual to perceive, pick up
and use language.
Among the supporters of innateness hypothesis is Eric Lenneberg (1967)
who proposed that language is a ‘species-specific’ behavior and that certain
modes of perception, categorizing abilities, and other language related
mechanisms are biologically determined. This implies that animals cannot
have language because they do not have the biological, genetic make up for
it. (This was discussed at the introduction of the lesson.)
Noam Chomsky (1965) similarly claimed the existence of innate
properties of language to explain the child’s mastery of a native language in
such a short time despite the highly abstract nature of the rules of language.
This innate knowledge, according to Chomsky, is embodied in the brain which
Chomsky labels as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Mac Neill (1966)
described the LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic properties.
1. The ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the
environment.
2. The ability to organize linguistic data into various classes that can
later be refined.
3. Knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible
and that other kinds are not.

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4. The ability to engage in constant

evaluation of the developing linguistic
system so as to construct the simplest BTW
possible system out of the available Lenneberg’s innate
hypothesis suggests that only
linguistic input.
human have the capacity for
The idea that individuals have innate (inborn language. Animals cannot
, natural) inclination to acquire language supports have language because they
the generative theories of language which dictates are not biologically created to
have that capacity or
that children have innate abilities to generate capability. In the case of
potentially infinite number of utterances. This chimpanzees and gorillas, like
theory also accounts for (or could explain) aspects of the celebrated Koko, who
meaning, abstractness, and creativity in the learned sign language, it
language of individuals from infancy to maturity. cannot be said that they have
language because they cannot
The LAD however, is not really a cluster of produce it orally or vocally
brain cells in the physical sense of the brain that since their oral features are
could be isolated and neurologically located. But is not built to articulate the
believed to be there as a function within the sounds. Deaf and hearing
neurological mass we call, the brain. The research impaired people who sue sign
language can articulate the
on this neurological aspect of language acquisition sounds if only they were not
and functions is carried on in the field of incapacitated by hearing loss.
psycholinguistics where experts research on the Remember that language is
cognitive side of the linguistic-psychological primarily spoken.
continuum.

Interactionist Theory
If to the nativist, language acquisition is an innate capacity of man
because it is biological in nature being a function of the human brain referred
to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), the behaviorist view language
acquisition as a learned behavior from processes of conditioning and
reinforcements of responses to events in the social environment.
To the interactionist, language acquisition is a combination of both
perspectives. Language is acquired from the interaction of innate biological
capabilities with exposure to language in the social environment in which the
child is developing. The interactionist theory of language development
therefore, is a compromise between the nativist theory and the behaviorist
theory of language acquisition. It recognizes the importance of both
biological and environmental factors in the language development of the
child.
Although some interactionist theorists are more inclined to one end
of the extreme than the other (i.e. they give more importance to
environmental than biological and vice versa), all of these interactionist
theorists believe that language acquisition occurs as a result of the natural
interaction between children and their environment, more specifically, their
parents or caregivers. This means that the environment that a child grows up
in will heavily affect how well and how quickly the child will learn to talk.

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RECAP

To recap the lesson: There are two types of language acquisition: L1

and L2 acquisition. First language acquisition is a result of language
development where the child acquires the language in the home while, L2
acquisition happens when the individual already possesses a language but is
exposed to a different speech community.
There are different theories in language acquisition. One theory
recognizes language as a learned behavior – behaviorist theory. This approach
see language as an interplay of stimulus –response actions. Nativists, on the
other hand, view language acquisition as innate or inborn, that individuals
have a biological built in Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in their brains
that enable them to acquire language. Finally, interactionist theory is a
compromise between nativist and behaviorist theories with a view that both
biological capacities and social environment affect language development of
a child.

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Lesson 2

 Bilingual Language Development

Kick off Activity:

Watch this video of a polyglot, a person who speaks many languages. This
girl however, has acquired 7 languages.

Youtube File name :

Show «The Incredible people». Bella Devyatkina. Polyglot

Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXGmt0dusdo

Bilingualism Defined
Bilingualism refers to the ability to use two languages proficiently in everyday
life. This is common in countries where there are more than one language used in
different transactions in the society. The Philippines alone, bilingualism is common.
We speak our native language at home and we speak the official languages (Filipino
and English) in school. We also use the National Language (Filipino) to communicate
with other Filipinos from other ethnolinguistic groups since Filipino is the common
language (lingua franca) where different ethnolinguistic groups can understand each
other.
In the field of linguistics however, bilingualism is complex to define.
Although, by its derivative “bi” means two, bilingual speakers are those who
regularly use more than one language- not just two. The context by one can classify
bilingualism is the frequency of use. If you have learned a foreign language in school
and can use it well but the language is not a part of the languages used in the society,
the learned language is not a part of your bilingualism. But a knowledge of more
than one language can be termed as multilingual, and in the case of a person who
has knowledge of more than one or two languages may be called a polyglot , one
who speaks many languages, but not a linguist- a linguist is one who studies language
without necessarily speaking or learning it.
As was discussed in the previous lesson, acquisition is of two forms: L1
acquisition and L2 acquisition. The focus of this lesson is on the acquisition of L2
among bilingual children- children who are exposed to two or more languages in
their environment.

Stages of Language Development among Bilingual Children

Although some experts consider bilingualism as a specialized case of language
development, language acquisition among bilingual children proceeds similarly as in
the language acquisition of monolingual children (those with only one language).

Bilingualism occurs in households where there exists more than one language.
This can be a result of intermarriage between two different ethnolinguistic group or
the household is in a different speech community ( a community who speaks a
different language from that of the household). Bilingual children usually follow
two types of language development patterns: simultaneous bilingualism, in which

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the child acquires two languages at the same time before the age of three (3) years
, and sequential bilingualism, in which the child acquires a second language by age
3 after having acquired the first language (L1).

Simultaneous bilingualism. The following table shows the stages of

language development in simultaneous bilingualism.

AGE STAGE MILESTONE

Birth to 2 Undifferentiated (contains cooing
months elements from both
languages)
2 – 6 months undifferentiated babbling
6-15 months undifferentiated First words (age of appearance
might be later than with
monolingual speakers but is still
within normal range)
1-2 years undifferentiated Language blend (parts of words in
both languages are blended in the
same word)
2-3 years undifferentiated Language mixing (words of
different languages are used in the
phrase or adapted to the grammar
of the other language).
4 years and differentiated Uses each language as a separate
older system

The first stage in simultaneous bilingual acquisition is an undifferentiated

“single-language” system, which is composed of elements from both languages. In
this stage, the bilingual child goes through the same language developmental
processes as that of a monolingual child – single words, increased vocabulary,
emergence of two-word combination, use of verb tenses and so on. The only
difference is the presence of two language systems in the bilingual child.
For instance, a child may know the name of the object in one language but
not in the other language. Another case may be language mixing or code mixing
where words from both languages are used in one sentence: but not the kind you
hear among college socialites back in the 80s and 90s (we refer to them before as
the kolehiyala language which totally mangles the language of Filipino and English):
Kolehiyala : “hala stop na kasi your making tukso of Arielle , she will pukpok your
ulo sige ka”.
Bilingual child: “Mama, si papa is nabartek again”. (quoting my balikbayan friend’s
son who just got back from Las Vegas)
“Mama kyat ko egg plist”. (My son at 3 does not use itlog for egg, I
guess it is easier to say because it is only one syllable, and I
conditioned him to always say please when asking for something.

Another case may be the instance where the child does language blending,
this is the use of word stems of one language and the prefixes or suffixes of the other
language.
Example:
Adult: Where is your lola?

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Bilingual child: She is plantsing. (quoted from my professor’s 3 year old

granddaughter. The adults in their household speaks to her in English but the
adults use Ilocano when speaking to each other. The child obviously had
acquired the progressive “ing” to denote an ongoing action. However, she
obviously haven’t been exposed to the word “flat iron” but instead, the
adults call the object plantsa. So instead of saying agplanplantsa (ironing),
she used the word “plantsing”- a blend of Iloco and English.)

The second stage occurs when a child begins to differentiate the two language
systems, using each one as a separate system for distinct purposes. There may be
instances where one language is associated with particular person (babysitter vs.
parents), age group (playmates vs. adults), or situation (home vs. playground). In
this case, the child develops the ability to alternately use the language depending
on the situation. For instance, the child may use Iloco with the family members and
use Filipino which is Tagalog-based with playmates.

Sequential Bilingualism. The following table shows the stages in a sequential

bilingualism.
STAGE MILESTONE
First language Normal acquisition sequence
Second language
Interactional period Use of nonverbal communication and fixed
phrases
Inference period Grammatical rules of the first language are
applied to the second language
Silent period Selective mutism ( can be longer in anxious
children)
Code - switching Switches between languages in the same
conversation

In sequential bilingualism, the first stage is the acquisition of the 1 st language

with which the bilingual child draws knowledge and experience from in the process
of acquiring a second language. The length as to how long or how soon a child passes
through the phases of language development or in this case, second language
acquisition would depend upon the child’s disposition and motivation. A more
socially oriented child may quickly learn fixed phrases that help him interact with
other children and adults. A less outgoing child may have a “silent phase” when with
people who speak his or her second language.
Another factor that may affect the language acquisition of a bilingual child is
the exposure of the child to the first language as compared to the second language.
If the child hears and uses both languages equally, his language developmental
pattern will more likely resemble patterns of language development of monolinguals;
but, this is unusual because bilingual children have “majority” and “minority”
languages. The majority language is the language the child feels more comfortable
using. It does not necessarily refer to the first language or mother tongue. For
instance, a child from a Filipino speaking family who then enters and begin
functioning in an English-speaking society may ultimately use English as his majority
language. This is much like the situation among Filipino immigrants in other
countries.

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How to Raise Bilingual Children

To successfully raise bilingual children, it is helpful to remember these
guidelines provided by pediatricians and linguists alike:
1. Be consistent. Experts suggest that the best way to maintain bilingualism
is to compartmentalize the languages, separating how and with whom
each language is used. A child with a normal language development
pattern should be able to master multiple languages regardless of their
exposure to the language (both parents speaking both languages, and or
one parent speaking one language), as long as the pattern of exposure is
clear and consistent. For instance, the child of a Filipino mother and an
American father could use only Filipino with his mother and English with
his father. It could also be, like the general case among Filipino children,
the use of first language at home like Iloco or Pangasinan and Filipino in
the school. Clear boundaries for where each language is spoken should
be established. The child should soon be able to differentiate these
situations and speak the appropriate language in each case.

2. Do what feels natural. Parents are more likely to maintain consistency

if they choose a pattern of language exposure that feels natural to them.
If a parent feels more comfortable speaking in Tagalog and the other
parent is more comfortable speaking in Mandarin, it may be more natural
for the child to hear one language exclusively from one parent. This
means that the mother should address the child only in Tagalog and the
father only in Mandarin. Maintaining a particular language pattern should
not impose undue stress to the family; instead, enjoying the languages as
a family will be helpful in promoting the child’s language progress.

Parents who want their child to develop a language that they have not
mastered should have a strong commitment to learning and speaking that
language routinely to provide a good model of that language. This is
probably why it is difficult for most Filipino children to acquire English as
a second language (ESL) because most Filipino adults at home and in
school are not at ease with the English language and thus, they provide
poor language input to the child.

Other strategies that can be employed to help in the acquisition of a

second language is to have a child-care provider or playmates who are
fluent in the second language and by having second language children’s
books and videos.

3. Keep the language developmentally appropriate. When speaking to a

child, simplify the grammar or the language (form, structure, vocabulary)
should be appropriate to their age level. Parents (and adults) should also
build on the attempts of the child to communicate by demonstrating
grammar and vocabulary. If the child says “me juice”, the parent might
respond with, “ Do you want a glass of juice?” The language that the
parents use in responding to their child depends on how they are teaching
the child. Tools that are used when a child is developing a first language
should also be used in the acquisition of a second language. Music,

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rhymes, games, and videos help the child not only to learn the language
but also to appreciate the culture that he is being raised in.

4. Keep your child interested. It is important that the child keeps

motivated to learn the second language. Learning the language should be
fun and interesting for the child. One way to diminish a child’s interest
in learning the language is when he is made to “perform” or “show off”
his second language. This might be embarrassing for the child.
Encouragement and praise for spontaneously using a second language can
go a long way toward enhancing the “language ego” – the feeling of pride
in using the language.

Advantages of Bilingualism
Being bilingual or even multilingual has its benefits. These are just some of
them:
1. Cognitive development. In terms of cognitive development, people who are
bilingual and biliterate (literate in both languages) switch between two
language systems. Theiri brains are very active and flexible. According to
several studies, compared to their non-bilingual peers, bilingual people have
easier time:
 understanding math concepts and solving word problems
 Developing strong thinking skills
 Using logic
 Focusing, remembering, making decisions
 Thinking about language
 Learning another language

2. Social-emotional Development. Being bilingual supports children in

maintaining strong ties with their family, culture, and community. All of
these are key parts of a child’s developing identity. Bilingual children are
also able to make new friends and create strong relationships using their
second language—an important skill in our increasingly diverse society.
Research has found that babies raised in bilingual households show better
self-control, a key indicator of school success.

3. Learning Success. School readiness and success for children who are dual or
multi language learners is tied directly to mastery of their home language or
first language. Bilingual and multilingual children benefit academically from
knowing more than one language in many ways. Because they are able to
switch between languages, they develop more flexible approaches to thinking
through problems. The ability to read and think in two (or more) different
languages promotes higher levels of abstract thought, which is important in
learning. Current research shows that people who use more than one
language appear better at blocking out irrelevant information, a benefit that
may exist as early as seven months of age. Children who learn to read in
their home language have a strong foundation to build upon when they learn
a second language. They can easily apply their knowledge about reading to
their second language.

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4. Long –Term Success. One-half to two-thirds of adults around the world speak
at least two languages. In today’s global society, they have many advantages.
Globally, bilingual and biliterate adults have more job opportunities than
monolingual adults. Bilingual and biliterate individuals have the opportunity
to participate in the global community in more ways, get information from
more places, and learn more about people from other cultures.

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Lesson 3

 Emergent & Early Literacy, Reading

Development & Performance
Defining Emergent Literacy
The term emergent literacy was coined by Marie Clay in 1966 to refer to the
behaviors of very young children which reflected an understanding of reading and
writing when children were not yet actually reading and writing. Teale and Sulzby
(1986) developed Clay’s concept of emergent literacy where they refer to literacy
as comprising of reading and writing; while, emergent refers to the process of
becoming literate.
In general, what children learn about reading and writing before they are
considered readers and writers is referred to as emergent literacy knowledge and
the ways that children demonstrate that knowledge (i.e., the observable behavior)
is referred to as emergent literacy skills.

Emergent Literacy Knowledge as a Continuum of Development

Experts believe that emergent literacy is the beginning of a continuum of

literacy development in children. Teale and Sulzby (1986) reviewed early researches
on reading and came up with the following conclusions:

1. Literacy development begins early in life and long before formal literacy
instruction in elementary school.

 Young children with normal vision and hearing are regularly exposed to printed
and spoken words through their daily activities. They listen to stories, songs,
watch educational shows for children like Sesame Street or Peppa Pig, or Barney
and Friends, and frequently observe others reading and writing. We have seen
parents or adults or older children in the home teach the young ones words,
songs, nursery rhymes. So even before they enter school to receive formal
instruction, they already possess the beginnings of literacy.

2. There is an interrelationship between oral language skills (listening and speaking)

and written language skills (reading and writing) such that the skills develop
concurrently and interrelatedly rather than in some sequence (e.g., oral
language development preceding written language development, etc.). In
addition, children’s cognitive development during early childhood is important
to their literacy development.

 Oral language skills are interrelated with written language skills. It is not
sequential where you have to learn one skill before learning the other. You
cannot read a word if you have no orientation of how to pronounce the sounds
within the word. You do not know how to write a word if you do not know how
to represent the written code for a certain sound. Also, it is just logical that
literacy development is aligned with a child’s cognitive development.

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3. The functions of literacy (e.g., ordering a meal from a menu at a restaurant,

obtaining information on an event, inviting friends to a birthday party) are as
important as the forms of literacy (e.g., letters, words, sentences) to the child’s
literacy development in early childhood.

 Literacy development should not only emphasize the reading and writing as to
form but must be in context of functions like greeting, introducing, asking
permission, etc.

4. Children’s active exploration of print within their environment and their social
interactions with adults (particularly their parents) within reading and writing
contexts (e.g., reading books together, making a sign to show support for a
favorite football team, following a cookie recipe) provide important
opportunities for adults to model literacy behaviors for children to learn.

 Children who do not see their parents reading will not have the drive to read.
The presence or absence of reading materials in the home matters too.
Storytelling to children or better yet story reading to children helps a lot in not
only getting familiarization with the sounds of the words but the visual
representation of the sounds are introduced to the child and the meanings of
course are associated with the pictures and the story as told or narrated by the
adult.

5. There is variability for typically developing children in the age and sequence of
acquisition of emergent literacy knowledge and skills across the continuum of
literacy development.

 Every individual is unique. Some young children develops faster than others.

Timing of the Emergent Literacy Stage

Most experts believe that the concept of emergent literacy as a stage or a

phase in the literacy development continuum is challenging because it is difficult to
delineate the stages or phases. Furthermore, it is difficult to identify the end points:
when will emergent end and when does early literacy begin and end as well as that
of conventional literacy. You cannot really pinpoint the stages by age levels or by
phases. Thus, the phrase “emergent literacy stage” is used to refer to the period of
time during which children acquire a variety of emergent literacy knowledge and
skills.

Despite the challenges in defining the emergent literacy stage, there is

considerable agreement on the approximate timing of the stage for typically
developing children. This agreement was based on the concept of “reading
readiness”, which emerged in the 1920s. the concept of reading readiness suggest
that there was a period of time during the preschool years in which children
developed skills necessary for reading and writing. Although the exact age as to
when the emergent literacy stage begins has not been empirically determined, there
was a general agreement among experts that the stage begins long before children
are able to read and write. Some experts believe that the emergent literacy stage
begins at birth since emergent literacy is closely related with early language
acquisition. In the United States and perhaps others with preschool curriculum,

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experts consider the emergent literacy stage for typically developing children to end
at 5 years, or at least, when the child enters preschool where the children receive
formal instruction in reading and writing.

Perspectives on the Emergent Literacy Stage

The field of emergent literacy is still a work in progress as more and more
research are being conducted. However, recent research through the decades, have
provided different perspectives with some experts constructing their own
frameworks regarding the emergent literacy stage.

A. Developmental Perspective. A common assumption among these frameworks

is that the understanding of the relationship between print and meaning occurs
first, followed by an understanding of print form. There are different
frameworks under this perspective.

The Goodman Framework. Goodman’s framework (1986) outlines five areas in

which children’s knowledge and skills progress in their developing the “roots of
literacy.” The progression through these “roots of literacy,” according to
Goodman enables children to acquire emergent literacy knowledge and skills.
Evidences of these areas are shown as follows:

1st area: print awareness in situational contexts

 This is observed when the child begins to learn and recognize print in the
environment, such as logos for restaurants and food companies.

2nd area: print awareness in discourse

 This happens when the child is exposed to print media. Through experiences
with different print media, the child learns that each serves a particular
purpose. For example, an individual can read a newspaper or online websites to
find out about the weather for the day or for several days, events that occurred
locally, or events that have occurred around the world. After being introduced
to these media, the child learns how to manipulate them. Learning how to
“read” a book by turning the pages from the front to the back of the book and
reading from left to right (in English) are examples of ways to manipulate print
media.

3rd area: functions and forms of writing

 The child begins to write by scribbling or drawing lines to represent letters or

typing strings of letters using a computer.

4th area: oral language to talk about written language

 This is observed when the child begins to understand and talk about the
functions of print. For example, the child may describe a book as something
that tells a story using words and pictures.

5th area: metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness about written language

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 This is observed when the child begins to understand the meanings of literacy
terms, such as “letter” and “page,” and uses words to describe what he or she
reads.

The McCormick and Mason (1986) Framework. Another framework in the

developmental perspective is that of McCormick and Mason (1986) who
suggested that children progress through a “hierarchy” of knowledge and skills
when learning to read. According to this framework, the child’s success at the
higher levels of the hierarchy is dependent on the successful development of
the preceding level or levels.

1st level : functions of print

 Children’s understand print by the context of the environment where the print
occurs (context-dependent). They begin to read environmental print such as
street signs, yet they may not be able to read those same words in different
situations like when it is written on an address book. Within this level, children
learn that meaningful words can be represented in print form (meaning they
understand that print has a function).

2nd level: form of print

 At this level, children learn about grapheme-phoneme correspondence ( or the

correspondence between letter and sound). They begin to experiment with this
understanding through increased reading exposure and invented spelling. Here
they can apply phonetic analysis to printed words because their attention to
print shifts from function to form. The children begin to learn about the
structure of printed words via their letter-sound understanding. They no longer
rely on the contextual clues provided by pictures or environmental situations
which were the dominant clues in the previous level.

3rd level: coordination of the form and function of print

 This time, children apply their understanding of print function and print form
simultaneously. Since children develop clearer and more efficient ways to
decode printed words, such as by noting orthographic redundancy and
phonologic patterns, they are able to give more attention to word meanings. In
this last stage, children learn to use their skills for both print function and form
in order to read, just as conventional readers do.

The Strommen and Mates Framework . An output of a longitudinal study which

they conducted, Strommen and Mates (2000) based their developmental
framework on emergent literacy directly on the developmental progression of
children’s understanding about becoming a reader. Strommen and Mates
observed six concepts about reading during the emergent literacy stage. The
developmental progression through these different conceptual processes
illustrates the ways that children learn the functions, content, and purpose of
print materials.

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1. Reading is one aspect of an interpersonal routine

 Book reading is viewed as a social routine in which the book itself has a minor
role. The book is viewed as a tool for social interaction.

2. Readers focus on the book

 Book reading is viewed as a social routine in which the book is the focus of the
routine. This time the central activity is the reading of the book.

3. Readers construct a sequenced account

 They rely on the illustrations rather than the print to construct a meaningful
story.

4. Readers reconstruct a specific account

 They recognize that the content of a story is unique to each book; in
reconstructing a story, the words can change, but the meaning must stay the
same.

5. Readers refer to print to reconstruct texts

 Printed text is needed to reconstruct a story; however, the relationship between
decoding print and reading is not always understood.

6. Readers reconstruct texts by using multiple strategies to interpret the language

encoded by print
 There is the understanding that they must accurately interpret written language
using a variety of language and decoding strategies (e.g., graphophonemic,
semantic, and syntactic information), in addition to the illustrations, in order to
be able to read.

The van Kleeck Framework. Van Kleeck (1998) suggested that there are two
general stages of emergent literacy during which children acquire their literacy
knowledge and skills.

1st stage (3 to 4 years old)

 children discover that print is meaningful through their exposure to print and
terms related to book reading such as “book” and “page.”

 Children in the first stage also begin to retell stories in their own words while
looking at pictures in books and may begin to learn to rhyme and name letters.
Further, the emphasis on the print–meaning relationship is evident in the
behavior of both the adult and the child during shared book reading. For
example, adults tend to convey the meanings associated with pictures in the
books via strategies such as labeling objects and people and describing objects
or events during book sharing with infants and toddlers.

2nd stage (older preschool children)

 They begin to learn about print form and early form–meaning correspondences
while continuing to learn about print meaning across a range of literacy
environments. Adults make more specific and direct references to the form of

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printed text using print-related terms such as “capital” (letter) and “word”
during book sharing.

 Also, during this stage, children learn how to write letters and match letters
with their associated sounds, create more detailed stories, and strengthen their
ability to predict events in stories that are orally read to them.

B. Components Perspective. The frameworks that were developed under this

perspective attempted to identify the “components” of the emergent literacy
stage. As opposed to the developmental frameworks, which describes a general
sequence in the acquisition of emergent literacy knowledge and skills, the
primary focus of the components frameworks is on the specific knowledge and
skills that characterize the emergent literacy stage. The following are the
developed frameworks in the components perspective.

The Storch and Whitehurst Framework. Storch and Whitehurst (2002) based their
framework on the perspective that children gain literacy knowledge and skills
throughout the stage that influence later literacy development. key ideas in
this framework are:

 The framework identifies children’s emergent literacy knowledge and skills

as code-related skills and oral language skills

 Components or code-related skills include:

o conventions of print (e.g. directionality of reading or the direction of eye

movement, or the sequence of turning pages when reading)
o beginning forms of writing (e.g., writing one’s name),
o grapheme knowledge (e.g., identifying letters of the alphabet),
o grapheme–phoneme correspondence (e.g., knowledge that the letter m
makes the /m/ sound, and phonological awareness (e.g., knowledge that the
word “book” begins with the /b/ sound).

 Components of oral language skills include:

o semantic knowledge (word knowledge, expressive and receptive
vocabulary),
o syntactic knowledge (knowledge of word order and grammatical rules),
o narrative discourse (e.g., telling a story), and
o conceptual knowledge (e.g., knowledge of the world).

 The oral language and code-related skills that are acquired during the
emergent literacy stage constitute the foundation for conventional literacy.

 The code-related skills and oral language skills are related and have a
reciprocal effect on each other (they affect each other). These skills also
affect early reading development during preschool and kindergarten years.

 After kindergarten, code-related and oral language skills become

independent of each other with regard to reading development; that is, the
code-related skills continue to influence a child’s reading development in the

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first and second grades, but no longer influence the child’s oral language
skills.

 Additionally, Storch and Whitehurst (2002) claim that oral language skills
have little or no direct influence on reading development in the first and
second grades and indirectly affect reading comprehension in the third and
fourth grades. Instead, they state that code-related skills learned in
kindergarten, such as phonological processing and print concepts, heavily
affect a child’s ability to read (but there is contradictory evidence in the
study of van Kleeck & Norlander (2008).

 It is important to note however, that the early interaction of code-related

and oral language skills provides a foundation for reading achievement at
least in the early grades of school.

 For example, Storch and Whitehurst (2002) found that 38% of kindergarten
code-related skills were drawn from the code-related skills in the preschool
period (e.g., phonological processing and orthographic representation),
which also significantly predicted reading achievement in the first and second
grades. These code-related skills enabled children to convert printed words
to their spoken counterparts, thus resulting to reading comprehension.

 Although the influence of code-related skills on emergent literacy is

apparent, Storch and Whitehurst stress that oral language skills and code-
related skills should not be taught in isolation or should not be taught
separately. They emphasize the coordination and interaction of oral
language and code-related skills throughout the preschool and kindergarten
years. They also explain that these skills continue to develop and influence
conventional literacy acquisition. Like Storch and Whitehurst (2002), van
Kleeck (1998, 2003) offered a framework that describes the knowledge and
skills that children develop throughout the emergent literacy stage.

The van Kleeck Framework. This framework illustrates the interrelationship

among four components: the context processor, the meaning processor, the
orthographic processor, and the phonological processor.

a. context processor

 enables children to comprehend and interpret text that is being read to them
before they can read and that they will read themselves later on in their
literacy development.

 Context processor skills include world knowledge (e.g., concept development),

syntactic knowledge (e.g., knowledge of grammar and word order), narrative
development (e.g., knowledge of story grammar), book conventions (e.g.,
knowledge of how to use books), abstract language (e.g., inferential language),
and functions of print (e.g., to share information).

b. The meaning processor

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 This is important to children’s ability to apply lexical knowledge to the

meanings of individual words.

 The meaning processor skills are comprised of word awareness (a form of

metalinguistic awareness), which involves the understanding that words are
units of language, and vocabulary development (a semantic language skill).

c. The orthographic processor

 involves the ability to recognize individual letter units that enable the child to
identify individual letters and sequences of letters.
 Orthographic processor skills are those that pertain to print conventions and
letter knowledge (print conventions pertain to how the words are written like
capitalization, spelling and punctuation conventions.

d. Phonological processor

 This enables the child to use phonological awareness skills to convert printed
letters to sounds and sound sequences (i.e., words).

 The phonological processor skills include syllable segmentation, rhyming, and

phoneme segmentation. Syllable segmentation is the ability to divide a word
into separate syllables. For example, mother is divided into two syllables:
moth-er. Rhyming involves the ability to isolate and change one consonant or
consonant cluster at the beginning of a word to create a new word with a similar
sound (e.g., isolating and changing the first consonant in hat to create rat).
Phoneme segmentation occurs when a word is divided into phonemes or sound
units. For example, bus is divided into three units: b-u-s.

C. Child and Environmental Influences Perspective. Frameworks under this

perspective put emphasis on the interplay between the child and the immediate
environment. Basically, these frameworks looks into the child and environmental
influences that may positively or negatively affect emergent literacy
development.

 Child influences can include :

1) the child’s participation in literacy-related activities
2) language proficiency
3) cognitive abilities
4) interest in literacy
5) attention
6) overall health.

 The environment includes :

1) the physical settings in which the child typically functions (e.g., home, day
care, preschool)
2) the people with whom the child interacts somewhat regularly (e.g., parents,
siblings, day care providers, preschool teachers)

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3) the literacy materials to which the child is exposed consistently (e.g., books,
magazines, signs, crayons, pencils, paper)
4) the literacy experiences and opportunities that are provided within the
child’s environments (e.g., joint book reading with an adult, group book
reading with a teacher, ordering from a menu, drawing a picture of a favorite
activity).

The McNaughton Framework. This framework is based from Mc Naughton’s (1995)

socialization model of child development. This model considers the influence of
a child’s environment on the acquisition of emergent literacy knowledge, skills,
and processes. Key points to the framework are:

 A child’s emergent literacy development is structured within initial family

experiences. The framework suggests that the activities in which the family
engages with the child and the resulting system of learning and development are
based on four distinct and identifiable components of family literacy practices.
These are:
o family practices
o activities (child and family)
o systems for learning and development, leading to expertise,
o relationships between settings.

 Family practices are how children are socialized and it is through these social
interactions that create ways of thinking, acting, and using language that are
considered appropriate by the various cultural and social communities with which
the family identifies. For example, a general social and cultural expectation of
families in developed countries is that their children will become literate. As a
result, families expose their children to a range of functions of written language
within different contexts. Very young children’s experiences range from
observing the different uses of written language (e.g., watching a sibling read a
book) to being directly involved in such events (e.g., book sharing with a parent).

 A family’s literacy practices can be observed within the reading and writing
activities that occur routinely for that family. These activities have goals and
rules that are followed. The child can accomplish the activities alone, with
siblings, or with the entire family. For example, a family might celebrate friends’
and relatives’ birthdays by sending birthday cards that the family members have
signed. The goal of the activity is to acknowledge and celebrate someone’s
birthday; personal notes might also be written that share additional information.
Such an activity requires that certain conventions are followed, such as signing
the card below the text and writing from left to right and top to bottom,
including both the mailing and return addresses as well as a postage stamp in
appropriate locations on the envelope.

 There are two systems of learning and development. The first occurs when the
family is directly involved in activities with the child, such as book sharing. The
second occurs when the child explores writing and reading alone.

 Through both systems, the child develops expertise in the areas that are being
introduced through participation in the various activities. For example, through
book sharing with a parent, the child is becoming an expert on what a book is,

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how it is read, and the purpose of reading. The child learns how to turn the pages
and begins to understand that the pictures represent the text that is being read.

 Literacy practices, activities, and systems can be found in settings other than the
family environment, such as day care centers, preschools, church events,
playgroups, and other community settings.

 The child experiences in the family is brought to the outside social environment.
For example, if a child learns how to interact with books during book-sharing
experiences with a parent, he or she then can use the same book-sharing
knowledge and skills in play with another child and with books in a preschool
classroom.

The Wasik and Hendrickson Framework . Wasik and Hendrickson (2004) formed
this framework based on their studies on family literary practices with children
from infancy to preschool. They organized an analysis of major variables that
were present in the observed literacy practices and that such practices may be
influential in the literacy development in very young children. Four major
variables are involved in the framework:

(1) parental characteristics

(2) child characteristics
(3) home literacy environment
(4) parent–child relationships

Parental characteristics. Wasik and Hendrickson identified three types of parental

characteristics. These include culture and ethnicity, parental beliefs, and
socioeconomic status.

 Culture and ethnicity affect areas such as the expectations for education, the
patterns for language use in bilingual families, the preferences for types of
literacy activities (e.g., storytelling, book sharing), and the structure of tasks
(e.g., question-asking, task routines, and parental teaching strategies).

 Parental beliefs include the family’s beliefs about the importance and role of the
educational system in the literacy development of their children.

 The family’s socioeconomic status has an effect on factors such as the amount of
time spent in literacy-related activities, financial resources available for literacy
related materials and experiences, the underlying purpose of family literacy
activities (e.g., literacy to perform functions of daily living, literacy to
entertain), and other factors that support children’s literacy development.

These variables might include parents’ educational background and the quality of
parent–child interactions. Culture and ethnicity, parental beliefs, and
socioeconomic status are especially important to consider because of the
variability among families in terms of these parental characteristics.

Child characteristics. These include the child’s level of engagement and social
interaction in literacy-related activities, as well as language proficiency,
cognitive abilities, developmental achievements, motivation, attention, and

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health conditions that might affect language and literacy development. Each of
the child characteristics can influence the extent to which a child can use the
support that the environment provides for early literacy learning.

Home literacy environment. This includes such aspects as book sharing between
parents and children, parents reading aloud with their children, print materials
being available to the children, and parents’ positive attitudes toward literacy
activities.
The home literacy environment is comprised of both direct and
indirect literacy-related events. Direct literacy related events are those in which
the child engages, such as book sharing with a parent or labeling the printed
letters of the alphabet. Indirect literacy-related events are those about which
the child learns through the observation of individuals as they engage in those
activities (e.g., reading the newspaper, writing notes).
The characteristics of the home literacy environment interact with
the parental and child characteristics in influencing a child’s acquisition of
emergent literacy knowledge and skills.

The last aspect concerns social–emotional and interpersonal aspects

of parent–child relationships that relate to literacy practices. According to Wasik
and Hendrickson (2004), parent–child literacy interactions are central to
fostering a child’s emergent literacy skills. Specifically, nurturing parent–child
relationships characterized by warm, supportive, and

Parent-child relationships. Parental interactions have been correlated with higher

language and literacy achievement. This means the stronger and more frequent
parental interaction with the child, the higher or more successful would be the
language and literacy achievement of the child.
Although positive parent–child relationships do not wholly account for
a child’s success or failure with achieving emergent literacy skills, the absence
of such relationships can be a detrimental factor in a child’s emergent literacy
development.

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Lesson 4

 Factors Affecting Development:

Early Language Stimulation,
Literate Communities and
Environment, Story Reading
Early Language Stimulation

There have been several studies conducted in the study of factors

affecting the different aspects of child development. When it comes to
literacy development, it is apparent that literacy is interconnected with
language and cognitive development. Dominant in this aspect is language
acquisition and learning since language is the primary medium of
communication and literacy. Furthermore, early language skills in young
children lead to improved social and cognitive interactions, allowing for
learning and literacy and improved brain development in childhood.
The language development of the child, as previously discussed, is
influenced by the child’s immediate social environment. In a study conducted
by Herman et al. (2016), it was found that children who had higher language
exposure and stimulation as three-year-olds were more likely to have
adequate to better-than-average language skills in first grade; while, children
who did not receive adequate language stimulation early in life were much
more likely to have poor language skills. This is just one of several studies on
proving the importance of language stimulation among young children to help
them in their development.
Language stimulation refers to a range of techniques and or strategies that
parents and caring adults do to encourage children to use language. This is vital
among early language users especially during the time of early language acquisition
and learning. Language stimulation is a great way of building upon children’s
attempt to communicate with the adults modelling how children can use language.

Examples of early language stimulation techniques include the following:

a. Imitation

Imitation is one of the earliest language stimulation techniques that a

parent/carer can start using with an infant. The baby will develop simple
actions before he or she develops sounds. As soon as the baby starts
making noises like gurgling, squealing, cooing, the parent/carer can start
imitating them. By simply copying the baby’s sounds, the parent/carer is
teaching the basics of conversation skills - taking turns. The baby is
learning that he is actually saying something and that the parent/carer is
actually responding by saying something. This would encourage more
vocalizations. In other words, the baby will expect the adult to copy the
sound he makes and this will make him happy, reinforcing the
vocalization. Soon, the child will be imitating the adult, which is the
beginning of how the child learns words- by imitating the adult
(parent/carer).

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b. Running Commentary

Children learn language (words and sentences) through listening to

others. The more language they are hearing, the more readily they are
able to pick up new words and phrases. Often children have to hear a
word many times before they will attempt to say it, which suggests that
Mums and Dads need to do a lot of talking to encourage their children to
learn new words. A simple way to do this is by providing a ‘running
commentary’ throughout the day. In other words, describe all the things
that your child is doing as they are doing them. Use simple language and
repeat the main words. For example when the baby is eating, while the
mother is feeding him, she could just be encouraging the baby to eat by
saying, “ wow my baby eats yum yum. Uhm delicious, ahm ahm yum yum,
yes? Eat more yum yum. Open mouth, ah, uhm yum yum, eat more yum
yum”.

The parent/carer must remember however, not to talk too quickly,

make their voice animated, and make sure they are commenting
specifically on the child’s actions and interests. By commenting on the
child’s immediate interests and actions, the parent/carer is providing the
child with words and sounds that are motivating in that moment, and it is
these words and sounds that they will be more likely to say.

Experts recommend that parents use the running commentary

technique as early as four months of age. While the baby does not have
any words yet, he is starting to develop an interest in the world, and is
beginning to tune into the parent/carer’s words and sounds.

c. Labelling

When the child begins to use single words one will most likely hear a
lot of labels (nouns) such as kitty, puppy, milk, ball. Right now these are the
most useful words for the child as these are the things that he can see and
touch. At this stage it is important for the adult to encourage the child’s
vocabulary by labelling other things in their environment. The child does not
know all of the words yet, and may be simply pointing to different things and
looking at the adult questioningly. When this happens, the adult
(parent/carer) must give the child the word for whatever he is pointing at.

If the child pronounces words incorrectly, it is important for the adult

to repeat the word correctly. For example, if the child says ‘kikky’ instead of
‘kitty’, it is important that the adult shows him the correct way to say that
word e.g. “Yes, it’s a kitty’. Children learn language from their parents, and
if the error is repeated, the child will think it is correct.

d. Build on the child’s words

Once the child start using single words, it is time for the adult to start
speaking in 2-3 word sentences. Children learn how to construct sentences
from Mum and Dad, parents should simplify their language and show the child
exactly how to combine 2-3 words. For example, if the child points to a cat
and says ‘kitty’, the adult could respond with ‘Oh! White kitty. Kitty is

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sleeping.’ In this instance the adult has given the child a few more words that
they can use to talk about the cat: a color (white) and an action (sleeping).
The adult has shown the child how to combine these words to make a short
sentence.

These are just some of the early language stimulation techniques. There are
more and it grows to more formal ways as the child matures and attends formal
school. What is important is for the child to be given opportunities to use the
language. Language stimulation starts in the home with the parent. A good way to
stimulate and encourage the child to use language is to always talk to them, show
interest to them, ask them questions, always be curious with them as they are with
you and their surroundings.

Literate Communities and Environment

Imagine a community in the form of a village in the densest area of the

Amazon forest. There are no print nor electronic media present in the village.
People in that area only live by hunting and foraging. Children in this area would
acquire the language of the tribe, no doubt. But as to the conventional literacy of
reading and writing will obviously be not part of their development nor their
lifestyle. But in a society such as hours, where education is both prestige and
survival, it is expected that children are to be “literate” and thus, the society
provides them with opportunities to grow as literate individuals. There are agencies
of the government for education, for language, and even for preservation of culture.
These institutions that make a literate environment affects the way how a child is
raised and consequently, his development.

The Home. Emergent literacy is regularly associated with the home literacy
environment. It is important to note therefore, that the home literacy environment
plays a key role in the success students do or do not have within the classroom
setting. It goes without saying that the home literacy environment is directly linked
to literacy performance in school.

According to Haney & Hill (2004), holding parents responsible for a portion of
their children’s learning is imperative to their development. Home literacy activities
prepare students with significant skills that will assist them in their early literacy
development. in other words, the quality of the home itself can have some effect
on how a child performs within the classroom.

The manual, A Parent’s Guide to Public Education in the 21st Century (2016)
gives the following tips on how to create a literate home environment:

1. Reading is practiced by the adults in the home – When children see

that the adults closest to them read, they learn that reading is an
important human activity worthy of emulation. It makes little difference
what the reading material is, books, magazines, newspapers, in print or
digital, as long as children see those around them reading. Adults can
drive home the value of the activity by stopping to read something aloud
that they found interesting or remarkable, or to share some information
they learned from reading.

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2. Writing is practiced by the adults in the home – A literate household

uses writing in a variety of ways. The important thing that children learn
in a household where people write is that writing is a means of
communication that can inform, persuade or simply serve as a memory
aid. So whether it is letters, emails, grocery lists or post-it note reminders
placed on the bedroom door or refrigerator, children should see writing
being used to communicate and they should have writing materials readily
available for their own writing attempts.

3. Literacy materials are available in the home – Literacy materials should

be found throughout the home. Books on shelves and end tables,
magazines on the coffee table and newspapers on the kitchen table. For
children to grow as literate humans, the “stuff” of literacy must surround
them. Children should be provided with pop-up story books and children’s
magazines.

4. Children are included and encouraged to participate in family

conversations – The greatest ally young students have in learning to read
and write in school is the oral language they bring with them from home.
Oral language is developed when children are seen and heard.
Conversations conducted with children rather than commands directed at
children help children develop the oral language they need to underpin
their emerging literacy skills in school.

5. Children are read to regularly – Reading aloud is important. Children who

are read to from an early age show a greater interest in reading at later
ages, have superior reading comprehension skills and have more
expressive language abilities. But just as important is the talk that
surrounds the read aloud. A read aloud should include frequent
opportunities to talk with children about what has been read, to ask and
answer questions and to talk about what a story made the child feel
and/or think about.

6. Family stories – All families have stories, those stories about the time the
cat climbed a tree and refused to come down or when dad or mom did
something silly or how grandmother came to be called Meemaw. Sharing
family stories around the dinner table or in the car is an important way
for children to develop their oral language and their understanding of the
narrative structure of stories. Family stories are also a good way to pass
down an oral history of the family; an oral history that gives children a
firm understanding of who they are and where they come from.

7. Share a fascination with words – All of the activities described above will
help children develop a rich vocabulary, but parents can also help with
vocabulary development by being on the lookout for interesting, exciting,
curious words that pop up in reading or in conversation and by simply
talking about words used by characters on TV or written on billboards or
restaurant menus. We want to develop a “word consciousness” in children
– a fascination with words and their many and varied uses. When you see
interesting words, talk about them with your children.

8. Combine TV watching with talk – Television is not the enemy of literacy

learning. Television viewing can be educational, whether kids are
watching something that is informative or merely watching an

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entertaining cartoon or sitcom. The key to making TV watching a literate

experience is talk. During commercials the TV can be muted and parents
and children can talk about what they have seen and predict what they
will happen next. At the end of the program, the TV can be turned off
and the family can discuss what they have seen, summarize the big ideas
and each family member can share what stood out for them in the show.

9. Continue all of these practices after children begin school – Once

children begin school and begin to formally learn to read and write, good
home literacy practices, including read aloud, should continue in the
home. Continued emphasis on literacy in the home supports the work of
the classroom teacher and the continuing learning efforts of your child.

The School. Classrooms, in a sense, can be considered a community.

Children spend six or even more hours in five days a week, interacting with their
teachers and classmates in a specific space in the school. Literate classrooms should
motivate students and emphasize the importance of speaking, reading, and writing.
As a place for literacy, it is but natural that the classroom should have a literate
environment. Creating a literate classroom environment where pupils feel well,
productive, energized, and safe requires design.

1. Prepare the physical environment. The physical arrangement and

organization of a classroom can be a powerful and effective support for
literacy instruction. The following can be helpful in the classroom.
a. Create a well-organized library of books of various genre.
b. Provide students with other print resources such as magazines,
newspapers, recipes, signs, posters, comics etc.
c. Set up areas with pillows and cozy chairs the pupils can read
comfortably.
d. Use the walls to display labels, word walls, anchor charts, posters,
and student work.
e. Organize materials in colorful bins that make use and clean up
easy.
f. Provide pupils with a wide range of engaging materials to promote
reading and writing. These may include colorful markers or pens,
letter tiles, magnets, puppets, clay, learning mats or games.
g. Arrange a large rug to serve as a place for the class to gather,
read, and learn together away from the desks.
h. Incorporate technology. If available, consider using iPads, e-
readers, computers, or active whiteboards as tools for motivating
pupils about literacy.

2. Establishing effective routines. To make the most of literacy

instruction, a daily routine should be established that allows for
predictability for the students. The literacy practices in a daily routine
should include print concepts, familiar or self-selected reading,
word/letter work and vocabulary development, guided or structured
shared reading including instruction in reading strategies, text
comprehension, and writing for authentic purposes. Some routine
activities may include:
 interactive read aloud
 Introduction to new vocabulary
 Shared reading

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 Spelling
 Guided reading
 Writing

3. Effective grouping practices. Students should have the opportunity to

work collaboratively with the teacher and their classmates. Group work
also teaches the child social interaction. It is the task of the teacher to
facilitate the learning of the students. With group work, the following
can be done:

 Make use of students various learning styles

 Include manipulative-based activities within groups, such
as pocket charts to build words, tape recorders, dry erase
boards, reading games, sequence cards, etc.
 Include open discussion within groups such as, literacy
groups, represented by the leveled reading groups

The Community/Society (Nation). The local community, and the

nation as a whole provides opportunities for literacy through language and
education policies, establishing community libraries and day care centers.

Story Reading

Several studies over the decades have proven the value of story reading to
child development. Among the benefits of reading to children include the following:

a. Assist cognitive development. Cognitive development refers to how we

perceive and think about our world in reference to our intelligence,
reasoning, language development, and information processing. By reading
to children, you provide them with a deep understanding about their
world and fill their brains with background knowledge. They then use this
acquired background knowledge to make sense of what they see, hear,
and read, which aids their cognitive development.

b. Improve language skills. Reading daily to young children, starting in

infancy, can help with language acquisition, communication skills, social
skills, and literacy skills. This is because reading to children in the
earliest months stimulates the part of the brain that allows them to
understand the meaning of language and helps build key language,
literacy and social skills.

c. Improved literary skills. Reading with aloud with young children, even
if they can’t fully understand what you are saying, gives them the skills
they need for when they begin to read by themselves. It shows children
that reading is something achieved by focusing from left to right and that
turning pages is essential for continuing.

d. More extensive vocabulary. Hearing words spoken aloud can expose

children to a range of new vocabulary and phrases that they may not have
heard otherwise. By reading to a child daily, they’ll learn new words every
single day.

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e. Greater concentration. Regular and consistent reading can help to

improve a child’s concentration abilities. Furthermore, it will help a child
learn to sit still and listen for long periods of time, which will benefit
them in their schooling.

f. Higher levels of creativity and imagination. Reading a book relies on us

using our imagination for picturing characters, visualizing their settings
and environment, and guessing what’s coming next. We must use our
imagination if we are to learn about other people, places, events, and
times. In turn, this developed imagination leads to greater creativity as
children use the ideas in their heads to inform their work.

g. Building stronger relationships. If a parent reads with a child on a

regular basis, then they will undoubtedly develop a stronger relationship
with them. Reading provides parents with an opportunity to have a
regular and shared event that both parent and child can look forward to.
Furthermore, it provides children with feelings of attention, love, and
reassurance which is key for nurturing and wellbeing.

THINK

Watch the compiled clips below from Prof. Naom Chomsky, Eastern
Connecticut State University Professors, and Fairfax County Public Library
then answer the questions below. Relate your answer with your Module 3
readings.

Video link:
https://youtu.be/Gr-617MMgBI

1. How does first language acquisition occur?

2. What are the key factors of oral language development?

3. Why should you do when a child/learner give only one-word answers?

4. What are the best ways to encourage/help emergent readers and writers?

Module III