Tarkeshwar Barua, Ruchi Doshi, Kamal Kant Hiran

Mobile Applications Development

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Tarkeshwar Barua, Ruchi Doshi,
Kamal Kant Hiran

Mobile
Applications
Development
With Python in Kivy Framework
Authors
Tarkeshwar Barua Ruchi Doshi
Department of IT Department of Computer Science and
BlueCrest University College Engineering
Monrovia, Liberia, West Africa Jyoti Vidyapeeth Women’s University
[email protected] Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
[email protected]
Kamal Kant Hiran
School of Engineering
Sir Padampat Singhania University
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
[email protected];
[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-068938-9
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-068948-8
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-068952-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020950010

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: scyther5/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
Preface
Mobile phones will change the way we connect to the world in future. Mobile
phones are becoming a very important part of daily life in today's digital age. It is
time-consuming for programmers to develop mobile applications for various mobile
platforms such as Windows, iOS, Linux, and Raspberry Pi. There are numerous plat-
forms available in the market, such as Android, iOS, Windows, Linux, and Sun, and
each platform is different due to internal architecture, which is why all platform of
software is different. Cross-platform mobile application development using python
with the Kivy framework is the best approach that works well on all mobile applica-
tion platforms. The Kivy framework is easy to understand and user-friendly.
Nowadays, the software development industry is becoming very competitive and
the consumer wants their high-quality application with multiple device support in
a short span of time; therefore, the cross-platform application development market
is going to be very high. These apps make life much easier by offering remote access
to a wide range of services.
In this book, we cover the fundamentals of the python in the first part, which is
required to build any mobile application, and in the second part, the principles of
mobile application development using the Kivy framework. The second part dis-
cusses the responsive graphical user interface designing, customization, various
file operations such as sending/receiving and reading/writing over local/remote
machines, and network operation over remote resources. All chapters are written
based on the real-time examples and practical knowledge. Exporting required exe-
cutable file according to the platforms along with packaging and licensing. Each
chapter has summary, key terms, review questions, and exercise for better learning.
At the end of the book, some hands-on projects will also help readers to strengthen
their practical and programming skills.
Chapter 1 presents an overview and characteristics of mobile application, diffi-
culties during development process, advantages and disadvantage of Python, in-
stallation of Python on various available platforms such as Windows, Linux, Mac,
and machine compatibility issues due to different platforms and architectures.
Chapter 2 presents the variables such as declaration, data types, operators,
string handling, functions, and math calculations.
Chapter 3 presents the conditional statements, loops, continue and break state-
ments, array, string, lists, tuples, set, and dictionaries.
Chapter 4 gives an overview of the object-oriented programming concepts: ab-
straction, class and object, polymorphism, inheritance, encapsulation, overloading,
overriding, access specifier, and decorators.
Chapter 5 describes the standard libraries, file operations using native, excep-
tion handling, import standard Python modules and packages, regular expression,
JavaScript Object Notation, SQLite3, and SQLAlchemy.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-202
VI Preface

Chapter 6 is an introductory chapter of Kivy framework, which presents the

cross-platform, Kivy architecture, installation of Kivy framework on various plat-
forms, and anatomy of Kivy.
Chapter 7 presents the basics about Kivy, how to configure working environ-
ment on various platforms, Kivy framework configuration and how to import Kivy
library, widgets, orientation horizontal and vertical, super, padding, __init__, and
add_widget.
Chapter 8 provides several types of layouts such as box layout, float layout,
anchor layout, grid layout, relative layout, stack layout, and page layout with
examples.
Chapter 9 presents the designing user interface (UI) that is targeted to meet the
responsiveness. It describes the UI components, buttons, labels, ListView, recycler
view, events and properties, popup menus, TextInput, ScrollView, and KivyClock.
Chapter 10 presents the UX widgets: actionbar and slider, checkbox and text
on window, toggle button, TreeView, radio/checkbox button and label manage-
ment, ProgressBar and carousel layout, custom ProgressBar, scatter layout, canvas
layout, AsyncImage, spinner, accordion, and switching between two screens.
Chapter 11 presents graphics handling, modules, network support, audio, and
video animations.
Chapter 12 describes the packaging apps for various platforms: mixin class,
building an android APK on OS X, application testing with Android and iOS, pack-
aging application using Kivy launcher, and Kivy application testing.
Chapter 13 introduces two sample hands-on-practice projects.
The book targets the academic and programming needs of the mobile applica-
tion development community. It would be used by students and faculty members
interested in the fields of computer science and engineering, and information sci-
ence and technology engineering. The authors would be more than pleased if the
readers found it useful to discuss further ideas in the development direction of
cross-platform mobile applications.
Tarkeshwar Barua
October 2020 Dr. Ruchi Doshi
Udaipur, India Kamal Kant Hiran
Contents
Preface V

Authors’ Biography XV

1 Introduction of Python 1
1.1 Why Python 1
1.1.1 Drawbacks of Python 1
1.2 History of Python 2
1.3 Major features of Python 2
1.3.1 What is new in upcoming Python 3.8 3
1.4 Market demand 7
1.5 Why Python in mobile app development? 9
1.6 Python versions 11
1.7 Architecture of python application 11
1.8 System requirement 13
1.9 Installation of python in various platform 13
Installation in windows 13
Installation in Linux 13
Installation in Mac 14
1.10 Creating First Hello World app 14
1.10.1 Basic operations in python prompt 17
1.11 Anatomy of Python program 17
1.12 IDLE 18
1.13 User input 18
1.14 Installing external modules using pip 18
Summary 19
Key terms 20
Review questions 20
Exercise 21

2 Python basics 24
2.1 Variables 24
2.2 Data types 26
2.2.1 Booleans 28
2.2.2 Integer 28
2.2.3 Float 28
2.2.4 String 28
2.2.5 None 29
2.3 Block indentation 29
2.4 Math calculations 30
VIII Contents

2.5 Operators 31
2.6 String operations 31
2.7 Indexing 32
2.8 Slicing 33
2.9 Concatenation 33
2.10 Single-line and multiline comments 33
2.11 Functions 34
2.11.1 Built-in functions 34
2.11.2 User-defined functions 35
2.11.3 Function with argument 36
2.11.4 Flow of execution 36
2.11.5 Default values 36
2.12 Return value 37
2.13 Type-casting 38
2.14 Disassembler 38
2.15 Lambda keyword 39
Summary 40
Key terms 40
Review questions 41
Exercise 41

3 Conditions and loops 45

3.1 If and else and conditional statements 45
3.1.1 Nested if–else 47
3.2 Loops 48
3.2.1 For loop 48
3.2.2 While loop 49
3.3 Break and continue statement 49
3.4 Collections 50
3.4.1 Tuples 51
3.4.2 Lists 52
3.4.3 Sets 54
3.4.4 Frozen sets 55
3.4.5 Byte 56
3.4.6 Byte array 56
3.4.7 String 57
3.4.8 Dictionaries 58
3.4.9 Arrays 60
3.5 Date and time 61
Summary 61
Key terms 62
 Contents IX

Review questions 62
Exercise 62

4 Object-oriented programming (OOP) 65

4.1 Object-oriented programming (OOP) 65
4.2 Class 65
4.3 Object 66
4.4 Functions 66
4.5 Abstraction 68
4.5.1 Abstract class 69
4.5.2 Interface 70
4.6 Polymorphism 73
4.6.1 Overloading 75
4.6.2 Overriding 76
4.7 Encapsulation 78
4.8 Inheritance 79
4.9 Access modifier/specifier 80
4.10 Decorator 81
4.10.1 @classmethod decorator 82
4.10.2 @staticmethod decorator 83
Summary 83
Key terms 84
Review questions 84
Exercise 85

5 Standard libraries 88
5.1 File operations using native 88
5.1.1 Writing file 89
5.2 OS module 89
5.3 Exception handling 91
5.3.1 User-defined exceptions 92
5.4 Import standard Python modules and packages 92
5.4.1 Creating a module 93
5.4.2 Packages 93
5.5 Regular expression 95
5.6 Math module 97
5.6.1 Writing documentation for module 98
5.7 JSON 99
5.8 SQLite3 101
5.9 SQLAlchemy 103
Summary 104
Key terms 104
X Contents

Review questions 105

Exercise 106

6 Getting started with Kivy 109

6.1 Why cross-platform? 109
6.2 What is Kivy 109
6.3 Why Python in mobile app 109
6.4 Kivy architecture 110
6.5 Python developed mobile apps 113
6.6 History of Kivy 114
6.7 Why not Cordova 114
6.8 Kivy versions 114
6.9 How it is different from the cross-platform app framework 114
6.10 System requirement 115
6.11 Installation of Kivy 115
6.11.1 Installation in Windows? 115
6.11.2 Installation in Mac OS? 115
6.11.3 Installation in Linux? 116
6.11.4 What are Wheels and pip? 117
6.11.5 Cython installation in Linux? 118
6.11.6 Verifying installation 118
6.12 Creating the First Hello World App 118
6.12.1 Event handling in Kivy 119
6.12.2 Event dispatcher 119
6.12.3 Main loop 119
6.12.4 Custom events 120
6.13 Anatomy of Kivy 121
6.13.1 Running Kivy application 122
6.13.2 Listing and uninstalling Kivy 124
Summary 125
Key terms 126
Review questions 126
Exercise 127

7 Kivy basics 130

7.1 Configuring environment 130
7.2 Configure Kivy and how to import Kivy library 140
7.3 First app 142
7.3.1 Widgets 145
7.3.2 Custom widgets 146
7.4 Orientation horizontal and vertical 147
7.4.1 size-hint, pos_hint 149
 Contents XI

7.4.2 pos_hint 152

7.4.3 FileChooser 154
7.5 super, padding, __init__, add_widget 158
7.5.1 Super 158
7.5.2 __init__ 159
7.5.3 add_widget 161
Summary 162
Key terms 163
Review questions 163
Exercise 164

8 Layouts 167
8.1 What is the layout 167
8.2 Box layout 167
8.3 Float layout 170
8.4 Anchor layout 175
8.5 Grid layout 178
8.6 Relative layout 181
8.7 Stack layout 182
8.8 Page layout 184
Summary 186
Key terms 186
Review questions 186
Exercise 187

9 Designing user interfaces 190

9.1 What is UI (user interface) components 190
9.2 Buttons 190
9.3 Labels 193
9.4 ListView 196
9.4.1 RecyclerView 197
9.5 Image 201
9.6 Events and properties 202
9.7 Fonts and their properties 204
9.8 Popup menu 204
9.9 TextInput 206
9.10 ScrollView 207
9.11 Kivy clock 208
Summary 209
Key terms 210
Review questions 210
Exercise 210
XII Contents

10 UX widgets 213
10.1 ActionBar and slider 213
10.2 Checkbox and text on window 215
10.2.1 Toggle button 219
10.2.2 TreeView 222
10.3 Radio/checkbox button and label management 224
10.4 ProgressBar and carousel 228
Kivy clock 230
10.4.1 Custom ProgressBar 231
10.4.2 Carousel layout 234
10.4.3 Scatter 237
10.5 Canvas 239
10.6 AsyncImage 241
10.7 Spinner 243
10.8 Accordion 244
10.9 Switching between two screens 245
Summary 247
Key terms 249
Review questions 250
Exercise 250

11 Graphics handling 253

11.1 Graphics 253
11.2 Interacting with another framework 256
11.3 Modules 260
11.4 Network support 261
11.5 Storage tool 262
11.6 Rotate clock and rotate speed 264
11.7 Triggered events 266
11.8 Animations 268
11.9 Audio 270
11.10 Video 271
Annotation 276
Summary 276
Key terms 278
Review questions 279
Exercise 279

12 Packaging app for various platforms 282

12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 282
12.1.1 Packaging application 284
12.1.2 Testing application with android device 285
 Contents XIII

12.1.3 Packaging for android 291

12.1.4 Plyer 303
12.2 Building an android APK on OS X 304
12.3 Package licensing 305
12.4 Packaging application using Kivy launcher 305
12.5 External libraries 306
12.6 Python application testing 306
12.7 Release on the market 311
12.8 Kivy application testing 311
Summary 311
Key terms 313
Review questions 314
Exercise 314

13 Sample project 318

13.1 Introduction of git 318
13.2 Implementation of git 318
13.3 Sample project 1 320
Sample project 2 324
13.4 Kivy catalog 327
13.5 Creating my own screen 335
13.6 Project game 336

Bibliography 341

Index 343
Authors’ Biography

Tarkeshwar Barua has completed MCA and MBA (IT) from Punjab Technical
University Jalandhar, India. He has more than 10 years of experience in
information technology (IT) industry as developer and as corporate as well as
academic trainer. He has hands-on working experience in developing various
stand-alone and web-based application packages. He is working as senior
lecturer at the BlueCrest University College Liberia and Senior Full Stack
Developer (Python and Java) Vodafone India. Earlier, he worked as technical
corporate international trainer in EY Dhaka for leveraging information and
communication technology. He has worked as programmer in companies
such as AV Systems (New Delhi), 360 Degree Info Dynamics Pvt Ltd (Noida),
and Symbiotic Pvt Ltd (Chennai). He has organized various national and international corporate
classroom/online training and conferences. His area of interest is in mobile app development, machine
learning, and deep learning using python and R language. He has become a leading resource in the
field of IT consulting and development.

Dr. Ruchi Doshi is having more than 12 years of academic, research, and
software development experience in Asia, Europe, and Africa. Currently, she
is working as a research professor at the Azteca University, Mexico, and
adjunct professor at the Jyoti Vidyapeeth Women’s University, Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India. She worked in the BlueCrest University College, Liberia,
West Africa, as registrar and associate professor; BlueCrest University
College, Ghana, Africa; Amity University, Rajasthan, India; Trimax IT
Infrastructure & Services, Udaipur, India. Dr. Ruchi is the founder chair of the
RKB Research Foundation based in the lake city Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.
She has several awards to his credit such as international travel grant for Germany from ITS Europe
(Passau, Germany), IEEE Liberia Subsection WIE Founder Award, IEEE Senior Member Recognition, IEEE
Student Branch Award, Elsevier Reviewer Recognition Award, and the Best Research Paper Award from
the University of Gondar, Ethiopia. She has published 20 research papers in peer-reviewed
international journals SCI/Scopus/Web of Science and conferences; 2 Indian patents; 3 books on cloud
computing, mobile cloud computing, and intelligent Internet of things (IoT) systems for big data
analysis. She is a reviewer and editorial board member of various reputed international journals in
Elsevier, Springer, IEEE, Bentham Science, and IGI Global. She is an active member in organizing many
international seminars, workshops, and conferences. She has done many international visits in
Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Ghana, Liberia, Ethiopia, and Jordan for research exposures.

Kamal Kant Hiran works as an assistant professor at the School of

Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University (SPSU), Udaipur, Rajasthan,
India, as well as a research fellow at the Aalborg University, Copenhagen,
Denmark. He is a gold medalist in M.Tech. (Hons.). He has 15+ years of
experience as academician and researcher in Asia, Africa, and Europe. He is
recipient of several awards and recognition from IEEE and Elsevier. He has
published 35 research papers in SCI/Scopus/Web of Science journals,
conferences, 2 patents, and 7 books in International Publishers. His research
interests focus on cloud computing, intelligent IoT, and framework
development by using ubiquitous computing.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-204
1 Introduction of Python
Python is an experiment in how much freedom programmers need. Too much freedom and no-
body can read another’s code; too little and expressiveness is endangered. ~Guido Van Rossum

1.1 Why Python

Python is a very popular and widely used general-purpose interpreted program-

ming language. It features a dynamic type of system and has automatic memory
management with multiple programming paradigms including imperative, func-
tional, and procedural. Programs can be created to automate various tasks.
Nowadays, all major IT companies such as Google, Microsoft, and Apple, are using
Python as the primary programming language. Python is the most accessible pro-
gramming language to be learnt quickly in a short period. It can develop any appli-
cation such as desktop, web application, mobile application, and utility tools, with
the help of a wide range of frameworks and libraries available with minimum cod-
ing. It is free and open-source available with proper documentation over the
Internet. Python focuses on business logic instead of the basic facts of program-
ming. It is available in two versions 2.x and 3.x but primarily, the focus will be on
3.7 and the upcoming Python 3.8. Python 3.8 will be full of new features with its
main emphasis on performance-related issues. Python is dynamically typed, auto-
matically collects garbage, and manages memory with multiple programming para-
digms such as procedural, object-oriented programming (OOP), and functional.
Python is an agile language that allows the user to do many customized things
within a short span of time. The application development can commence from any
point of the module and, in the ending phase of application development, can join
each other just before releasing.

1.1.1 Drawbacks of Python

All programming languages have some advantages and disadvantages. Python also
has some disadvantages; some of them are listed as follows:
1) Python is very slow in terms of execution of the program in comparison to
other programming languages such as C, C++, and Java. Java is the fastest lan-
guage because of Java Virtual Machine (JVM) and Just In Time (JIT) compiler.
For further information, one can refer to YouTube videos.
2) Drawing sophisticated graphics is computationally quite expensive. This re-
duces graphics quality.
3) Without Cython code, execution is very slow. Cython enables us to compile our
code at C level. C compiler optimizes the things.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-001
2 1 Introduction of Python

4) GPU or Cython is required for better performance.

5) We can limit the speed of the application in order to use vast resources.

1.2 History of Python

Python is not named after the type of snake. It is named after a British comedy
group called “Monty Python’s Flying Circus.” Python language was created by
“Guido van Rossum” in 1991 as 1.0. After 10 years, the 2.0 version was released in
the year 2000 with new features like comprehensions, cycle-detecting garbage col-
lection, and Unicode support. Rossum was a big fan of the group and their quirky
humor. Python programs often use the group jokes and famous quotes in their code
as a tribute. With various major updates, Python is available in two major versions
Python 3.x and 2.x. Python 2.x is a legacy version that would continue up to
the year 2020 while python 3.x is a fast updated and popular version. Some features
can be imported from python 3 using __future__ in Python 2.x. Python 3.0 was re-
leased in the year 2008, and it was the major release without backward compatibil-
ity, which means Python 2.x code could not run over the 3.x series. This major issue
was fixed in python 3.7 version for a large amount of code had been written in 2.X
series. Initially, this support was offered up to 2015 but now it has been extended
up to 2020. Rossum solely took this responsibility up to July 2018, and now he
shares his leadership as a member of a five-person steering council. Now, the steer-
ing council will release the next upcoming versions.

1.3 Major features of Python

– Easy to learn and read because of the tabular space instead of curly braces.
– Using the English language, python program becomes very easy for coding.
– Python is based on Interpreted language, which saves a lot of time for the exe-
cution of the application.
– Procedural programming, OOP, and functional programming support; using
thread module Python supports multi-threading.
– Python Android and iOS templates parse to ease generating a dynamic page for
the client.
– Interactive language; Python code never converts human-readable code for ex-
ecution. This feature makes Python very interactive by making changes at run
time.
– Python supports Android and iOS by KIVY framework.
– Platform-independent; same code can be executed on all available platforms.
 1.3 Major features of Python 3

1.3.1 What is new in upcoming Python 3.8

Assignment expression is known as walrus operator (:=). It allows value to be as-

signed to a variable, even to a variable that does not exist. It follows list compre-
hension and lambda function tradition:

input_text=input("Please input text> ")

while input_text!="quit":
print("You have entered ", input_text)
input_text=input("Please input data> ")

and the above-given program can be written as

while (input_text := input("> ")) != "quit":

print("You entered:", input_text)

Positional only parameters help us to remove ambiguity, as which argument is to

be in a function definition position and which are to be keyword arguments. We
can achieve it with the help of forward-slash (/) and star (*), where (/) indicates
that some function parameters must be specified prepositionally and cannot be
used as a keyword argument. We can define positional only parameters for func-
tions. Here, developers can force some arguments to be positional only. Observe the
given example:

>>def myfunction (a,b,/,c,d,e,*,f,g,h):

>>. . . print(a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h)
>>myfunction(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8)
Traceback (most recent call last):F
File "<pyshell#15>", line 1, in <mmyfunction(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8)
TypeError: myfunction() takes 6 positional arguments but 8 were given
in the given example is applicable after python 3.8 and above

Python initialization and configuration Python 3.8 adds a new C API to configure
the Python initialization providing better control on the whole configuration and
better error reporting. Python code configuration is scattered all around the code. It
helps to read and modify configuration before it is applied.

Vectorcall is the fastest calling protocol for Cpython. It is the default implementa-
tion of Python, and it compiles the source code into intermediate byte code, which
is executed by the Cpython virtual machine. It allows for far faster internal Python
methods without the overhead of creating temporary objects to handle the call. Any
extension-type implementation is callable, and we can use this protocol.
4 1 Introduction of Python

Run time audit hooks provide two APIs in the Python run time for hooking events
and making them observable to outside tools like testing frameworks or logging and
auditing systems. An audit hook is an exit point that allows the auditor to add the
modules subsequently. This happens by activating the hook to transfer control to an
audit module. The verified open hook allows Python administrators and embedders
to integrate with the operating system support while launching scripts or importing
python code. An audit hook and a verified open hook allow applications and frame-
works written in pure Python code to take advantage of extra notifications.

Pickle protocol 5 without band data buffers helps us to transfer compatible data
separately from the main pickle stream, at the discretion of the communication
layer. The process in which a Python object turns into byte stream is known as
“pickling” or “serialization” or “marshaling.” When pickle is used to transfer large
data between the Python processes in order to take full advantage of multicore, it is
important to optimize the transfer by reducing memory copy.

Typing-related hints Python 3.8 is more mature now with the release of some new
features such as literal types, typed dictionaries, final objects, and protocols. Typing
defines a standard notation for Python function and variable-type notations. The no-
tation can be used for documenting code in a concise, standard format, and it has
been designed to also be used by static and run time-type checker, static analyzer,
Integrated Development Environment (IDE), and other tools. Python supports type
hints, in the given example number should be a float and double() function should
return a float, as well. Python treats this annotation as hints. They are not enforced
at run time. Here acceptFloat() function accepts string too as an argument.

def acceptFloat(number: float) -> float:

return 2 * number
print(acceptFloat(2.45343))
print("This is not a float value")
=============================output=========================================
4.90686
This is not a float value
========================================================================

There are several static type checkers available like Pyright, Pytype, Pyre, and
MyPy that come along with PyPi.

Parallel file system cache for compiled byte code Python 3.8 introduces a new
PYTHONPYCACHEPEFIX setting that helps to configure the implicit byte code cache to
use a separate parallel file system. Cache is reported in sys.pycache_prefix and none.
 1.3 Major features of Python 5

Debug build shares application binary interface (ABI) as release builds Python
3.8 uses the same ABI whether it is built in release or debug mode. Now it is possible
to load C extension built using stable ABI. Python 3.8 has release build and debug
build, both are ABI compatible. On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpy-
thon, except on Android and Cygwin. It is also possible to statically link Python to old
C extensions using a shared Python library.

f-string supports a handy (=) specifiers for debugging It is a form of debugging

where print statements are inserted to print the value of expressions or variables
that needs to be tracked with wring logs. Logs are very useful in the production
environment.
f-string was introduced in python 3.6. We can evaluate an expression as part of
the string along with inserting the result of function calls.

name="Tarkeshwar Barua"
print(f"Hello, Mr. {name}")
print(f"Hello, Mr. {name.capitalize()}")
print(f"Hello, Mr. {name.upper()}")
print(f"Hello, Mr. {name.lower()}")
print(f"{name.upper() = :-^10}")
print(f"{name.upper() = :->10}")
print(f"name={name}")
print(f"{name=}")

===============================output===================================
Hello, Mr. Tarkeshwar Barua
Hello, Mr. Tarkeshwar barua
Hello, Mr. TARKESHWAR BARUA
Hello, Mr. tarkeshwar barua
name.upper() = TARKESHWAR BARUA
name.upper() = TARKESHWAR BARUA
name=Tarkeshwar Barua
name='Tarkeshwar Barua'
========================================================================

continue is now legal in finally block A continue statement cannot exit a finally
block when a continue statement occurs within a finally block. The target of the
continue statement must be within the finally block, otherwise a compile time error
occurs. The older version of python does not allow continue in a finally block be-
cause all code after the continue will never be executed. It was there, otherwise, its
interpretation would have been problematic.
6 1 Introduction of Python

The default asyncio event loop is now ProactorEventLoop in Windows The asyncio
stands for asynchronous input–output and refers to a programming paradigm that
achieves high concurrency using a single thread of event loop. The event loop is the
place where most of the magic happens in asyncio. The asyncio module, introduced in
Python 3.4, provides convenient shortcuts to access the methods of the global and de-
fault policy. Tornado requires the add_reader family of methods, so it is not compatible
with the ProactorEventLoop on Windows. It is currently providing two implementations
of event loops SelectorEventLoop and ProactorEventLoop. The ProactorEventLoop is in-
compatible with SSL and the default loop supports SSL on Windows. By extension,
aiohttp should also work with https on Windows. The event loop is based on the selec-
tor’s module. It supports Subclass of AbstractEventLoop to use the most efficient selec-
tor available on windows sockets; Proactor event loop for windows uses IOCP (I/O
Completion Ports).

The spawn start method is now used by default in multiprocessing (Mac) The
multithreading tests were failing on Linux for everything except Python 3.4. Spawn
is a Python package that allows users to concisely specify and execute many tasks
with complex and codependent input parameter variances. It is used where thou-
sands of similar simulations with input parameter variations are run for design and
certification purposes. It allows the specification of such large sets to be formulated
in a concise input file.

from multiprocessing import Pool

from os import getpid
def calculateSquare(i):
print("Process No. ", getpid())
return i ** 2

if __name__ == '__main__':
with Pool() as pool:
result = pool.map(calculateSquare, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15])
print(result)

================================Output==================================
Process No. 21044
Process No. 21456
Process No. 21044
Process No. 21456
Process No. 21044
Process No. 21456
Process No. 21044
 1.4 Market demand 7

Process No. 21044

Process No. 21456
Process No. 5180
Process No. 21456
Process No. 5180
Process No. 21044
Process No. 21456
Process No. 5180
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169, 196, 225]
========================================================================

Multiprocessing can now use the shared memory segment to avoid pickling
cost between process allows regions of memory to be created and shared between
different Python processes. In earlier versions of Python, data could be shared be-
tween processes only by writing it out to a file, sending it over a network socket, or
serializing it using the pickle module. Shared memory provides a faster path for
passing data between processes, allowing python to more efficiently use multiple
processors and processors core. Shared memory segments can be allocated as raw
regions of bytes or they can use immutable list-like objects that store a small subset
of Python objects – numeric types, strings, byte objects, and the None object.

Type_ast is merged back to Cpython There is a fork of the ast module (in C lan-
guage) named typed_ast used by mypy, pytype and IIRC also by some linters. Its
redeeming quality preserves certain comments. It is very hard to keep this code up
to date with developments in the grammar of the language.

By-default now pickle uses protocol 5 to improve performance provides a new

way to pickle object that implements Python buffer protocol such as byte, memory
views, and NumPy arrays. Pickle is used to transfer data between Python processes
in order to take advantage of multicore or multimachine processing, it is important
to optimize the transfer by reducing memory copies and possibly by applying data-
dependent compression. Pickle cuts down on the number of memory copies that
must be made for such objects.
The above-mentioned information is given based on the published papers by
https://docs.python.org/3/

1.4 Market demand

There are several programming languages being used to develop application in the
market, but I would like to introduce some facts that are taken from various sources
of the Internet. These facts are given as primary introductory language, sector-wise
demand, salary wise, and market share.
8 1 Introduction of Python

Number of top 39 US computer science departments

that use each language to teach introductory courses
30

25

20

15

10

0
Python Java MATLAB C C++ Scheme Scratch
Analysis done by Philip Guo (www.pgbovine.net) in July 2014, last updated 2014-07-29

Figure 1.1: Market demand for programming language.

2016 Average Developer Salary in the U.S.

indeed.com
estimations(USD) Language

# 1 115,000 Swift

# 2 107,000 Python

Ruby

# 3 104,000 C++

# 5 102,000 Java

# 6 99,000 JavaScript

# 7 94,000 C

# 8 92,000 SQL

# 9 89,000 PHP

Figure 1.2: Language-wise average salary.

 1.5 Why Python in mobile app development? 9

Worldwide, Nov 2016 compared to a year ago:

Rank Change Language Share Trend

1 Java 23.4% –0.5%

2 Python 13.7% +2.4%

3 PHP 9.8% –0.9%

4 C# 8.4% –0.4%

5 ↑↑ Javascript 7.6% +0.6%

6 ↓ C++ 7.1% –0.7%

7 ↓ C 7.0% –0.5%

8 Objective-C 4.7% –0.5%

9 ↑ R 3.2% +0.5%

10 ↓ Swift 3.2% +0.3%

11 Matlab 2.6% –0.1%

12 Ruby 2.0% –0.3%

13 ↑ VBA 1.5% +0.1%

14 ↓ Visual Basic 1.4% –0.5%

Figure 1.3: Language-wise popularity.

1.5 Why Python in mobile app development?

Currently, mobile phones have become a significant part of our daily life; therefore,
it is almost impossible for people to live without their mobile phones. Mobile
phones have made our life very easy. Keeping this in mind, today most of the soft-
ware companies have moved to mobile app development. Yet, there are a few chal-
lenges to develop a mobile app due to the constraints of various mobile phone
platforms such as Android, iOS, and Windows, and all these platforms have differ-
ent software requirements. It means programmers need to write code for each and
every platform natively, which is a very time-consuming job; therefore, cross-
platform is a good approach. Python is very easy and rich in library support that
makes app development very easy. Figure 1.4 illustrates the market demand in vari-
ous sectors, which proves the importance of Python. Python is considered easy to
learn and runs almost anywhere. It provides strong support for integration with sev-
eral technologies and higher programming productivity across the development life
cycle. It is good for large and complex projects with changing requirements. It is
 10

Finance
Banking
Games
Front Office
Telecoms
Electronics
Investment Banking
Marketing
Manufacturing
Retail
Other
1 Introduction of Python

30

Figure 1.4: Industry sector-wise market demand.

22,5 23,42

15

7,5
7,65
5,56
5,08 4,71 4,69
3,84
2,15 1,84 1,53
0
Finance Banking Games Front Office Telecoms Electronics Investment Marketing Manufacturing Retail
Banking
 1.7 Architecture of python application 11

the fastest growing language and runs on several millions of phones including vari-
ous industries. Python codes are easy to read.

1.6 Python versions

Table 1.1: Python versions.

Version Release date

Python . January 

Python . October 
Python . April 
Python . December 
Python . July 
Python . November 
Python . September 
Python . October 
Python . July 
Python . December 
Python . June 
Python . Feb 
Python . Sep 
Python . March 
Python . September 
Python . December 
Python . June 
Python . October 
Python . October 

We can check the installed Python version using the following command at termi-
nal/command prompt:

$ python --version
Or
$ python3 --version

1.7 Architecture of python application

Python syntax and style is flexible when it comes to structuring the application.
There are many opinions about its structure, but here we have given the most com-
monly used structure by the programmers. It is very useful for managing and
12 1 Introduction of Python

distributing application easily. A basic program structure is given herein, where

“helloworld” is the folder name/project name that contains all the required file:

gitignore – It tells git which file needs to be ignored, like configuration files, IDE clutter.

helloworld.py – This is the main program to execute which contains all the Python code.

LICENSE – It is a plain text file that describes the license of the project. It is mandatory
to have a license while distributing code. This file name is always in all caps letter.

README.md – Stands for Markdown file (project documentation file). It is very im-
portant to craft this file; we can create this file easily by the URL https://dbader.
org/blog/write-a-great-readme-for-your-github-project.

requirements.txt – Here we can specify all our program dependencies along with
their versions. Adding dependency in this file called pinning, pip freeze command
can be used to add all the production dependency in this file. It is useful only in a
developing environment. Adding dependency into this file is called pinning. Pip
and freeze commands are used to do so:

pip install -r < requirements.txt

setup.py – This is similar to what the requirements.txt file does but in package re-
distribution. This file is useful in end-user system dependency installation, where
user indicates site-packages directory for running Python:

python setup.py install --user

test.py – This file is responsible for the tests, to ensure proper working of the
application.

Figure 1.5: A Python program structure.

 1.9 Installation of python in various platform 13

1.8 System requirement

All the given codes in this book are valid for both Python versions, but for the best
result, tested environment is with Python 3.x as given in Table 1.2:

Table 1.2: System requirement.

Specification Description

Python version .x (.. to ..) and .x (.. to ..)

Processor Pentium- or higher

RAM  MB ( GB recommended)

Operating system Windows XP (incl.  Bit) or higher, Linux (any), Mac OS X ., Raspberry Pi,

Screen resolution *

1.9 Installation of python in various platform

Installation in windows

After downloading Python .exe package installer from https://www.python.org/,

double-click on it and follow the instructions as given, click next, and finally finish.
We need to set windows environment path to temporary, which can be set from the
command line. The command is given as:

C:\Users\admin>set path= “C:\Program Files\python\bin\”

and permanent path can be set using environment variable by right clicking on My
Computer → Properties → Advanced → Environmental Variable → System Variables
→ Path → Edit → add you python path after putting; (semi-colon), Then OK,

Installation in Linux

In Linux, Python installation may differ according to various distributions but for
most popular distribution Ubuntu, installation command is given as:

sudo apt install python

Or
sudo apt install python3
14 1 Introduction of Python

for other distribution of Linux we can download Gzipped source tar file from the
https://www.python.org/ and install it from Terminal and add Python executable
location to the PATH environment variable. Python can be installed from the source
code too; we need to download it from the Internet. After unzipping source code we
need to apply ./configure command and finally make command to generate execut-
able add environment PATH:

pip install -r < requirements.txt #if you have already installed python
wget --no-check-certificate https://www.python.org/ftp/python/2.7.X/
Python-2.7.X.tgz tar -xzf python-2.7.X.tgz
cd Python-2.7.X
./configure
make
sudo make install

Installation in Mac

Mac comes with preinstalled python, but it can be outdated. We can download
Python .pkg package from https://www.python.org/. We double click on it and fol-
low the instructions as given and finally finish, and add Python executable location
has been added to the PATH environment variable.

1.10 Creating First Hello World app

We can write Python script in any ASCII/ANSI-based editor such as IDLE, Eclipse,
Netbeans, Visual Studio, PyCharm, Notepad, Notepad++, Sublime, and Jupiter
Notebook. It requires to download and install Python interpreter according to the
operating system from https://www.python.org/:
 1.10 Creating First Hello World app 15

Figure 1.6: https://www.python.org home page.

After downloading and installation, we can write code built-in text editor IDLE,
and snapshot is given later.

Figure 1.7: Python command line interpreter.

Writing program in python is very simple, as we have seen in the given snapshot.
Here ⋙ symbol indicates the line where we need to write our code/instruction,
and this code can be interpreted when we press enter button and it will display the
result immediately. These commands are sequential. We can save these codes in
our file with extension name .py as given in the snapshot. We can close/exit from
the python shell using exit/quit command as suggested here:

quit() #ctrl+D
Or
exit() #ctrl+C
Or
# command+q in mac
16 1 Introduction of Python

Figure 1.8: Writing and saving code using IDLE editor.

We can execute this code by just pressing F5 button in IDLE or using command
python test123.py using command line/Terminal, as given later in the snapshot.

Figure 1.9: Python code execution on the command line.

Hurray! We are done with first Python program successfully.

These codes can be written as an arbitrary:

$ python -c ‘print(“Hello World”)’

$ python -c 'print("My name : {0}, city : {1}, phone : {2}".format("Mr
ABC","Monrovia", "34453534534"))'
$ python
>>>print(“Hello, ”, end= “\t”)
>>>print(“World”)
>>>print(“Hello, ”, end= “\n”)
>>>print(“Hello, ”, end= “<br>”)
>>>print(“Hello, ”, end= “BREAK”)
>>>import sys
>>>sys.stdout.write(“Hello World”)
 1.11 Anatomy of Python program 17

1.10.1 Basic operations in python prompt

We can perform basic operation on python prompt such as addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division as follows:

>>>10*3
30
>>20-15
5
>>>4+5
9
>>>5/2
2.5
>>>5%2
1
>>>5-10
-5
>>>10**3
1000
>>>12//8
1
>>12%8+(12//8)*8
12
>>>10--2
12
>>>a=10
>>>a+=2
>>>a
12

1.11 Anatomy of Python program

Python programs are easy to write, but it becomes difficult while we develop a large
application, which involves many files and codes. It becomes more difficult to man-
age when it goes into errors; hence, some standards are suggested to avoid this
type of difficulties. Some of the rules are:
1. How one program is connected to other programs?
2. Code should be written in the isolated form (various small units), so that in
case of errors, it can be fixed within short period of time.
3. Do not repeat yourself (DRY), never writing same coderepeatedly, or just read-
ing it.
18 1 Introduction of Python

4. OOP can make our program more manageable such as classes, methods, and
objects.
5. Special configuration and log files must be located at some location for input/
output.
6. Always writing comments in the program about its functionality to understand
flow of program.

1.12 IDLE

Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE) is an alternative to the com-

mand line, as the name suggests, it is very useful for developing new code for learning
python. While other interpreters can be used to execute python program. The default
IDE comes with python interpreter can be used for its various advantages, some of
which are listed as follows:
1) Multiwindow text editor with syntax highlighting, auto-completion, and smart
indent
2) Automatic indentation
3) Integrated debugger with stepping, persisting breakpoints and call stack
visibility
4) Python shell with syntax highlighting
5) Saving the python program as .py files and run them and edit them later at any
them using IDLE
6) Python program can be run using F5 key python shell to run interpreter

1.13 User input

To get input from the user, we use the input function (raw_input if we are using
python 2.x). This function takes string as an argument, which displays the prompt
and returns a string and waits until user provides input. By default, it takes string,
but it may type caste automatically by input data and then it may require convert-
ing it into required data type:

>>> name=input(“What is your name?”)

1.14 Installing external modules using pip

When it comes to installing external modules there are several ways but most effi-
cient is pip. First, we must make sure pip is installed in our machine, any way it
comes with Python. Using the following command, we can check pip version:
 Summary 19

$ pip –-version #for python 2

$ pip3 –version #for python 3

For instance, with both Python 2 and Python 3 installed, pip often refers to Python-
2 and pip3 to Python-3, both are different. If we are using python-2 then we use pip
and for Python 3, we use pip3. We can do various tasks using pip, some of them are
mentioned as follows:

$ pip search <query> #to search package

$ pip install [package_name] #to install latest version of package
$ pip install [package_name]=x.x.x #to install specific version
$ pip install ‘[package-name]>=x.x.x’ #to install minimum version package
$ pip –proxy http://<server_address>:<port> install [package_name] #while
you are behind proxy server
$ pip list –outdated #list of all outdated packages
$ pip install [package_name] –upgrade # to upgrade a package
$ pip install -U pip # to upgrade pip version
$ python -m pip install -U pip
$ py -m pip install -U pip

Here x.x.x stands for version number of packages which we want to install. There is
no utility of upgrading all at one time, we need to upgrade packages one after one.

Summary

– Guido Van Rossum has developed python language; it was needed because of
the complex design theories of all other programming languages.
– Python is very popular as it is easy to learn and dynamically type caste
language.
– Most of the programming languages are considered as difficult because of the
complex object-oriented mechanism, but python supports developing any pro-
gram without object-oriented language. Python internally implements OOP
automatically.
– Python is a general-purpose language. Market demand in various perpectives
like salary, number of projects developed in various programming language,
and current market share of all available programming language, for python
both are high.
– Python is in huge demand in various sectors that is why we should consider
Python for the development of cross-platform mobile applications.
20 1 Introduction of Python

– Python comes with various major releases with major changes yearly, like the
architecture of python application along with its all-important component and
along with their usages.
– Python is available in all the existing major operating systems. Keeping this in
mind, the author has described step-by-step Python installation in the various
available platforms such as Windows, Linux, and Mac.
– Beginning of any programming language is a major step to write the first pro-
gram, we can create and execute our first python application “Hello World.”
– Being a general-purpose programming language, it can perform basic arithme-
tic operations in python scripting. Anatomy of python application is given.
– Any text editor can be used to write Python. The program must be written in
UTF-8 encoding. python editor by default comes with a python interpreter as a
default IDLE, where we can write Python programs.
– Programmers can accept input from the user with the input functions. Further,
these inputs can be used to process information.
– Any programming language cannot provide all the features. We can install
third-party libraries using pip command. Pip command is used to manage
packages in the development, testing, and production environment.

Key terms

Python programs are easy to write, but it becomes difficult when we develop a large
application. Its effective design/architecture plays a very important role in depen-
dencies, compatibility, and distributed environment: downloading and installing a
Python version with respective system requirements; Python installation in various
operating systems and environment variable settings; and creating and executing a
hello world program using IDLE. One of the various advantages of IDLE is that with
several sample codes it likes to get input from the user. In the production environ-
ment, it requires specific/latest versions of libraries, and pip is the most used tool
for module/dependency/library download.

Review questions

1. Open browser and go to http://python.org and download Python for your oper-
ating system and install it along with its documentation.
2. From the python prompt, get help from the given terminal, use help() command
prompt, and the check all the available documentation.
 Exercise 21

3. Practice basic calculator operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplica-

tion, division, and modulo on python prompt.
4. If you are driving a car at 45 km/h, how long will it take to reach 10 km
distance?

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. Python supports multiple programming paradigms like __________

a) procedural
b) OOP
c) functional programming
d) all the above

Q.2. Python is very slow because _______ is/are absent.

a) JVM
b) JIT
c) Compiler
d) all the above

Q.3. Which key is used to run/execute the python program?

a) F5
b) F6
c) F7
d) F8

Q.4. Python’s official Editor is __________.

a) PyCharm
b) Netbeans
c) IDLE
d) Eclipse

Q.5. Python was released in _______________

a) 1990
b) 1991
c) 1989
d) 1992
22 1 Introduction of Python

Q.6. What is pinning? pip freeze command can be used for _______________.
a) adding dependency in Readme file
b) adding dependency in py file
c) adding dependency in xml file
d) adding dependency in requirements.txt

Q.7. Which of the following commands is used in all production dependencies in

one file?
a) ls, dir
b) pip, freeze
c) cd, mkdir
d) python, pip

Q.8. DRY stands for _______________

a) do not repeat yourself
b) design reference year
c) defensive rushing yards
d) dependent responding Y-axis

Q.9. Who invented Python _______________

a) Dennis Ritchie
b) Charles Babbage
c) Guido Van Rossum
d) Sundar Pichai

Q.10. Which command is used to download python packages or libraries ________

a) pip
b) git
c) pit
d) jit

Answers

Q.1. d) all of the above

Q.2. d) all of the above
Q.3. a) F5
Q.4. c) IDLE
Q.5. b) 1991
Q.6. d) adding dependency in requirements.txt
Q.7. b) pip, freeze
 Exercise 23

Q.8. a) do not repeat yourself

Q.9. c) Guido Van Rossum
Q.10. a) pip

Fill in the blanks

1. Python language is named after a British comedy group called ______________.

2. Python is the easiest programming language to _____________ in _____________
of time.
3. Python basically focuses on ___________ instead of basic facts of programming.
4. Some features can be imported from python 3 using ___________ in python 2.x.
5. _____________ is the most efficient way to install external libraries.

Answers

1. Monty Python’s Flying Circus

2. learn quickly, short period
3. business logic
4. __future__
5. pip
2 Python basics

A Language that does not affect the way you think about programming is not worth knowing.
~Alan J. Perlis

2.1 Variables

A Variable is an identification name that is given to the memory location (memory

location can be found by using id(x) method), let us say we want to store value 5 in
variable x, where x is the name of memory location where value 5 has been stored
and “=” is assignment operator a is used to cope reference from one variable to an-
other variable. A variable is a name that refers to a value, whenever it is required,
we can retrieve it by just calling its name x and it will provide a value using the
given syntax:

<variable name> = <value>

Example:

>>>x=5
>>>id(x)
4518782192

In the above-mentioned example, it will store value 5 at some memory location and
this memory location is assigned with three variable names, it is just like one per-
son has three different names. A value is one of the basic things a program works
with like a letter or a number, = symbol is used to assign value to any variable; as-
signing a value to a variable itself declares and initializes the variable with that
value. No keyword can be declared as a variable because those have some special
meaning in python language. A variable cannot be declared without assigning it a
value. This assignment process goes from left to right, which means a variable like
(5=x) is declared as invalid:

>>> x=y=z=5 #assigning a value to a variable

>>> id(x) #print memory location of listed variable
1891092464
>>> id(y)
1891092464
>>> id(z)
1891092464
>>>5=x #Wrong variable declaration

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-002
 2.1 Variables 25

>>>tarkesh_123_barua= “Author Name” #valid variable

>>>name= “Mr. TB”
>>>Name= “Mr. TB” #name and Name variables are different
>>>x=y=z=5 #id(x) id(y) id(z) 4518782192
>>>a, b, c, d=10, 20, 30, 40 #different values can assigned
>>>print(abc) #variable must be defined before use
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1 in <module>
NameError: name ‘abc’ is not defined

If we change its value, then it will create new memory location, otherwise all three
variables will share the same memory location. Let us have a look at the snapshot:

Figure 2.1: Variable declaration.

Keywords – Keywords are the special characters that have some special meaning
for programming language. These are reserved words. Some of them are mentioned
in Table 2.1

Table 2.1: Keywords.

False True class finally is return None continue for lambda

try def from import nonlocal while for and del global

not with as if else elif or yield assert pass

break except in raise async await

Source: https://www.programiz.com/python-programming/keyword-list
26 2 Python basics

There are certain rules for declaration of a variable:

1) Variable name must start with a character and underscore.
2) Variable can contain letters, numbers, and underscore.
3) period(.), hyphen(-), and special characters (`,~,!,@,#,$,%,^,&,*) are not allowed.
4) Keywords cannot be a variable name.
5) Variable names are case-sensitive (hello, Hello, HELLO, hELLO are different).
6) No need to specify data type, because Python automatically can convert accord-
ing to the assigned value.

Keywords can be listed using the given line of code, “exec”’ is no longer a keyword:

>>>import keyword
>>>print(keyword.kwlist)
['False', 'None', 'True', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'async', 'await', 'break',
'class', 'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif', 'else', 'except', 'finally',
'for', 'from', 'global', 'if', 'import', 'in', 'is', 'lambda', 'nonlocal',
'not', 'or', 'pass', 'raise', 'return', 'try', 'while', 'with', 'yield']
>>>x=10
>>>id(x)
4518782192d

2.2 Data types

There are two types of data in Python – mutable data type and immutable data
type. Mutable data type can make any changes during the execution of the program
while immutable data types cannot have any changes; instead, they always allo-
cated a new memory location.
As we know, Python is an autotype caste language, but in the background, it
manages the various data types to store different types of values. Data type of any
variable can be visualized by method type() as given in the snapshot:

>>>message = “Good Morning!”

>>>print(“message data type is ”, type(message))
message data type is <type ‘str’>
>>>message= “Hi, There”
>>>message
Hi, There
>>>age = 20
>>>print( “age data type is ”, type(age))
age data type is <type ‘int’>
 2.2 Data types 27

Table 2.2: Data types.

Property Behavior Type Example

Immutable Numeric Integer x = 

Float pi = .

Complex complex_num=.j

Long long_num = L

Sequence String fname = “Tarkeshwar”

lname = “Barua”
nameInHindi=u”तारकेश्वर बरुआ”

Byte byteString = b“Tarkeshwar”

Mutable Byte array byteArrayString = bytearray(b“Tarkeshwar”)

List testList = [,,,,,,,,,,,]

Immutable Tuple testTuple = (“Francis”, “Patrick”, “Nixon”)

Mutable Sets Set fullname = set(“Tarkeshwar Barua”)

Immutable Frozen set testFrozenSet = ([“James”, “Sam”, “Dennis”, “Toney”])

Mutable Mapping Dictionary student = {“name”:“Tarkeshwar Barua”, “address”: “

Monrovia”, “phone”:}

>>>height = 5.6
>>>print( “height data type is ”, type(height))
height data type is <type ‘float’>
>>>paid = True
>>>print( “paid data type is ”, type(paid))
paid data type is <type ‘bool’>
>>> x="Greeting"
>>> type(x)
<class 'str'>
>>> x=True
>>> type(x)
<class 'bool'>
>>> x=3.1343434
>>> type(x)
<class 'float'>
28 2 Python basics

2.2.1 Booleans

Boolean data type stores value as either True or False. Logical operations like and,
or, not, can be performed on Boolean. Boolean can be integer values too, which
stand as 1 means True and 0 means False:

>>> x=True # boolean assignment to variable

>>> y=False
>>> type(x)
<class 'bool'>
>>>a and b #if x is True and y is True then result will be TRUE
>>>a or b #if x is False and y is True then result will be TRUE
>>>a not b #if x is True and y is False then result will be TRUE

2.2.2 Integer

Integer data type is used to store the fractional value of a number. In another way,
it stores only value without a decimal point:

>>>x=10
>>>type(x)
<class ‘int’>

2.2.3 Float

Float data type is used to store a decimal value with period. In another way, it
stores only value with decimal point:

>>>x=10.4434343
>>>type(x)
<class ‘float’>

2.2.4 String

String data type is used to store a string (a sequence of characters) or a paragraph:

>>>name = “Tarkeshwar Barua” #variable declaration

>>>type(name) # type of variable
<class ‘str’>
 2.3 Block indentation 29

>>>name[0] #slicing from string

‘T’
>>>name[0:10] #slicing from String
‘Tarkeshwar’

2.2.5 None

None stands for void or null. This type of data type is used to clear value from the
given variable or memory location:

>>>name = None
>>>type(name)
<class ‘NoneType’>

2.3 Block indentation

Like other programming languages such as Java, C, and C++, it does not have block
creation using curly bracket {}. In Python, tabs are being used to create block so
that we can control and construct loop. Here, the programmer has used white space
carefully, and a wrong calibration may cause an error. Python uses colon (:) and
indentation for showing where blocks of code begin and end. If the line following a
colon is not indented, wrong indentation will raise IndentationError as in the fol-
lowing example:

>>> if 3>4:
print("Hello")
SyntaxError: expected an indented block

We can write code in server way, some of them are illustrated in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Block indentation.

if  < : if  < : print(“Hello”)

print(“Hello”) else: print(“World”)
else:
print(“World”)

Here, both examples are correct but the second example is not considered as good
practice; therefore, we should avoid this practice. We should always use four spaces
30 2 Python basics

for indentation. python3 does not allow mixing the use of tabs and spaces for
indentation:

>>>def myFunction():
. . . a=10
. . . return a
>>>print(myFunction())

2.4 Math calculations

Maths operations are very important in any programming language. Python also
has an individual math module to perform complex mathematical operations. This
needs to be imported from standard library to our program. Python has a bunch of
built-in arithmetic operators; Math module contains implementations of common
mathematical operations such as square root:

>>>3*6+3+4*(6+3)
57
>>>3*6+2-3*(6+4)-5
-15
>>>2**3+8 - 2**2+16
28
>>>2**2*4 /16%15 + 1 -3
-1.0
>>>import math
>>>math.sin(math.radians(30))
4.99999999999994
>>>math.cos(math.radians(30))
0.8660254037844387
>>>math.tan(math.radians(30))
0.5773502691896256
>>>math.pi
3.141592653589793
>>>math.e
2.718281828459045
>>>math.sqrt(64)
8.0
 2.6 String operations 31

2.5 Operators

Operators are special symbols that represent computations such as arithmetic, logi-
cal, assignment, increment, and decrement operator. The value that is applied to an
operator is called operands. These calculations are done by BODMAS, which stands
for the bracket, of, division, multiplication, addition, subtraction, where (**) means
power 103:

>>>print(10+30*50-40/20)
1508.0
>>>print(10+30*(50-40)/20)
25.0
>>>print(10+30*(50-40)**3/20)
1510.0

Parentheses have highest precedence and can be used to force an expression to

evaluate in the order we want, and subtraction has lowest precedence.

2.6 String operations

A string can be created by enclosing any word character or number within single
and double quotes. A string is a group of numbers, characters, and special symbols.
The process of adding two or more than two strings is called concatenation. A string
can be created as follows:

>>>firstName= “Tarkeshwar”
>>>type(firstName)
<type ‘str’>
>>>lastName= “Barua”
>>>type(lastName)
<type ‘str’>
>>>fullName=firstName+ “ ” +lastName
Tarkeshwar Barua
>>>type(fullName)
<type ‘str’>
----------------above given program using PyCharm IDE----------------------
string="tarkeshwar barua"
print("Camel Case - "+string.capitalize()) # camel case
string1="TARKESHWAR"
print("Lower Case - "+string1.lower()) #lower case
32 2 Python basics

print("Upper Case - "+string.upper()) #upper case

print("Replace A with B - "+string.replace("a","b")) # replace String
splitedword=string.split(" ") #split a string with space
for s in splitedword: #iterating splited words
print("Splited Word is - "+s)
print("Case fold - "+string1.casefold()) #Return a version of the string suit-
able for caseless comparisons
print("Swap case - "+string1.swapcase()) #Convert uppercase characters to
lowercase and lowercase characters to uppercase
string2="data data data"
print("Find A - ",string2.find("d")) #Return the lowest index in S where sub-
string sub is found,such that sub is contained within S[start:end]. Optional
arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.7 Indexing

A string is a sequence of characters. We can access any character in a Python string

using its index, either counting from the beginning or from the end of the string.
This indexing begins from 0(zero), as given in Table 2.4:

Table 2.4: String indexing.

T A R K E S H W A R B A R U A

               

− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −

>>>name = “TARKESHWAR BARUA”

>>>name[0]
‘A’
>>>name[11]
‘B’
>>>name[-3]
‘R’
>>>name[-13]
‘K’
 2.10 Single-line and multiline comments 33

2.8 Slicing

A sequence of characters can be sliced from the given string by specifying a range
of indexing number; this process is known as Slicing. This will be a shorter string
from the long string. Let us have a look in the following example:

>>>name(name)
16
>>>name[0:10]
‘TARKESHWAR’
>>>name[11:16]
‘BARUA’
>>>name[-16:-6]
‘TARKESHWAR’
>>>name[-5:-1]
‘BARU’

2.9 Concatenation

The process to join two or more than two strings together is called concatenation. This
can be performed by “+” plus sign between two strings as in the given example:

>>>greeting = “Good Morning”

>>>fname= “Tarkeshwar”
>>>lname= “Barua”
>>>print(greeting+fname+lname)
‘Good MorningTarkeshwarBarua’
>>>fname*3
‘TarkeshwarTarkeshwarTarkeshwar’

2.10 Single-line and multiline comments

Nobody is perfect, that is why we may require deactivating some code for trouble-
shooting purposes, and this commenting can make the code more human-
understandable. As the code size gets bigger, it becomes more complicated for read-
ing, code understanding, and debugging. Then comments play a vital role to ex-
plain the code functionality in natural language. These comments can be single
line or multiline. Single-line comment can be given by using # while multiline
34 2 Python basics

comment needs triple quote. Comments are very useful while documenting nonob-
vious features of the code. Let us have a look at the following example:

>>>def myFunction(): #this is single-line comment

. . . a=10
. . . return a

‘‘this is a multiline comment example which can be achieved by using triple quote
open and close and this is not a part of code, it is only for information to program-
mer’’:

>>>print(myFunction())

2.11 Functions

A function is a named sequence of statements that is designed to perform a certain

task, or function is a method that is stored as a class attribute. Function returns a
value based on its given arguments. We can create it by using “def” keyword and
function name then we can write the number of lines to execute in the function.
Later, this function can be called by its name to execute its written statement. There
are some rules to define a function as follows:
1) A function cannot start with any special symbol(`, ~, !, @, #, $, %, ^, &, *, -, +,
=, “, ”, <, >, /, ?,).
2) A function should not have a special symbol (., @).
3) A function can not start with a number.
4) A function can start with _ (underscore) symbol.
5) A keyword cannot be a function name.

A function definition specifies the name of a new function and the sequence of
statements that execute, when the function is called. There are two types of func-
tions as follows:

2.11.1 Built-in functions

Built-in functions are already created in python and there is no need to create
them. Built-in functions can be listed using dir(__builtins__) function. The func-
tionality of any function can be listed by help(max) function. We can follow the
examples where id is a built-in function of Python:
 2.11 Functions 35

>>>x=10
>>>id(x)
4504909200
>>>pow(2,3)
>>>dir(__builtins__)
'ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',
'BlockingIOError', 'BrokenPipeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning',
'ChildProcessError', 'ConnectionAbortedError', 'ConnectionError',
'ConnectionRefusedError', 'ConnectionResetError', 'DeprecationWarning',
'EOFError', 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False',
'FileExistsError', 'FileNotFoundError', 'FloatingPointError',
'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError', 'ImportWarning',
'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'InterruptedError', 'IsADirectoryError',
'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'LookupError', 'MemoryError',
'ModuleNotFoundError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotADirectoryError',
'NotImplemented', 'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',
'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'PermissionError', 'ProcessLookupError',
'RecursionError', 'ReferenceError', 'ResourceWarning', 'RuntimeError',
'RuntimeWarning', 'StopAsyncIteration', 'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError',
'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError', 'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'TimeoutError',
'True', 'TypeError', 'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError',
'UnicodeEncodeError', 'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError',
'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning', 'ValueError', 'Warning', 'WindowsError',
'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__build_class__', '__debug__', '__doc__', '__im-
port__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__', 'abs', 'all',
'any', 'ascii', 'bin', 'bool', 'breakpoint', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable',
'chr', 'classmethod', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright', 'credits', 'delattr',
'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval', 'exec', 'exit', 'filter',
'float', 'format', 'frozenset', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr', 'hash',
'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input', 'int', 'isinstance', 'issubclass', 'iter', 'len',
'license', 'list', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview', 'min', 'next', 'ob-
ject', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property', 'quit', 'range',
'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'set', 'setattr', 'slice', 'sorted', 'staticme-
thod', 'str', 'sum', 'super', 'tuple', 'type', 'vars', 'zip']

2.11.2 User-defined functions

User-defined functions are created by the programmer to perform some task. Let us
follow the examples:
>>>def myFunction(): #defining a customized function
. . . a=10
36 2 Python basics

. . . return a
>>>print(myFunction()) #calling defined function
>>>def greeting():
. . . print(“Good Morning Friends”) #printing output inside function
>>>print(greeting())

2.11.3 Function with argument

Function can be created with an argument too. It is very useful to pass value inside
the function to achieve dependency injection. After this injection, function works
independently without its outside interaction. It may return some output or may
not, which depends upon the system requirement. In the example, we have passed
two values x and y as function parameters; after passing, these values can perform
the task independently as a local variable for this function and they can produce
output. In the second line, we have printed output and the second-line method is
returning value out of function. Let us study the given example:

>>>def addition(x, y):

. . . print(“passed value result is ”, (x+y)) #printing output inside function
. . . return x + y #returning value out of function
>>>print(addition(10, 20))

2.11.4 Flow of execution

Function should be defined before its execution because Python is an interpreted

programming language. It interprets function definition and then the execution is
possible. This sequence is called the flow of execution. Execution begins with the
first statement of the program. The statement inside the function is not executed
until the function is called.

2.11.5 Default values

Sometimes it happens that a function needs to pass a value as a parameter.

Unfortunately, if we forget to pass those values it may cause the error in the program
and, as a result, the program stops executing. To avoid this situation, python pro-
vides a default value feature; in case the programmer doesn’t provide any value, it
will take the default value. Passing default value also has certain rules. The second
parameter can not be dynamic while first is the default. The first parameter should be
 2.12 Return value 37

dynamic but the other can be the default if a function has more than one parameter
as we can see in the example:

>>>def greeting(name= “Guest”):

print(“Hello Mr. ”,name)
>>>greeting()
Hello Mr. Guest
>>>greeting(“Tarkeshwar Barua”)
Hello Mr. Tarkeshwar Barua
>>>def greeting1(fname= “Tarkeshwar”, lname= “Barua”):
print(“Hello Mr. ”,fname, lname)
>>>greeting1()
Hello Mr. TarkeshwarBarua
>>>def greeting2(fname= “Tarkeshwar”, lname):
print(“Hello Mr. ”,fname, lname)
File “<stdin>”, line 1
SysntaxError: non-default argument follows default argument

2.12 Return value

Python is a dynamically typed casting language because of which no return type is

needed to be specified during the function definition. Following is an example if we
want to encapsulate this logic in a function:

>>>def addition(a, b):

return a+b
>>>x=addition(3,6)
>>>type(x)
<class ‘int’>
>>>x
9
>>>y=addition(“Tarkeshwar”, “Barua”)
>>>type(y)
<class ‘str’>
>>>y
‘TarkeshwarBarua’

We have seen that the same function can work on string as well as numbers be-
cause it is autotype cased.
38 2 Python basics

2.13 Type-casting

Python provides built-in functions that convert values from one type to another type.
Let us assume we want to convert from string to int, following the given example:

>>>int(‘15’)
15
>>>int(‘Hello World’)
ValueError: invalid literal for int() : Hello World
>>>int(3.1456453)
3
>>>str(3.1456453)
‘3.1456453’

2.14 Disassembler

We can write disassembler module in short as dis. Byte code is an implementation

of a Cython interpreter. It is used for analysis of Cython byte code by dissembling.
The byte code analysis API allows a piece of Python code to be wrapped into a byte
code object. Cython byte code is an input for this module in the included opcode.h.
Let us see the example:

import dis
def greeting(name="Guest"):
return "Hello, Mr "+name+"!"
print(greeting())
print(greeting("Tarkeshwar"))
dis.dis(greeting)
---------------------------------output---------------------------------
Hello, Mr Guest!
Hello, Mr Tarkeshwar!
5 0 LOAD_CONST 1 ('Hello, Mr ')
2 LOAD_FAST 0 (name)
4 BINARY_ADD
6 LOAD_CONST 2 ('!')
8 BINARY_ADD
10 RETURN_VALUE
------------------------------------------------------------------------
 2.15 Lambda keyword 39

2.15 Lambda keyword

Lambda keyword provides a shortcut for declaring small and anonymous functions.
Lambda functions are single-expression functions that are not necessarily bound to
the name, which means they are anonymous. Lambdas cannot use regular python
statements and always include an implicit “return” statement. These functions can
have any number of arguments but only one expression that is evaluated and re-
turned. It is syntactically restricted to a single expression as follows:

def add(x,y): #an ordinary function

return x+y
sub=lambda x,y:x-y #A Lambda Function
print(add(2,2)) #lambda function calling
print(sub(4,2)) #Ordinary function calling
print((lambda x,y:x*y)(3,4)) #lambda with *function expression

Filter function takes in a function and a list of argument and can return group of
item after performing certain task over it. Let us see in the code:

multiple=list(filter(lambda x:(x>10),items)) #being copied in to list, those

items are greater then 10
print(multiple)
print(type(multiple))

The above-given code can be used with map function too as it is given in the next
code:

multiple=list(map(lambda x:(x>10),items)) #being copied in to list, those

items are greater then 10
print(multiple)
print(type(multiple))

Lambda function can return any type of function, let us see in the code:

from functools import reduce

items =[34,3,42,4,23,4,2,3,43]
multiple = reduce((lambda x, y: x * y), items)
print (sum)
40 2 Python basics

Summary

– Python is a convenient and easy programming language to understand and de-

velop an application in a short period. Python comes with basics, all data
types, variables, and so on. Python is widely used among programmers.
– Python is free to use with big community support. It is a very good program-
ming language in terms of memory management by garbage collectors.
– Python basics include data type variables, and its type conversions and various
operators. Some unique words that have some special meaning for Python are
called keywords.
– Python does not have curly bracket { } to create blocks. It needs to be managed
by indentation. We can perform mathematical calculations efficiently with the
math module – various types of operators such as arithmetical, logical, com-
parison, and assignment.
– The string is an immutable object in all the programming languages and the
same is applied for Python too. It means that a program cannot be modified at
run time of program still if we want to perform some task; it is called concate-
nation and slicing to get sub-string from the big string.
– Comments can be made in two ways, single-line comment by applying # before
the line and multiline can be done by enclosing with three single/double quotes.
– Functions are a combination of statements that execute while they have been
called. It makes programming very easy to maintain. One function can be
called several times; in python, functions support default value too.
– Conversion from one data type to another, the process is known as data type
casting. Python supports autotype casting, but it is also possible explicitly.

Key terms

Python is an autotype casting language, that is why, it is not needed to specify a

variable type for variable, according to the stored value its type changes. The key-
word cannot be used as a variable name. Blocks are maintained by indentation.
Mathematical calculations can be performed very quickly with built-in library
math. Operators are used to perform operations over operands. Indexing always be-
gins with zero, and it goes up to length −1. On behalf of this string, operations like
slicing and concatenation are performed. Comments are used to deactivate and pro-
vide some information related to programming code.
 Exercise 41

Review questions

1. Execute the given code and find out the output

width = 30
height = 20
length = 50
area = width*height*length
perimeter = width + height + length

2. Find out the area and perimeter of a circle while its radius is 3.5 Mtr
radius = 3.5
pi=3.14
area = pi*r*r
perimeter = 2*pi*r

3. Let us assume that the base price of 1 kg apple is 100 INR, but fruit seller got
10% discount while he/she purchased and 3% freight charge to carry in shop.
What is the sale price if he wants to make 10% profit on it?
>>>baseprice = 100
>>>puchase_discount = 100*(10/100)
>>>purchase_price = baseprice - purchase_discount
>>>freight= purchase_price*(3/100)
>>>total_purchase_price = purchase_price + freight
>>>sale_price = total_purchase_price + total_purchase_price * (10/100)

4. Explain different data types of Python.

5. What type of functions are available in Python? Explain.

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. Is Python case sensitive while dealing with identifiers?

a) Yes
b) No
c) Machine dependent
d) None of the above
42 2 Python basics

Q.2. What is the maximum possible length of an identifier?

a) 31 characters
b) 63 characters
c) 79 characters
d) None of the above

Q.3. Which of the following is an invalid variable?

a) my_string_1
b) 1st_string
c) foo
d) __

Q.4. Which of the following is not a keyword?

a) eval
b) assert
c) nonlocal
d) pass

Q.5. All keywords in Python are __________

a) lowercase
b) upper case
c) capitalized
d) none of the above

Q.6. Which of the following is true for variable names in Python?

a) Unlimited length
b) All private members must have leading and trailing underscores
c) Underscore and ampersand are the only two special characters allowed
d) None of the above

Q.7. Which of the following is an invalid statement?

a) abc=1,000,000
b) a b c=1000 2000 3000
c) a, b, c=1000, 2000, 3000
d) a_b_c=1,000,000

Q.8. Which of the following cannot be a variable?

a) __init__
b) in
c) it
d) on
 Exercise 43

Q.9. print(“Hello {0!r} and {0!s}”.format(“foo”, “bin”)):

a) Hello foo and foo
b) Hello “foo” and foo
c) Hello foo and “bin”
d) Error

Q.10. Which of the following data types is not supported in Python?

a) Numbers
b) String
c) List
d) Slice

Answers

Q.1. b) Yes
Q.2. d) None of the above
Q.3. b) 1st_string
Q.4. a) eval
Q.5. d) None of the above
Q.6. a) Unlimited length
Q.7. b) a b c=1000 2000 3000
Q.8. b) in
Q.9. b) Hello “foo” and foo
Q.10. d) Slice

Fill in the blanks

1. ______________are some special characters that have some special meaning for
programming language.
2. ______________data type can make any changes during the execution of the
program.
3. ______________is the process to join two or more than two strings together.
4. ______________is a sequence of statements that is designed to perform a cer-
tain task.
5. Sequence of character from the given String is known as ______________.
44 2 Python basics

Answers

1. Keywords
2. Mutable
3. Concatenation
4. Function
5. Slicing
3 Conditions and loops
Most good programmers do programming not because they expect to get paid or get adulation
by the public, but because it is fun to program. ~Linus Torvalds

3.1 If and else and conditional statements

Sometimes we need to make a decision like “if” and “else” in the programming.
There are a lot of uses for the simple statements and operations we have covered so
far in this book. Python provides if–else, and elif keywords to do so. However, the
main purpose of any programming is to implement logic. If/else blocks are core
syntax elements in Python. They let us conditionally control the flow of the pro-
gram. For instance, once our car is running very fast and we have exceeded the
limit 100 km/h, then it should print “You are Driving too Fast”; otherwise, it should
print “You are driving under the limit, Well done” to get us be aware, it goes as:

>>>def carDriving(carSpeed):
. . . if carSpeed > 100: #checking condition true/false
... print(“You are Driving too fast”)
. . . else: #execute statement if condition is false
... print(“You are driving under limit, Well done”)
>>>carDriving(105)
You are driving too fast
>>>carDriving(90)
You are driving under limit, Well done

In Python, any value can be interpreted as True or False. Among the data types
value 0, empty string, none, and False. Other values are considered as True. We
can check if the value is True or False by converting the value to a Boolean type as
given in the code:

>>>4<5
True
>>>5<4
False
>>>3<=3
True
>>>4<=3
False
>>>2>1
True

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-003
46 3 Conditions and loops

>>>not None
True
>>>3>3
False
>>>2>=2
True
>>>3>=4
False
>>> “Tarkesh”== “Tarkesh”
True
>>>0==1
False
>>>not True
False
>>> “Tarkesh” != “Barua”
True
>>>10 !=(9+1)
False
>>>3 and “Barua”
‘Barua’
>>>1 or None
1
>>>None or False
False

Comparison operators have higher precedence than logical operators like and/or/
not. Math operators have higher precedence than comparison operator, as we can
see in the example:

>>>3*6+3<4*(6+3)
True
>>>3*6+2==3*(6+4)-5
False
>>>2**3==8 and 2**2==16
False
>>>(2**2==4 and False) or (not(16<15 or 1 ==3))
True
>>>def result(marks):
. . . if marks >= 75:
... return “Distension”
. . . elif marks >= 60:
... return “First Division”
 3.1 If and else and conditional statements 47

. . . elif marks >= 45 and marks <60:

... return “Second Division”
. . . elif marks >= 33:
... return “Third Division”
. . . else:
... return “Fail”
>>>result(77)
Distension
>>>result(74)
First Division
>>>result(59)
Second Division
>>>result(44)
Third Division
>>>result(32)
Fail

3.1.1 Nested if–else

Sometimes logic can be more sophisticated than just two conditions. Then we need
to apply nested if-else, as we can see in the code, we have passed two conditions in
the same condition (inline condition) using and keyword. Let us see in the given
code:

def identify_num(num):
if num >= 0:
if num == 0:
print("Zero")
else:
print("Positive number")
else:
print("Negative number")
input_num = float(input("Enter a number: "))
identify_num(input_num)

-----------------------------------Output-------------------------------
Enter a number: -3
Negative number
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Enter a number: 0
Zero
48 3 Conditions and loops

------------------------------------------------------------------------
Enter a number: 3
Positive number
------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.2 Loops

In python, there are two types of loops “while” and “for.” While carries on repeating
as long as a certain condition is true. Statement inside a while loop must be intended,
the loop must be defined by while keyword and Boolean statement and colon (:).
Boolean statement can be a function call, variable, and comparison statement too,
while provides break and continue statements to have even better control on our loop:

>>>num=0
>>>while num < 100:
num += 1
print(num) #prints numbers 0 to 100 as syntax is given
while <condition1>:
<statement1>
if <condition2>:
<statement2>
break
if <condition3>:
<statement3>
continue
else:
<ststement4>

3.2.1 For loop

We can use “for” loop to iterate through a collection, as we can see in the example:

>>>friends=[“James”, “Sam”, “Estherlyn”, “Elizabeth”]

>>>for friend in friends:
. . . print(friend)
...
James
Sam
Estherlyn
 3.3 Break and continue statement 49

Elizabeth
>>>student={‘name’: ‘Tarkeshwar’, ‘age’:32, ‘height’: 5.6, ‘isGraduate’:
True}
>>>for info in student:
. . . print(info, “ - ”, student[info])
...
name - Tarkeshwar
age - 32
height – 5.6

3.2.2 While loop

We can use the “while” loop to repeat specific action up to a specified number of
times. We can control while loop by providing condition along with while keyword.
We can increase or decrease counter using x = x + 1, x = x-1, where x is the counter
variable. Let us see an example:

<initialization of variable>
while(condition):
<statements>
increment or decrement operator

>>>num=0
>>>while(num<100):
. . . print(num)
. . . num=num+1
. . .6

3.3 Break and continue statement

We can escape from a loop using break command and the loop can be continued by
continue command. Given code will not proceed after the third item because it con-
tains 8, which is a larger number than 6; hence, it will stop looping:

>>>numbers=[1,2,5,8,3,5,8,3,7,3,7,8,4,3]
>>>for number in numbers:
print(“Looking at: ”+str(number))
if number > 6:
print(“Too big: ”+str(number) + “!”)
break
50 3 Conditions and loops

This iteration can be continued even after the break, continue statement:

>>>numbers=[1,2,5,8,3,5,8,3,7,3,7,8,4,3]
>>>for number in numbers:
. . . print(“Looking at: ”+str(number))
. . . if number > 6:
... print(“Too big: ”+str(number) + “!”)
... break
...
Looking at: 1
Looking at: 2
Looking at: 5
Looking at: 8
Too big: 8!

This iteration can be continued even after break, continue statement:

>>>numbers=[1,2,5,8,3,5,8,3,7,3,7,8,4,3]
>>>for number in numbers:
. . . if number > 6:
... continue
. . . print(“Looking at: ”+str(number))
...
Looking at: 1
Looking at: 2
Looking at: 5
Looking at: 3
Looking at: 5
Looking at: 3
Looking at: 3
Looking at: 4
Looking at: 3

3.4 Collections

Whenever it comes to store objects, their collection comes in the light, which pro-
vides a flexible way to store and it allows to store various operations over it using
various built-in functions. For example, we might want to iron our socks. It would
not make sense for us to consider each one individually as a unique object requiring
special treatment. It would be very handy if we take them as a collection. Collection
is a set of lockers. Python provides two types of collection: one with a name tag and
 3.4 Collections 51

the second one with anonymous. These are indexed by the numbers. If we wish to
access the item, then the indexing number is a good approach. This type of collec-
tion is known as list and tuple. Collection with name, stores objects with name,
these are known as dictionaries. It works on FIFO(First In First Out) and LIFO(Last
In First Out). Collection can make our task easy, let us see in the given example of
code, here we can find the frequency of the characters in the given character with
few lines of code:

import collections
collection=collections.Counter("Tarkeshwar Barua")
print(collection)

Output-
Counter({'a': 4, 'r': 3, 'T': 1, 'k': 1, 'e': 1, 's': 1, 'h': 1, 'w': 1, ' ': 1,
'B': 1, 'u': 1})

3.4.1 Tuples

Tuples are immutable arrays of variable. Elements from the tuple can be accessed
using index number and tuples are immutable, means no modification is possible
after creation. We can perform slicing, indexing, concatenation, and multiply on tu-
ples. To create tuples, objects must be surrounded by parentheses and separated by
commas. Even tuple that has a single item must have comma (“Tarkeshwar”,) as in
the given code:

>>>friends=(“Sam”, “William”, “James”, “Lionel”, “John”)

>>>type(friends)
<class ‘tuple’>
>>>friends
(‘Sam’, ‘William’, ‘James’, ‘Lionel’, ‘John’)
>>>friends[0]
‘Sam’
>>>friends[4]
‘John’
>>>friends[1][0:4]
‘Will’
>>>friends[1:3]
(‘William’, ‘James’)
>>>friends[2]= “Elizabeth” #tuple is immutable, no modification
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
TypeError: ‘tuple’ object does not support item assignment
52 3 Conditions and loops

>>>friends[0][0:5]= “Elton” #String is immutable, no modification

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
TypeError: ‘str’ object does not support item assignment
>>>len(friends)
5
>>>friends*3 #creating new tuple with three time copy of friends tuple
('Sam', 'William', 'James', 'Lionel', 'John', 'Sam', 'William', 'James',
'Lionel', 'John', 'Sam', 'William', 'James', 'Lionel', 'John')
>>>friends+("Thomas","Reuben","David") #tuple concatenation of tuple
('Sam', 'William', 'James', 'Lionel', 'John', ‘Thomas’, ’Reuben’, ’David’)

Table 3.1: Functions of tuple data type.

Method name Use Explanation

Index mytuple.index(item) Return the first index number of the item.

Count mytuple.count(item) Return the number of the occurrences of the item.

3.4.2 Lists

Lists are mutable arrays of variable. Indices for lists (sequences) start counting with
0. Elements from the list can be accessible using index number; because lists are
mutable – modification is possible after creation or at any moment of execution.
We can perform slicing, indexing, appending, and multiply on lists. The slice oper-
ation, mixedList[1:3], return a list of items starting with indexed by one up to not
including the item indexed 3 to 1. To create lists, objects must be surrounded by
square brackets and separated by commas. Even lists that have a single item must
have comma[“Tarkeshwar”,]. We can follow the given code:

>>>(54).__add__(21)
75
>>>[123, ‘abcd’, 3.14, ‘d’]
[123, ‘abcd’, 3.14, ‘d’]
>>>list(range(10))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>>list(range(5,10)
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>>list(range(5,10,2)
[5, 7, 9]
>>>list(range(10,1,-1)
[10, 9, 8, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2]
 3.4 Collections 53

>>>mixedList=[123, ‘abcd’, 3.14, ‘d’] # it can store mixed data too

>>>friends=[“Sam”, “William”, “James”, “Lionel”, “John”]
>>>type(friends)
<class ‘list’>
>>>friends
[‘Sam’, ‘William’, ‘James’, ‘Lionel’, ‘John’]
>>>friends[0]
‘Sam’
>>>friends[4]
‘John’
>>>friends[1][0:4]
‘Will’
>>>friends[1:3]
(‘William’, ‘James’)
>>>friends[2]= “Luke” #list is mutable, third item will replaced
>>>friends
[‘Sam’, ‘William’, ‘Luke’, ‘Lionel’, ‘John’]
>>>friends[0][0:5]= “Prince” #String is immutable, no modification
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
TypeError: ‘str’ object does not support item assignment
>>>len(friends)
5
>>>friends*3 #creating new list with three time copy of friends list
['Sam', 'William', 'James', 'Lionel', 'John', 'Sam', 'William', 'James',
'Lionel', 'John', 'Sam', 'William', 'James', 'Lionel', 'John']
>>>friends+["Thomas","Reuben","David"] #list concatenation of list
['Sam', 'William', 'James', 'Lionel', 'John', ‘Thomas’, ’Reuben’, ’David’]
>>>friends.pop() #last item(David) will be deleted
‘John’
>>>friends.pop(2) #second idem(James) will be deleted
‘James’
>>>friends.append(“Emmanuel”) #item will be added at after last index
['Sam', 'William', 'Lionel', 'Emmanuel']
>>>friends.insert(2, “Taddy”) #Taddy will be added at 2 index and other
shifted to right side
['Sam', 'William', ‘Taddy’, 'Lionel', 'Emmanuel']
54 3 Conditions and loops

Table 3.2: Functions of list data type.

Method name Use Explanation

append MixedList.append(item) Adds a new item to the end of a list.

insert MixedList.insert(i, item) Adds a new item to the ith position in the list.
pop MixedList.pop() Removes and return last item of the list.
pop MixedList.pop(i) Removes and return ith item of the list.
sort MixedList.sort() Modifies a list to be sort.
reverse MixedList.reverse() Modifies a list to be sorted in reverse order.
del del MixedList[i] Removes and return ith item of the list.
index MixedList.index(item) Return the first index number of the item.
count MixedList.count(item) Return the number of the occurrences of the item.
remove MixedList.remove(item) Removes the first occurrence of the item.

3.4.3 Sets

Sets are unordered collections and mutable array of variables. Duplicate elements
are removed automatically. Sets are written as comma-delimited values enclosed in
curly braces. They are used in cases where they need to be grouped together, and
not in what order they are included. The empty set is represented by set(). For a
large group of data, it is much faster to check whether or not an element is in a set
than it is to do the same for the list. Sets are heterogeneous, and the collection can
be assigned to a variable:

>>>a=set(“Tarkeshwar Barua”) #all duplicates are removed

>>>a
{‘h’, ‘u’, ‘s’, ‘w’, ‘r’, ‘a’, ‘B’, ‘e’, ‘ ’, ‘k’, ‘T’}
>>>names={“Sam”, “William”, “James”, “Lionel”}
>>>names
{‘Sam’, ‘William’, ‘James’, ‘Lionel’}
>>>len(names)
4
>>>type(names)
<class, ‘set’>
>>>mylist=[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,7,4,2,2]
>>>myset=set(mylist)
>>> data={3,6,"cat",4.5,False}
>>>False in data
True
>>>”cat” in data
True
 3.4 Collections 55

Table 3.3: Functions of set data type.

Method Use Explanation

name

union set.union(set) Returns a new set with all elements from both sets.
intersection set.intersection Returns a new set with only the elements common to both sets.
(set)
difference set.difference Returns a new set with all elements from first sets and those are
(set) not found in second.
issubset set.issubset Asks whether all elements of one set are in the other.
(set)
add set.add(set) Adds items to the set.
pop set.pop() Removes item from set.
clear set.clear() Removes all the elements of the set.
remove set.remove Removes the occurrence of the item.
(item)

Sets do not support the sequential mechanism but support few familiar operations
such as union, intersection, issubset, and difference.

3.4.4 Frozen sets

Frozenset() function returns an immutable set. It is an immutable version of the set

object. It does not provide auto-indexing of its elements like a set, which means
any element can dynamically occupy memory space anywhere in the memory that
causes different outputs at different times. Frozen sets are unordered collections
and immutable array of variables. Duplicate elements are removed automatically.
As we have studied in the set, we can modify at any moment but this is not possible
in the frozen set after creation. Frozen set can be used as a key or a value in dictio-
naries. Let us see in the given example:

>>>a=frozenset([“New Delhi”, “Mumbai”, “Kolkata”, “Chennai”])

>>>a
frozenset({‘Kolkata’, ‘New Delhi’, ‘Chennai’, ‘Mumbai’})
56 3 Conditions and loops

Table 3.4: Functions of frozen set data type.

Method Use Explanation

name

union set.union(set) Returns a new set with all elements from both sets.
intersection set.intersection Returns a new set with only the elements common to both sets.
(set)
difference set.difference Returns a new set with all elements from first sets and those are
(set) not found in second.
issubset set.issubset Asks whether all elements of one set are in the other.
(set)

3.4.5 Byte

Bytes are unordered collections. They contain a single immutable byte. Bytes can
be created by using either byte constructor or b character just before the given
string. Bytes are immutable array of variables. It prints as ASCII characters during
print on screen. It has indexing and slicing behavior:

>>>a=b‘Tarkeshwar Barua’
>>>a
b‘Tarkeshwar Barua’
>>>c=bytes(‘Good Morning’)
>>>c
b‘Good Morning’

3.4.6 Byte array

Byte array is an array of byte data type. It has mutable property in a sequence of
integers from 0 to 255. Byte arrays are unordered collection and mutable array of
variables. The optional source parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few
different ways:
1) In the case of a string, we have to provide its encoding parameters with func-
tion str.encode().
2) In the case of iterate, it must be within 0–255 integers.
3) If it’s an integer, then the array will have that size and will be initialized with
null byte.
4) If it’s an object, then the read-only buffer of the object will be used to initialize
the byte array.
 3.4 Collections 57

Let us see the example:

>>>a=bytearray(b “Tarkeshwar Barua”)

>>>a
bytearray(b‘Tarkeshwar Barua’)

3.4.7 String

Python does not have character data type that is why single character is also con-
sidered as a string. Strings can be created by either single or double and triple
quotes too. We can create double-quote string inside the triple quote and a single
quote string can be created inside double quotes. A triple quote is used to create a
multiline string. Strings are immutable. It contains a Unicode character. Any indi-
vidual character of the string can be accessed by using the function of indexing
with range or without range. The range operator colon (:) symbol is used for slicing
in string. String in a single quote cannot hold any other single-quoted character in
it; that is why double quotes are preferred:

>>>fname= ‘Tarkeshwar’ #creating string constant by single quote

>>>type(fname)
<class ‘str’>
>>>print(fname)
Tarkeshwar
>>>lname= “Barua” #creating string constant by double quote
>>>type(lname)
<class ‘str’>
>>>print(lname)
Barua
>>>fname+ “ ”+lname
‘Tarkeshwar Barua’
>>>address= ‘‘‘House No 123,
abc colony,
monrovia’’’ #creating string constant by triple single quote
>>>type(address)
<class ‘str’>
>>>print(address)
House No 123,
abc colony
monrovia
>>>phone= “““+231-
. . . 770264434””” #creating string constant by triple double quote
58 3 Conditions and loops

>>>type(phone)
<class ‘str’>
>>>print(phone)
+231-
770264434
>>> print("Hello","World", sep="***")
Hello***World
>>> print("Hello","World", end="***")
Hello World***
>>> print("Hello",end="***"); print("World")
Hello***World

Table 3.5: Functions of string data type.

Method name Use Explanation

center a_string.center(w) Returns a string centered in a field of size w.

ljust a_string.ljust(w) Returns a string left-justified in a field of w.
lower a_string.lower() Returns a string in all lower case.
rjust a_string.rjust(w) Returns a string right-justified in a field of w.
find a_string.find(item) Return the first index number of the item.
count a_string.count(item) Return the number of the occurrences of the item.
split a_string.split(s_char) Splits a string into sub-strings at s_char.

3.4.8 Dictionaries

Dictionaries are mutable arrays of variables. Elements are being stored in the form
of key-value pair. Elements from the dictionary can be accessible using keys. As dic-
tionaries are mutable; modification is possible after creation or at any moment of
execution. We can perform slicing, appending, and multiply on dictionary. To cre-
ate dictionaries, objects must be surrounded by curly bracket {} and separated by
commas, and keys and values are separated by colon(:). Even dictionaries having
single item must have comma [‘name’:“Tarkeshwar”,]. Keys in dictionary should be
unique but value can be same. A key can be any type of variable. During changes if
a key does not exist then a new key will be created. It is an unordered collection of
map implementation. We can follow the given code:

>>>student={‘name’: ‘Tarkeshwar’, ‘age’:25, ‘height’: 5.6, ‘isGraduate’: True}

>>>type(student.values()) # it will print all values
>>>type(student.keyss()) # it will print all keys
>>>type(student)
<class ‘dict’>
 3.4 Collections 59

>>>student
{‘name’: ‘Tarkeshwar’, ‘age’:25, ‘height’: 5.6, ‘isGraduate’: True}
>>>student[‘name’]
‘Tarkeshwar’
>>>student[‘isGraduate’] #value can retrieved by key
True
>>>class Car(object):
def __init__(self, model, color):
self.model=model
self.color=color
>>>mercedes=Car(“E400”, “black”) # Key could be any object
>>>testDict={mercedes:Car(“E300”, “Gray”), “BMW”:Car(“X6”,”Black”)}
>>>testDict[mercedes]
<__main__.Car object at 0x10d038d30>
>>>testDict[mercedes].model
‘E300’
>>>testDict[“BMW”].color
‘Black’
>>>testDict[“BMW”]= “Emmanuel” #dictionary is mutable, BMW key will replaced
>>>len(testDict)
2
>>>testDict*3 #multiplying dictionary not allowed
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for *: ‘dict’ and ‘int’
>>>testDict.pop(mercedes) #key can be removed
>>>testDict+{“name”:“Parker”, “age”, “27”) #dictionary concatenation not
allowed
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: ‘dict’ and ‘dict’
>>>testDict[“height”]=5.6 #inserting height in the dictionary

Table 3.6: Functions of dictionary data type.

Method name Use Explanation

keys my_dict.keys() Returns the keys of the dictionary in a dict_keys object.

values my_dict.valiues() Returns the values of the dictionary in a dict_values object.
items my_dict.items() Returns the key value pair in a dict_items object.
get my_dict.get(key) Returns the value associated to the key, otherwise none.
get my_dict.get(key,alt) Returns the value associated to the key, otherwise alt.
60 3 Conditions and loops

3.4.9 Arrays

In arrays, individual elements can be accessed through indexes. Python arrays are
zero-indexed. An array is a data structure that stores values of the same type. This
is the main difference between arrays and lists. We need to import the array module
because the array is not a fundamental data type like others. Type codes are used to
define the type of array values or the type of array:

>>>from array import *

>>>firstArray=array(‘i’, [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]) #i (signed integer) is type code
[initializing values]
>>>firstArray
array('i', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])
>>>type(firstArray)
<class, ‘array.array’>
>>>firstArray[1]
2
>>>firstArray.append(8) # appending new value in the array after last index
>>>firstArray.insert(3, 9) #inserting values at third index
>>>firstArray
array('i', [1, 2, 3, 9, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])
>>>secondArray=array(‘i’, [10,12,13,14,15,16,17])
>>>firstArray.extend(secondArray) # extending array using extend function
>>>firstArray
array('i', [1, 2, 3, 9, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17])
>>>c=[18,19,20]
>>>firstArray.fromlist(c) #adding list into array
>>>firstArray
array('i', [1, 2, 3, 9, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20])
>>>firstArray.remove(4) #removing 4 index item
>>>firstArray
array('i', [1, 2, 3, 9, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20])
>>>firstArray.pop() #removing last index item
5
>>>firstArray
array('i', [1, 2, 3, 9, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20])
>>>firstArray.index(5) #retrieving 5 index item
>>>firstArray.reverse() #reverse entire array positions
>>>firstArray
array('i', [20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 9, 3, 2, 1])
>>>firstArray.count() #returns length of the array
 Summary 61

3.5 Date and time

Date and time associated with datetime module. datetime itself is one object that
can be used to store date and time. It has these main factors:
– date – It includes day, month, and year.
– time – it includes hour, minutes, seconds, and microsecond.
– datetime – it includes day, month, year, hour, minutes, seconds, and
microsecond.
– timedelta – a value that is used to manipulate dates.
– tzinfo – it is an abstract class which is responsible to handle time zone.

Python 3.2 and above has support for %z (timezone)format when parsing a string
into a datetime object, and other libraries too are available such as dateutil:

>>>import datetime
>>>currentDateTime=datetime.datetime.strptime(“2019-06-03T15:27:18-0530”,
“%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%S%z”)
>>>currentDateTime
datetime.datetime(2019, 6, 3, 15, 27, 18, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.
timedelta(days=-1, seconds=66600)))
>>>datetime.datetime.now()
datetime.datetime(2019, 8, 21, 12, 21, 34, 590280)
>>>import dateutil.parser
>>>dateutil.parser.parse(“2019-06-03T18:18:21-0530”)
>>>datetime.datetime(2019, 6, 3, 17, 30, 12, tzinfo=tzoffset(None, -18000))

Summary

– Any programming language requires making decision if the condition is true or

false. If/else blocks are core syntax elements in Python to control the flow of
program.
– Loops are used to repeat specific steps till a particular condition is true, then
they stop automatically.
– Break and continue statements play an essential role in controlling the flow in
a loop or any block.
– Using collections, we can store any data as a single variable. Some of them are
mutable, and others are immutable.
– A big problem occurs when it involves time zone as time zones differ at various
places. To manage this, we have specially designed date and time API.
62 3 Conditions and loops

Key terms

For controlling loops/blocks if, else, elif are used. Loops are of two types: while and
for loop. Loops can be controlled by using break and continue statements.
Collection can store immutable data as a single variable as per requirement. Date
and time API is an excellent API to manage time zone.

Review questions

1. Which collection is anonymous locker?

2. What is the difference between list and tuples?
3. Can a float be a key in the dictionary?
4. Are duplicate keys allowed?
5. Is this a tuple (“Tarkeshwar”)?
6. How would you stop while loop completely?

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. Which of these is not a core data type?

a) List
b) Dictionary
c) Tuple
d) Class

Q.2. Given a function that does not return any value, what value is thrown by de-
fault when executed in shell?
a) int
b) void
c) bool
d) None

Q.3. Which of the following runs without any error?

a) round(45.8)
b) round(6352.643,2,5)
c) round()
d) round(7463.234,2,2)
 Exercise 63

Q.4. What is the return type of function id?

a) int
b) float
c) bool
d) dict

Q.5. Which one of the following has the highest precedence in the expression?
a) Exponential
b) Addition
c) Multiplication
d) Parentheses

Q.6. Which is the correct operator for power(x,y)?

a) X^y
b) X**y
c) X^^y
d) None of the above

Q.7. What is the return value of trunc()?

a) int
b) bool
c) float
d) None

Q.8. What core data type is used in order to store value in terms of key and value?
a) list
b) tuple
c) class
d) dictionary

Q.9. What is the output of this expression 3*1**3?

a) 9
b) 3
c) 27
d) 1

Q.10. Which will be the output? 2 + 3*(2)

a) 7
b) 8
c) 10
d) 0.75
64 3 Conditions and loops

Answers

Q.1. d) Class
Q.2. d) None
Q.3. a) round(45.8)
Q.4. a) int
Q.5. d) Parentheses
Q.6. b) X**y
Q.7. a) int
Q.8. d) dictionary
Q.9. b) 3
Q.10. a) 8

Fill in the blanks

1. _______________ statement helps you conditionally control the flow of

program.
2. _______________ operators have higher precedence than the logical operators
like and/or/not.
3. _______________ is a set of lockers.
4. Elements from the list can be accessible using _______________.
5. _______________ removes all duplicate elements automatically.

Answers

1. If else and elif

2. Comparison
3. Collection
4. index number
5. Set
4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)
Most of you are familiar with the virtues of a programmer. There are three, of course: laziness,
impatience, and hubris. ~Larry Wall

4.1 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

There are two types of programming approaches: procedural and object-oriented

programming (OOP). In procedural programming, we write a program to handle
data. This approach becomes very problematic while handling complex programs
that require changes in content and scale. In OOP, however, we program object to
handle data, and it is straightforward to make changes in content and scale at any
moment in time. There are specific rules in OOP, they are as follows.

4.2 Class

Class is a blueprint of an object. It can be described as the map of a multistory

building that has various attributes and behavior. It is an entity that has specific
behaviors and attributes. Here, behavior is a method that is defined with “self” key-
word. It refers to the instance of the same class that passes in a method as a param-
eter. The “pass” keyword refers to this, that the method block does nothing. We
can prepare more than one building and with some of the changes apply to our cus-
tomer demand. Likewise, in Python, we have a class that can have some attributes
and behavior specifications. Let us see how to create a class in python:

class Building(object):
def __init__(self, flats, area):
self.flats = flats
self.area_in_yards = area
super().__init__()
def __str__(self) -> str:
return super().__str__()
building1 = Building(20, 10000);
print("Building Ground Area", building1.area_in_yards)
print("Number of Flats in building - ", building1.flats)
building2 = Building(25, 12000);
print("Building Ground Area", building2.area_in_yards)
print("Number of Flats in building - ", building2.flats)
building3 = Building(30, 30000);

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-004
66 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

print("Building Ground Area", building3.area_in_yards)

print("Number of Flats in building - ", building3.flats)
-----------------------------------output-------------------------------
Building Ground Area 10000
Number of Flats in building - 20
Building Ground Area 12000
Number of Flats in building - 25
Building Ground Area 30000
Number of Flats in building - 30
------------------------------------------------------------------------

In the above-mentioned example, we have seen that one class building is “like’ a
map and it can create many objects. Those objects will behave differently with their
attributes.

4.3 Object

Python is an OOP language. An object contains its properties and methods and is cre-
ated by a constructor of the class. Object can be created by calling the name of its
class, which in turn calls the constructor. Constructor always returns an instance of
the same class. In the given example, p is an object of class Person. A class can create
many constructors and every object can have different properties and behavior:

>>> class Person:

. . . def __init__(self, name, phone):
... self.name=name
... self.phone=phone
...
>>>p=Person(“Mr ABC”, “3345564565”)
>>>p.name
‘Mr ABC’
>>>p.phone
‘3345564565’

4.4 Functions

Function is stored as a class attribute. In the given example, get_color of the class
Dog is a function, that is, unbound; therefore, we need to make it bound to an in-
stance of Dog class. This is called function with an instance as its first argument,
 4.4 Functions 67

which is required to work with its attributes and behavior. In other programming
languages, it is mandatory to create an object before using it by calling its con-
structor. Function needs it as the first argument as given in the solution:

class Dog:
def __init__(self, color):
self.color=color
def get_size(self):
return self.color

print(Dog.get_color())

Output will be like this:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File “/Users/admin/PycharmProjects/PythonBook/oop/methods.py”, line 6, in
<module> print(Dog.get_color())
TypeError: get_size() missing 1 required positional argument: “self”

Solution
print(Dog.get_color(Dog(“White”))
or
dog=Dog("Black")
print(dog.get_color())
or
dog1=Dog("black & White").get_color
print(dog1())
------------------------------Another example----------------------------
class Dog:
def __init__(self, color):
self.color=color
def get_color(self):
return self.color
print(Dog.get_color(Dog("White")))
dog=Dog("Black")
print(dog.get_color())
dog1=Dog("black & White").get_color
print(dog1())
print(dog1.__name__)
68 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

print(dog1.__self__)
print("retrieving object of ", dog1.__self__.get_color)
print("Method is equal ", dog1==dog1.__self__.get_color)

---------------------------------output---------------------------------
White
Black
black & White
get_color
<__main__.Dog object at 0x000002640F5D0D48>
retriving object of <bound method Dog.get_color of <__main__.Dog object at
0x000002640F5D0D48>>
Method is equal True
------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.5 Abstraction

Abstraction means providing only essential information about the data to the users
or outside world. It means hiding background details and implementation. Such an
example is the air conditioner. It is fully covered so we only use a remote control to
operate it. We are least concerned about its inner operations like how it cools and
changes temperatures. Abstraction provides a blueprint for other classes. It allows
us to create a set of methods that must be created within any child classes built
from abstract class:

class Shape:
def countSides(self): #abstract method
pass
class StraightLine(Shape):
def countSides(self): #method overriding
print("Straight Line have 1 sides")
class TwoStraightLine(Shape):
def countSides(self): #method overriding
print("Straight and parallel Line")
class Triangle(Shape):
def countSides(self): #method overriding
print("Triangle have 3 sides")
class Pentagon(Shape):
def countSides(self): #method overriding
print("Pentagone have 5 sides")
 4.5 Abstraction 69

class Hexagon(Shape):
def countSides(self): #method overriding
print("Hexagon have 6 sides")
class Rectangle(Shape):
def countSides(self): #method overriding
print("Rectangle have 4 sides")
#main Program
straightLine=StraightLine()
straightLine.countSides()
twoStraightLine=TwoStraightLine()
twoStraightLine.countSides()
triangle = Triangle()
triangle.countSides()
rectangle = Rectangle()
rectangle.countSides()
pentagon = Pentagon()
pentagon.countSides()
hexagon = Hexagon()
hexagon.countSides()

-------------------------------Output-----------------------------------
Straight Line have 1 sides
Straight and parallel Line
Triangle have 3 sides
Rectangle have 4 sides
Pentagon have 5 sides
Hexagon have 6 sides
------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.5.1 Abstract class

It contains one or more abstract methods that are only declared, but their imple-
mentation can be a child class. In other words, abstract method is a method that is
declared but contains no implementation. An abstract class cannot be instantiated
and requires subclasses for implementation of its abstract methods:

def abstractmethod(method):
def default_abstract_method(*args, **kwargs):
raise NotImplementedError('abstract method call ' + repr(method))
default_abstract_method.__name__ = method.__name__
70 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

return default_abstract_method
if __name__ == '__main__':
class A:
@abstractmethod
def myAbstractMethod(self, data):
pass
class B(A):
def myAbstractMethod(self, data):
self.data = data
a = A()
b = B()
b.myAbstractMethod(20)
isItImplimented = False
try:
b.myAbstractMethod(30)
isItImplimented = False
print("Class B, Method implementation is ", isItImplimented)
except NotImplementedError:
isItImplimented = True
print("Class B, Method implementation is ", isItImplimented)
try:
a.myAbstractMethod(40)
isItImplimented = False
print("Class A, Method implementation is ", isItImplimented)
except NotImplementedError:
isItImplimented = True
print("Class A, Method implementation is ", isItImplimented)

-------------------------------output-----------------------------------
Class B, Method implementation is False
Class A, Method implementation is True
------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.5.2 Interface

There is no interface keyword in Python that is why we can say that the interface is
designed only for multiple implementations while Python supports multiple inheritan-
ces and duck typing (automatic interface). We are more focused on how an object
 4.5 Abstraction 71

behaves, rather than its type. Duck typing is a feature of a type system where the se-
mantics of a class are determined by its ability to respond to some method or attrib-
utes, therefore, it doesn’t make sense to implement the interface. “We have an object
that can fly and fly and quack like a duck, we can consider it as duck.” Inheritance is
very well implemented in Python. Still, there are so many usages of the interface.
Interface was first introduced in Python 2.6. In the given example, dependency injec-
tion of color String class has been injected, it is not dependent on color; any type of
color implementation can be injected in both classes. The following code is written in
Java, which supports interface, but interfaces are not available in Python. We can com-
pare many lines of code. If we are using Java, C, C++, C#, and Swift, then we can create
an interface in Python by importing the interface library. For more information, we can
visit https://pypi.org/project/python-interface/. It is required to be installed before
using with pip command. The following example is explained first with using Java
code and then the same code is written using python. Before writing code in python,
ensure python interface library is installed as given by the following pip command:

$ pip install python-interface

-----------------------------------Java Program--------------------------
public interface Engine {
void switchOn();
}
public class FourStrockEngine implements Engine {
private String model, power;
public FourStrockEngine(String model, String power) {
this.model = model;
this.power = power;
}
@Override
public void switchOn() {
System.out.println(model + " Four Strock Engine " + power);
}
}
public class FourStrockTurboEngine implements Engine {
private String model, power;
public FourStrockTurboEngine(String model, String power) {
this.model = model;
this.power = power;
}
@Override
72 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

public void switchOn() {

System.out.println(model + " Four Strock Turbo Engine " + power);
}
}
public class Car {
private Engine engine;
public Car(Engine engine) {
this.engine = engine;
}
public void run(){
engine.switchOn();
}
}
public class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Engine fourStrockTurboEngine = new FourStrockTurboEngine(“X1”, “1000CC”);
Engine fourStrockEngine = new FourStrockEngine(“Y1”, “1500CC”);
Car neno = new Car(fourStrockTurboEngine);
neno.run();
Car audi = new Car(fourStrockEngine);
audi.run();
}
}
---------------------------------output---------------------------------
X1 Four Strock Turbo Engine 1000CC
Y1 Four Strock Engine 1500CC
---------------------------------python program--------------------------
>>>class Car:
. . . def __init__(self, Engine):
... self.__Engine=Engine
. . . def run(self):
... self.__Engine.switchOn()
>>>class Engine:
. . . def __init__(self, Model, Power):
... self.__Model=Model
. . . self.__Power=Power
. . . def switchOn(self):
. . . print(“Turning on Engine”, self.__Model, “ with power”, self.__Power, “
has been started”)
 4.6 Polymorphism 73

>>>fourStrockTurboEngine=Engine(“Four Strock Turbo”, “2000cc”)

>>>fourStrockEngine=Engine(“Four Strock”, “1000cc”)
>>>neno=Car(fourStrockEngine)
>>>neno.run()
‘Turning on engine Four Strock with power 1000cc has been started’
>>>audi=Car(fourStrockTurboEngine)
>>>audi.run()
‘Turning on engine Four Strock Turbo with power 2000cc has been started’

4.6 Polymorphism

Polymorphism is the ability to take various forms. It allows us to define methods in

the child classes with the same name as defined in their parent class. As we know,
during inheritance, child class shares the same state and behavior, if we make any
changes in parent class properties, it is called overriding:

import math
class Shape:
def __init__(self, color='black', filled=False):
self.__color = color
self.__filled = filled
def get_color(self):
return self.__color
def set_color(self, color):
self.__color = color
def get_filled(self):
return self.__filled
def set_filled(self, filled):
self.__filled = filled

def is_filled(self):
return self.__filled
class Rectangle(Shape):
def __init__(self, length, breadth):
super().__init__()
self.__length = length
self.__breadth = breadth
74 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

def get_length(self):
return self.__length
def set_length(self, length):
self.__length = length
def get_breadth(self):
return self.__breadth

def set_breadth(self, breadth):

self.__breadth = breadth
def get_area(self):
return self.__length * self.__breadth
def get_perimeter(self):
return 2 * (self.__length + self.__breadth)
class Circle(Shape):
def __init__(self, radius):
super().__init__()
self.__radius = radius
def get_radius(self):
return self.__radius
def set_radius(self, radius):
self.__radius = radius
def get_area(self):
return math.pi * self.__radius ** 2
def get_perimeter(self):
return 2 * math.pi * self.__radius
#Main Program
r1 = Rectangle(50, 5)
print("Area of rectangle r1:", r1.get_area())
print("Perimeter of rectangle r1:", r1.get_perimeter())
print("Color of rectangle r1:", r1.get_color())
print("Is rectangle r1 filled ? ", r1.get_filled())
r1.set_filled(True)
print("Is rectangle r1 filled ? ", r1.get_filled())
r1.set_color("orange")
print("Color of rectangle r1:", r1.get_color())
c1 = Circle(15)
print("\n Area of circle c1:", format(c1.get_area(), "0.2f"))
 4.6 Polymorphism 75

print("Perimeter of circle c1:", format(c1.get_perimeter(), "0.2f"))

print("Color of circle c1:", c1.get_color())
print("Is circle c1 filled ? ", c1.get_filled())
c1.set_filled(True)
print("Is circle c1 filled ? ", c1.get_filled())
c1.set_color("blue")
print("Color of circle c1:", c1.get_color())
---------------------------------output---------------------------------
Area of rectangle r1: 250
Perimeter of rectangle r1: 110
Color of rectangle r1: black
Is rectangle r1 filled ? False
Is rectangle r1 filled ? True
Color of rectangle r1: orange
Area of circle c1: 706.86
Perimeter of circle c1: 94.25
Color of circle c1: black
Is circle c1 filled ? False
Is circle c1 filled ? True
Color of circle c1: blue
------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.6.1 Overloading

The overloading feature does not exist in python, but something like this we can
achieve using decorator @classmethod. Let us see it in the given code:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name: str, address: str, phone: int):
self.name = name
self.address = address
self.phone = phone

@classmethod
def classPersonConstructor(cls, person: str) ->'Person':
return person
person=Person("Tarkeshwar", "Monrovia", "334423424")
secondObj = Person.classPersonConstructor(person)
print("Name ",secondObj.name)
print("Address ",secondObj.address)
76 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

print("Phone ",secondObj.phone)
------------------------------------output------------------------------
Name Tarkeshwar
Address Monrovia
Phone 334423424
------------------------------------------------------------------------
And another approach is using default value for constructor function:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name="No Name",address="No Address", phone="00000000"):
self.name = name
self.address = address
self.phone = phone

def __str__(self):
return "Name : "+str(self.name)+" Address : "+str(self.address)+"
Phone : "+ str(self.phone)

person1=Person()
person2=Person("Tarkeshwar")
person3=Person("Tarkeshwar", "Monrovia")
person4=Person("Tarkeshwar", "Monrovia", "334423424")
print("Person1 ",person1)
print("Person2 ",person2)
print("Person3 ",person3)
print("Person4 ",person4)

------------------------------output------------------------------------
Person1 Name : No Name Address : No Address Phone : 00000000
Person2 Name : Tarkeshwar Address : No Address Phone : 00000000
Person3 Name : Tarkeshwar Address : Monrovia Phone : 00000000
Person4 Name : Tarkeshwar Address : Monrovia Phone : 334423424
------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.6.2 Overriding

Overriding is the feature of OOP. If we are creating more than one inherited classes in
our program where two variables of same type and name exist, then child class can
change its inherited property according to the given implementation inside child class.
Python supports overriding. For example, Car and Bus are Vehicles; since both are
sharing some common properties but max speed limit for both car and bus is different,
it requires us to override according to the type of vehicle and it needs to be declared
individually. The solution will be via override, which is to be written at runtime:
 4.6 Polymorphism 77

class Vehicle(object):
def __init__(self, model, max_speed):
self.model = model
self.max_speed = max_speed
self.speed = 0

def accelerate(self, speed_difference):

self.speed += abs(speed_difference)
self.speed = min(self.speed,self.max_speed)
def slow_down(self, speed_difference):
self.speed -= abs(speed_difference)
self.speed = max(self.speed,-5)

def __str__(self):
return " "+self.model+" "+str(self.max_speed)

class Car(Vehicle):
pass

class Bus(Vehicle):
def slow_down(self, speed_difference): #Overriding parent class method
super().slow_down(speed_difference)
self.speed=max(self.speed,0)

bmw=Car("BMW-X6",300)
print(bmw)
bmw.max_speed=400
bmw.model="BMW-X7"
print(bmw.speed)
bmw.accelerate(30)
print(bmw.speed)
bmw.slow_down(5)
print(bmw.speed)

--------------------------------output-----------------------------------
BMW-X6 300
0
30
25
------------------------------------------------------------------------
78 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

4.7 Encapsulation

Encapsulation is the main and essential feature of OOP, building of data with the
methods it operates on data. It is used to hide details of the inner workings of the
system like values/state of the object so that the user does not need to know how it
works in order to use/operate it. Python does not support it as strongly as Java, C,
C++, Swift, and C#, the term is known as name mangling. It can prevent unautho-
rized access. The part of the program that the user interacts with is called “inter-
face.” The driver of a car needs tools such as a steering wheel and a gas pedal to
use the capabilities of the car, in the same way users of our code require the syntax.
They are not bothered about how the code works:

class Car(object):
def __init__(self, model, max_speed):
self.model = model
self.max_speed = max_speed
self.speed = 0

def accelerate(self, speed_difference):

self.speed += abs(speed_difference)
self.speed = min(self.speed,self.max_speed)

def slow_down(self, speed_difference):

self.speed -= abs(speed_difference)
self.speed = max(self.speed,-5)

def __str__(self):
return " "+self.model+" "+str(self.max_speed)

bmw=Car("BMW-X6",300)
print(bmw)
bmw.max_speed=400
bmw.model="BMW-X7"
print(bmw.speed)
bmw.accelerate(30)
print(bmw.speed)
bmw.slow_down(5)
print(bmw.speed)
---------------------------------output---------------------------------
BMW-X6 300
0
30
25
------------------------------------------------------------------------
 4.8 Inheritance 79

In the given code, object was created using two parameters: model and max speed.
These parameters are passed through the constructor __init__ method and the val-
ues are copied as instance variable using self-keyword. After creation of object, val-
ues can be modified by using dot(.) notation. The constructor __init__ cannot have
return statement because it always returns instance of the same class.

4.8 Inheritance

If we are creating more than one class in our program, then they must have a rela-
tionship, this is known as inheritance. Python supports multiple inheritances while
other programming languages do not. For example, Car and Bus are Vehicles; since
both share some common properties and need to be declared individually, the solu-
tion will be via inheritance, in which we can write once and read many:

class Vehicle(object):
def __init__(self, model, max_speed):
self.model = model
self.max_speed = max_speed
self.speed = 0

def accelerate(self, speed_difference):

self.speed += abs(speed_difference)
self.speed = min(self.speed,self.max_speed)

def slow_down(self, speed_difference):

self.speed -= abs(speed_difference)
self.speed = max(self.speed,-5)

def __str__(self):
return " "+self.model+" "+str(self.max_speed)

class Car(Vehicle):
pass

class Bus(Vehicle):
def slow_down(self, speed_difference): #Overriding parent class method
super().slow_down(speed_difference)
self.speed=max(self.speed,0)

bmw=Car("BMW-X6",300)
print(bmw)
bmw.max_speed=400
bmw.model="BMW-X7"
print(bmw.speed)
80 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

bmw.accelerate(30)
print(bmw.speed)
bmw.slow_down(5)
print(bmw.speed)

--------------------------------output----------------------------------
BMW-X6 300
0
30
25
------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.9 Access modifier/specifier

All members of the object are by default public! Python does not have an access mod-
ifier, but similar functionality can be achieved by using prefix underscore before any
object and variable. Single underscore “_” stands for protected (module-level accessi-
bility). It doesn’t change its access permissions but shows “don’t trust this part of the
API to stay constant in behavior.” It wouldn’t be accessible while we use “from
moduleName import functionName,” in this case, we must define __all__ in that
module and all those properties in it whatever we want to export in other modules.
Double underscore “__” can be accessed by obj._ClassName__privateMethodName:

class SampleClass(object):
def public_method(self):
print("public method")

def _single_underscore_method(self): # Protected method

print("Protected/single-underscore method")

def __double_underscore_method(self): # Private method

print("private/double-underscore method")

obj1=SampleClass()
obj1.public_method()
obj2=SampleClass()
obj2._single_underscore_method()
obj3=SampleClass()
obj3.__double_underscore_method() # Can't be accessible due to private
privilege
 4.10 Decorator 81

--------------------------------output----------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "C:/Users/Tarkeshwar/PycharmProjects/KiVyPrograms/OverloadingDemo.py",
line 13, in <module>
public method
obj3.__double_underscore_method() # Can't be accessible due to private privilege
AttributeError: 'SampleClass' object has no attribute '__double_underscore_method'
Protected/single-underscore method
------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.10 Decorator

In Python, everything is an object even classes. Decorators are very powerful and
useful tools in Python, since it allows the programmer to modify the behavior of a
function or a class. Functions and methods are called callable. Decorators are
known as Meta programming too. A function takes another function and extends
the behavior of the later function without explicitly modifying. Here, functions are
taken as an argument into another function, then are called inside the wrapper
function. It allows us to wrap another function in order to extend the behavior of
the wrapped function without modifying permanently. Python may have side ef-
fects rather than just turning an input into an output. For example, print function,
which returns None has the side effect in output something on the console.
Functions are first-class objects (function can be passed around and used as argu-
ments like other objects such as int, float, and string) as we can see in the given
example:

def greeting(msg):
print(msg)

greeting("Hello, Good Morning")

second = greeting
second("Hello, Good Evening")

----------------------------------output--------------------------------
Hello, Good Morning
Hello, Good Evening
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Let us see another example by using annotation
def smart_divide(func):
def inner(a,b):
print("Input values are ",a,"and",b)
82 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

if b == 0:
print("Wring Input")
return
return func(a,b)
return inner

@smart_divide
def divide(a,b):
return a/b

print(divide(10,20))

----------------------------------output--------------------------------
Input values are 10 and 20
0.5
------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.10.1 @classmethod decorator

We can create a class method that passes the actual class object within the function
call like self-keyword. The self-argument is the class instance object itself, which
can then be used to act on instance data but in the case of @classmethod, it is not
the class instance. Let us see this example:

class Person(object):
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name):
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name

def __str__(self) -> str:

return super().__str__()

@classmethod
def split_string(cls, name_str):
first_name, last_name = map(str, name_str.split(' '))
student = cls(first_name, last_name)
return student

testname=Person("Tarkeshwar"," Barua")
print(testname.first_name)
print(testname.last_name)
myname = Person.split_string('Tarkeshwar Barua')
 Summary 83

print(myname.first_name)
print(myname.last_name)

--------------------------------output----------------------------------
Tarkeshwar
Barua
Tarkeshwar
Barua
------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.10.2 @staticmethod decorator

Like@classmethod, it can be called from an un-instantiated class object, it means

we don’t need to pass cls like class method decorator. Let us see the example:

class Person(object):
@staticmethod
def is_space_available(name_str):
names = name_str.split(' ')
return len(names) > 1
print("Available space is ",Person.is_space_available('Tarkeshwar Barua'))
print("Available space is ",Person.is_space_available('Tarkeshwar'))

----------------------------------output--------------------------------
Available space is True
Available space is False
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Summary

– A Class is a blueprint of an object. It specifies its attributes/state and behavior/

functions, for example, a Dog class can have attributes such as its legs, eyes,
and color but its behavior or functions are – it can walk, bark, is friendly, ag-
gressive, and so on.
– Object is a real entity created from the class. The object only occupies memory
when it has been created.
– The constructor is responsible to create an object. The constructor by default cre-
ated by the interpreter is called “zero parameterized constructor.” Programmers
can create their own parameterized constructors as well. After its creation, the in-
terpreter will not create any constructor.
84 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

– Polymorphism can be achieved by using the abstract method and their imple-
mentation is done in the child class.
– Abstraction is code hiding. Implementation is carried out in child class; we
are given access to its functionality not implementation.
– Overriding and Overloading: One object can behave in different ways in dif-
ferent situations. The two types of such behaviors are known as overriding and
overloading. When a child class changes its property, which is inherited from
the parent class, the term is known as overriding while overloading means that
the same function can receive various parameters at runtime.
– Encapsulation is the ability to cover object attribute(s) and methods in a single
entity with various access privileges.
– Inheritance is the capability to transfer parent class attributes and functions
to the child class. Access specifier privileges to provide access to its attribute
and methods.
– Overloading is not supported by Python, a similar type of functionality we can
use to achieve this either by class method decorator or by default value feature
of function.
– Decorators are a very powerful and useful tools in Python, since it allows the
programmer to modify the behavior of function or class. Decorators are as-
signed by @ symbols in other programming languages.
– Decorators are known as annotations and these functions and methods are
called callable as they can be called. Decorators are known as Meta program-
ming too. Decorators are of two types: staticmethod and classmethods.

Key terms

Interfaces, Abstract classes, overloading, access specifier features are not supported by
Python like Java, C, and C++, C#, to achieve these we have another similar feature.

Review questions

1. A collection of behavior that an user can use is called _______________.

2. Relationship between various classes is called _______________.

3. What is the use of constructor?

4. What does self-keyword do?

 Exercise 85

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. Which function is override+operator?

a) __add__()
b) __plus__()
c) __sum__()
d) None of the above

Q.2. Which of the following keyword is responsible to create class?

a) return
b) class
c) def
d) All of the above

Q.3. class test: def __init__(self): print(“Hello World”) def __init__(self): print
(“Bye World”) obj=test()?
a) Bye World
b) Hello World
c) Compilation Error
d) Ambiguity

Q.4. Which predefined Python function is used to find the length of string?
a) length()
b) len()
c) strlen()
d) stringlength()

Q.5. Syntax of constructor in Python is _______________

a) def __init__()
b) def _init_()
c) _init_()
d) All of the above

Q.6. Get the last element of list named with names:

a) names[0]
b) names[-1]
c) names[|pos]
d) names[:-1]
86 4 Object-oriented programming (OOP)

Q.7. Mention the method that begins and ends with two underscore characters.
a) Special method
b) In-built method
c) User-defined method
d) Additional method

Q.8. Which of the following is not OOP concept in Python?

a) Inheritance
b) Encapsulation
c) Polymorphism
d) Compilation

Q.9. Which concept of Python is a way of converting real-world objects in terms of

class?
a) Polymorphism
b) Encapsulation
c) Abstraction
d) Inheritance

Q.10. Which concept of Python is achieved by combining methods and attributes

in a class?
a) Encapsulation
b) Inheritance
c) Polymorphism
d) Abstraction

Answers

Q.1. a) __add__()
Q.2. b) class
Q.3. a) Bye World
Q.4. b) len()
Q.5. a) def __init__()
Q.6. b) names[-1]
Q.7. a) Special method
Q.8. d) Compilation
Q.9. c) Abstraction
Q.10. a) Encapsulation
 Exercise 87

Fill in the blanks

1. Class is a _________________of an object.

2. One or more abstract methods are only declared but their _________________can
be a child class.
3. Object contains its_________________.
4. _________________allow programmers to modify the behavior of function or
class.
5. Python supports _________________while other programming languages do
not.

Answers

1. blueprint
2. implementation
3. properties and methods
4. Decorators
5. multiple inheritance
5 Standard libraries
If you’re talking about Java in particular, Python is about the best fit you can get among all
the other languages. Yet the funny thing is, from a language point of view, JavaScript has a lot
in common with Python, but it is sort of restricted subset. ~Guido van Rossum

5.1 File operations using native

Programmers are needed to open, read, write, and close files. These files are mostly
written in ANSI textual (UTF-8) format. Files can be opened using the built-in func-
tion open. Using <command> as <name> syntax makes using open and getting a han-
dle for the file super easy. One file can be opened in different modes; here we are
opening in read only mode. The first argument to the “open” function is the path to
the file, and the second argument is related to the file name where we want to write.
Open function returns an object of file using which, we can write data into the given
file. The write method takes a string to write into the file. After doing all this, we re-
quire to close file object, which discontinues and deletes connection from the file. It
resides in the main memory. If we are willing to read any file, then we do not need
any permission. Read permission is given by default. After getting a file object from
the open function, we can use readline() or readlines() to read single or multiple lines
at one time; later resulting objects can be retrieved or iterated from the given object.
After doing all these, task files are required to be closed using function close():

>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘r’) as fileReadObj #read only

>>>fileReadObj.readlines() # reading all the line in one time
>>>fileReadObj
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘rb’) as fileReadObj #byte use read only
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘rb+’) as fileReadObj #byte use read and write
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘a’) as fileReadObj #append mode
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘a+’) as fileReadObj #appending reading mode
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘ab’) as fileReadObj #append in binary mode
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘ab’) as fileReadObj #append reading in binary
mode
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘w’) as fileReadObj #overwrite write mode
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘w+’) as fileReadObj #overwrite write and read
mode
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘wb+’) as fileReadObj #overwrite write and read
in binary mode
>>>fileReadObject.write(“Writing line in to file”) # writing a line into file
>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’) as fileReadObj #default is read only

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-005
 5.2 OS module 89

>>>with fileReadObj.read() #Read file as one line

>>>with open(‘fileName.txt’, ‘r+’) as fileReadObj #read and write mode

5.1.1 Writing file

Writing files in Python is very easy; open is a default method to write the file.
Python does not automatically add line breaks; we need to use \n and \t for tab.
Encoding parameters can be added along with open function. In case the file does
not exist, then it will be created:

>>>with open(‘hello.txt’, ‘w’, encoding=‘utf-8’) as txt:

. . . txt.write(“Hello World\n”)
. . . txt.write(“This is Second Line”)
print(“This Text Using print function”, file=txt)

----------------------------Example by Pycharm---------------------------
txt=open("hello.txt","w")
txt.write("First Line in the File\n")
txt.write("Second and lastLine in the File")
txt.close()

5.2 OS module

Built-in python functions are enough to work with files, but still, they have spe-
cific problems that we may face in the manipulation of files. Let us take an exam-
ple, we have developed a program that works with Windows but the same
program does not work in Linux because of / (forward slash used in Linux and
Mac) and \ (backward slash used in Windows). OS module can resolve it very effi-
ciently. To get the absolute path of the current directory, functions such as ab-
spath and curdir from the os.path module can be used. Let us have a look over
the given code:

>>>from os.path import abspath, curdir

>>>curdir
‘.’
>>>abspath(curdir)
‘/parent’
>>>dir(os)
90 5 Standard libraries

['DirEntry', 'F_OK', 'MutableMapping', 'O_APPEND', 'O_BINARY', 'O_CREAT',

'O_EXCL', 'O_NOINHERIT', 'O_RANDOM', 'O_RDONLY', 'O_RDWR', 'O_SEQUENTIAL',
'O_SHORT_LIVED', 'O_TEMPORARY', 'O_TEXT', 'O_TRUNC', 'O_WRONLY', 'P_DETACH',
'P_NOWAIT', 'P_NOWAITO', 'P_OVERLAY', 'P_WAIT', 'PathLike', 'R_OK', 'SEEK_CUR',
'SEEK_END', 'SEEK_SET', 'TMP_MAX', 'W_OK', 'X_OK', '_Environ', '__all__',
'__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__name__',
'__package__', '__spec__', '_execvpe', '_exists', '_exit', '_fspath', '_get_ex-
ports_list', '_putenv', '_unsetenv', '_wrap_close', 'abc', 'abort', 'access',
'altsep', 'chdir', 'chmod', 'close', 'closerange', 'cpu_count', 'curdir', 'def-
path', 'device_encoding', 'devnull', 'dup', 'dup2', 'environ', 'error', 'execl',
'execle', 'execlp', 'execlpe', 'execv', 'execve', 'execvp', 'execvpe', 'extsep',
'fdopen', 'fsdecode', 'fsencode', 'fspath', 'fstat', 'fsync', 'ftruncate', 'ge-
t_exec_path', 'get_handle_inheritable', 'get_inheritable', 'get_terminal_size',
'getcwd', 'getcwdb', 'getenv', 'getlogin', 'getpid', 'getppid', 'isatty', 'kill',
'linesep', 'link', 'listdir', 'lseek', 'lstat', 'makedirs', 'mkdir', 'name',
'open', 'pardir', 'path', 'pathsep', 'pipe', 'popen', 'putenv', 'read', 'read-
link', 'remove', 'removedirs', 'rename', 'renames', 'replace', 'rmdir', 'scan-
dir', 'sep', 'set_handle_inheritable', 'set_inheritable', 'spawnl', 'spawnle',
'spawnv', 'spawnve', 'st', 'startfile', 'stat', 'stat_result', 'statvfs_result',
'strerror', 'supports_bytes_environ', 'supports_dir_fd', 'supports_effecti-
ve_ids', 'supports_fd', 'supports_follow_symlinks', 'symlink', 'sys', 'system',
'terminal_size', 'times', 'times_result', 'truncate', 'umask', 'uname_result',
'unlink', 'urandom', 'utime', 'waitpid', 'walk', 'write']
>>>os.__doc__

"OS routines for NT or Posix depending on what system we're on.\n\nThis exports:
\n - all functions from posix or nt, e.g. unlink, stat, etc.\n - os.path is either
posixpath or ntpath\n - os.name is either 'posix' or 'nt'\n - os.curdir is a
string representing the current directory (always '.')\n - os.pardir is a string
representing the parent directory (always '..')\n - os.sep is the (or a most com-
mon) pathname separator ('/' or '\\\\')\n - os.extsep is the extension separator
(always '.')\n - os.altsep is the alternate pathname separator (None or '/')\n -
os.pathsep is the component separator used in $PATH etc\n - os.linesep is the
line separator in text files ('\\r' or '\\n' or '\\r\\n')\n - os.defpath is the
default search path for executables\ - os.devnull is the file path of the null
device ('/dev/null', etc.)\\Programs that import and use 'os' stand a better
chance of being\nportable between different platforms. Of course, they must then
\nonly use functions that are defined by all platforms (e.g., unlink\nand open-
dir), and leave all pathname manipulation to os.path\n(e.g., split and join).\n"

Curdir variable holds a string pointing to the current directory, while abspath ex-
pects any path as its argument and returns the absolute path. We can do create,
 5.3 Exception handling 91

read, update, and delete (CRUD) operations over files in any operating system. We
are required to remove and rename functions from the OS module:

>>>from os import remove, rename

>>>remove(“test/one.txt”)
>>>rename(“test/two.txt”, “test/three.txt”)

During any operation, we have to pass the file name, either rename or remove the
file. File path can be absolute or relative, in case, an absolute path is plain; it starts
with the root of the file systems while relative paths are calculated with the current
directory. Before the deletion of any directory, it must be empty; otherwise, it will
raise an exception:

#/home/tarkeshwar/Desktop/test/one.txt file want delete

#C:\Users\tarkeshwar\Desktop\test\one.txt file want to rename to three,txt
>>>move, rename, listdir, rmdir
>>>from os.path import join
>>>remover(join(“test”, “one.txt”))
>>>rename(join(“test”, “two.txt”), join(“text”, “three.txt”))
>>>listdir(“test”)
[“three.txt”, “four.txt”]
>>>rmdir(“test”)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
OSError:[Errno 39] Directory no empty: ‘test’

5.3 Exception handling

Sometimes it happens that we are trying to access some file, but unfortunately, that
file was deleted or does not exist. In this case, it may raise some exceptions, and
the program execution stops. In another scenario like we are willing to divide 10/0,
which is impossible, it will raise an exception. This is called exception traceback.
This situation can be handled using try and catch statement. In the raised excep-
tion, the last line tells us which exception was raised and gives us some additional,
human-readable information:

>>>10/0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
>>>try:
92 5 Standard libraries

. . . 10/0
. . .except ZeroDivisionError as e:
. . . print(“Error Caught in the try block”)

Our code should be placed inside the try block, and exception handling code comes
under except block, except keyword must be followed by a respective class of ex-
ception. Some alias name or variable name can be provided to this exception class.
This variable will be used to store a human-readable description of the error.

5.3.1 User-defined exceptions

We can define our exceptions too; we need to inherit that particular class to whom
it is related or parent exception class:

>>>class MyCustomException(Exception):
. . . pass
>>>try:
. . . raise MyCustomException(“This this custom Raised Exception”)
Except MyCustomException as e:
. . . print(“Error Caught”)
...
Error Caught

5.4 Import standard Python modules and packages

Python 2 provides functionality to import from python 3 using __future__ module. If

we are using Python 2 then the following statement will be used to print statements:

print ‘Hello World’ #python 2

Or
print “Hello World” #python 2
Or
print(‘Hello World’) #python 3
Or
print (“Hello world”) # python 3

The package can import complete, partial, and some methods along with an alias
name. A module can be a stand-alone runnable script. If the module is inside a di-
rectory and needs to be detected by Python, the directory should contain a file
named __init__.py:
 5.4 Import standard Python modules and packages 93

#main_app.py
if __name__ == ‘__main__’:
from hello import sayHello
sayHello()

5.4.1 Creating a module

A module is an importable file containing definitions and statements. A module can

be created by creating a .py file. These files are called modules. Different modules
are logically combined together into collections called packages:

#save this file as hello.py in same directory

def sayHello(): #file name hello.py in same directory
print(“Hello World”)
>>>import hello
>>>hello.sayHello()
Hello World
>>>dir(hello)
['__annotations__', '__call__', '__class__', '__closure__', '__code__',
'__defaults__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__get__', '__getattribute__', '__globals__',
'__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__kwdefaults__',
'__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__name__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__qual-
name__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__si-
zeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__']

5.4.2 Packages

A package is a plain folder with __init__.py file. Package is the way of managing
code easily to develop application. Default Python installation comes with a signifi-
cant number of packages. This set of packages is called standard libraries. Here,
import statement plays a very important role to provide access of built-in and user-
defined package attributes.
As we can see project name is Python book, under it we have one python pack-
age named with test_package. Inside it, we wrote two modules Calculator .py and
Calculator1.py. Their codes are given as follows:

class Calc: #module name Calculator.py

def addition(self, a, b):
return a+b;
94 5 Standard libraries

def subtraction(self, a, b):

return a-b;
def multiplication(self, a, b):
return a*b;
def devision(self, a, b):
return a/b;
def modulo(self, a, b):
return a%b;

-------------------------------another module----------------------------
def addition(a, b): #module name Calculator1.py
return a + b;
def subtraction(a, b):
return a – b;
def multiplication(a, b):
return a * b;
def devision(a, b):
return a / b;
def modulo(a, b):
return a % b;

Testing and main code to import entire class attributes

from test_package.Calculator import Calc
print(Calc().addition(2,4))
print(Calc().subtraction(2,4))
print(Calc().multiplication(2,4))
print(Calc().devision(2,4))
print(Calc().modulo(2,4))

Testing and main code to import specific feature from the module
from test_package.Calculator1 import addition, multiplication, subtraction,
division, modulo
print(addition(2,2))
print(multiplication(2,2))
print(subtraction(2,2))
print(devision(2,2))
print(modulo(2,2))

In the above-mentioned code, it is shown how to import the most top-level package.
As we can see, members of the package are supposed to be accessed using Dot op-
erator. We may avoid Dot operator by importing the things directly, as displayed
in second code. To indicate the source of the import we must use “from” keyword.
In this case, it is very simple to import all entities directly. These entities, kept
 5.5 Regular expression 95

Figure 5.1: Python package.

inside python packages, can be virtually any Python constructs, class, function,
variable module, or even package. Package can be nested.

5.5 Regular expression

Regular expression is used to search for any substring based on some specific con-
ditions. Anyway, we have in operator that can do the same thing but it doesn’t tell
us where the substring is located and this becomes a very effort-consuming job for
the computer when it comes to search from a big string. In the given string we are
willing to search like “concern . . . . . . . . . .war.” Search function takes a regular
expression argument and the second argument in which we want to search a string.
The result is returned as MatchObject, which contains all the information about the
result. In case multiple occurrences are found, then only the first one will be re-
turned. If we want to match any string re.match() function is there where * matches
to zero or more characters while. dot represents a single character. Let us see the
given problem.
96 5 Standard libraries

>>>test_string= “The Ministry of Truth, which concerned itself with news, en-
tertainment, education and the fine arts. The Ministry of Peace, which con-
cerned itself with war. The Ministry of Love, which maintained law and order.
And the Ministry of Plenty, which was responsible for economic affairs. Their
names, in Newspeak: Minitrue, Minipax, Miniluv and Miniplenty.”
>>>import re
>>>result=re.search(“concerned.*war”, test_string)
>>>result
<re.Match object; span=(29, 155), match=’concerned itself with news, enter-
tainment, educat>
>>>type(result)
<class ‘re.Match’>
>>>result.start()
29
>>>result.end()
155
>>>result.group()
‘concerned itself with news, entertainment, education and the fine arts. The
Ministry of Peace, which concerned itself with war’
>>>test_string[29:155]
‘concerned itself with news, entertainment, education and the fine arts. The
Ministry of Peace, which concerned itself with war’
>>>result1=re.finditer(“Ministry”, test_string)
>>>for data in result1:
. . . print(data)
...
<re.Match object; span=(4, 12), match= ‘Ministry’>
<re.Match object; span=(105, 113), match= ‘Ministry’>
<re.Match object; span=(161, 169), match= ‘Ministry’>
<re.Match object; span=(219, 227), match= ‘Ministry’>
>>>bool(re.match(“[0-9][a-z]*”, “8dfdjhfjdf”))
True
>>>bool(re.match(“[0-9][a-z]*”, “fdjhfjdf”))
False
>>>dir(re)
['A', 'ASCII', 'DEBUG', 'DOTALL', 'I', 'IGNORECASE', 'L', 'LOCALE', 'M',
'MULTILINE', 'Match', 'Pattern', 'RegexFlag', 'S', 'Scanner', 'T', 'TEMPLATE',
'U', 'UNICODE', 'VERBOSE', 'X', '_MAXCACHE', '__all__', '__builtins__',
'__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 5.6 Math module 97

'__spec__', '__version__', '_cache', '_compile', '_compile_repl', '_expand',

'_locale', '_pickle', '_special_chars_map', '_subx', 'compile', 'copyreg',
'enum', 'error', 'escape', 'findall', 'finditer', 'fullmatch', 'functools',
'match', 'purge', 'search', 'split', 'sre_compile', 'sre_parse', 'sub', 'subn',
'template']

Frequently used cardinalities are given in the list (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1: List of wild cards.

Cardinality Description

* Zero or more

+ One or more

? Zero or one

{m} Exact number of symbols

{m, n} Minimum and maximum number

^ Matches the beginning of a line also can mean “NOT”

$ Matches the end of a line

[a-zA-Z-_] Any letter small and caps, any number, underscore

[^a-z] Any character that is not a lower letter

\n \t \\ \’ \” new line character, tab, slash, single quote, double quote

5.6 Math module

Python has a math module that provides most of the familiar mathematical func-
tions. Module is a file that contains a collection of related functions and variables
defined. To access one of the functions, we have to specify the name of the module,
which is called the name of the function separated by dot(.), Built-in modules con-
tain some extra functionalities. __doc__ is useful to provide some documentation:

>>> import math

>>> math.sin(30)*math.sin(30)+math.cos(30)*math.cos(30)
1.0
>>>math.sqrt(3)
1.7320508075688772
>>>math.sin(30)
98 5 Standard libraries

0.9880316240928618
>>>r=4.56767
>>>math.pi*r*r
65.54496148088045
>>>dir(math)
'__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__',
'acos', 'acosh', 'asin', 'asinh', 'atan', 'atan2', 'atanh', 'ceil', 'copy-
sign', 'cos', 'cosh', 'degrees', 'e', 'erf', 'erfc', 'exp', 'expm1', 'fabs',
'factorial', 'floor', 'fmod', 'frexp', 'fsum', 'gamma', 'gcd', 'hypot',
'inf', 'isclose', 'isfinite', 'isinf', 'isnan', 'ldexp', 'lgamma', 'log',
'log10', 'log1p', 'log2', 'modf', 'nan', 'pi', 'pow', 'radians', 'remain-
der', 'sin', 'sinh', 'sqrt', 'tan', 'tanh', 'tau', 'trunc']
>>>math.__doc__
'This module is always available. It provides access to the mathematical func-
tions defined by the C standard.'
>>>math.__file__
'/anaconda3/lib/python3.7/lib-dynload/math.cpython-37m-darwin.so'
>>>math.__loader__
<_frozen_importlib_external.ExtensionFileLoader object at 0x10a1bfb00>
>>>math.__name__
‘math’
>>>math.__package__
‘’
>>>math.__spac__
ModuleSpec(name='math', loader=<_frozen_importlib_external.ExtensionFileLoader
object at 0x10a1bfb00>, origin='/anaconda3/lib/python3.7/lib-dynload/math.cpy-
thon-37m-darwin.so')

5.6.1 Writing documentation for module

Documentation is a very important part of our module. It provides complete infor-

mation. Sample module documentation is given as follows:

“““ This is the module doc string ”””

def sayHello():
“““This is the function doc string ”””
return “Hello World”
>>>sayHello()
 5.7 JSON 99

>>>import testmodule
>>>testmodule.__doc__
This is the module doc string

>>>testmodule.sayHello.__doc__
This is the function doc string

>>>dir(testmodule)
['__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__',
'__name__', '__package__', '__spec__', 'sayHello']

5.7 JSON

JSON stands for JavaScript Object Notation. In the process of serialization/deseriali-

zation, it becomes very important to pass JSON as input and output. JSON is a string
with key and value pair. It is a string that is readable by human and machine easily.
Converting from objects to JSON is called serialization while its opposite from JSON
to objects is known as deserialization. Data can be transmitted over the network in
two forms; one is JSON, and the second is XML. Both transfer date in text format.
JSON is the primary mechanism to handle date in JavaScript programming lan-
guage. JSON can handle the following types of data type:
– Primitive: integer, string, float, boolean, null
– Object: a group of primitive variables with key-value pair
– Arrays: a group of primitive values

By default, python can serialize int, float, long, dict, list, str, bool, None. Python pro-
vides JSON module to handle serialization and deserialization. It has an important
function-dumps and loads. A dump expects a python date structure as an input and
returns JSON string. A load does just the opposite of it. We pass JSON string as input
and output will be a Python object. We can have a look on the given code:

>>student={‘name’: ‘Mr. ABC’, ‘age’:25, ‘height’: 5.6, ‘isGraduate’: True,

‘marks’:None}
>>>import json
>>>type(student)
<class ‘dict’>
>>>json_data=json.dumps(student)
>>>type(json_data)
<class ‘str’>
>>>json_data
100 5 Standard libraries

‘{“name”: “Mr. ABC”, “age”: 25, “height”: 5.6, “isGraduate”: true, “marks”:
null}’
Let us see how to convert from JSON string to python object:
>>>import json
>>>json_str=‘{“name”: “Mr. ABC”, “age”: 25, “height”: 5.6, “isGraduate”:
true, “marks”: null}’
>>>type(json_str)
<class ‘str’>
>>>python_obj=json.loads(json_str)
>>>type(python_obj)
<class ‘dict’>
>>>python_obj
{‘name’: ‘Mr. ABC’, ‘age’:25, ‘height’: 5.6, ‘isGraduate’: True, ‘marks’:
None}
>>>dir(json)
['JSONDecodeError', 'JSONDecoder', 'JSONEncoder', '__all__', '__author__',
'__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__name__',
'__package__', '__path__', '__spec__', '__version__', '_default_decoder',
'_default_encoder', 'codecs', 'decoder', 'detect_encoding', 'dump', 'dumps',
'encoder', 'load', 'loads', 'scanner']

Like this, any python object can be converted to JSON string and vice versa. In case
any problem is found during conversion, it would raise JSONDecodeError,
NameError as we can see in the given code:

>>>import json
>>>json_str=‘Mr. ABC’
>>>type(json_str)
<class ‘str’>
>>>python_obj=json.loads(json_str)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
. . .. . .. . .. . ..
Json.decoder.JSONDecodeError: Expecting value: line 1 column 1 (char 0)
>>>json.dumps(Mr. ABC)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
NameError: name ‘Mr. ABC’ is not defined
 5.8 SQLite3 101

5.8 SQLite3

Every programmer wants to save data in the server for further use. To save data
over a server, it requires getting one Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS) server such as SQLite, MySQL, MSSQL Server, and Maria DB, and to install
these servers it requires more resources. This server may be available on the same
machine (localhost), remote machine (Internet/Intranet), and local file too. It is al-
ways a good approach to test our application with the SQLite database. It is file-
based and open-source database. It does not require any type of server installation.
SQLite database is very easy to share with others and no special SQL client is re-
quired. One of the main principles of software development is re-usability and Do
Not Repeat Yourself (DRY). Before storing information in database we have to de-
fine the structure of our data in the form of a table. Information processing and
data storage are achieved by some common set of constraints (set of rules) that
have emerged. A relational database is made up of tables, rows, and columns.
RDBMS is based on relating information with each other in the form of tables
where each column represents some set of rules to store data in a respective column
such as int, char, float, and boolean. Primary key constrains define that no data
can be duplicated. A cursor is like a file handle we can use to perform operations
on the data stored in the database. Calling cursor() is like opening a text file where
we can perform other operations such as CRUD over any database. Index means
some unique identity number in sorting order that makes searching information
easy in the large table. SQL stands for Structured Query Language, which is used to
do so in RDBMS. It is a programming language for SQL constraint programming.
For example, one person can have zero or many phone numbers. This type of
information can be related using foreign key constraints. Python comes with a
built-in sqlite3 library. It is a full-stack implementation of RDBMS. Let us see how to
handle the database in Python. SQLite version 3.6.x or above supports foreign key
constraints too. By default, foreign key is deactivated, we can activate it with
“PRAGMA foreign_key=ON;”. Cursor is a python object to execute the SQL state-
ments. In the given code on delete cascade tells SQL when an employee deletes
first, all related cars must be deleted:

>>>import sqlite3
>>>conn=sqlite3.connect(“sampledb.sqlite”)
>>>cursor=conn.cursor()
>>>cursor.execute(“PRAGMA foreign_keys= ON”)
>>>cursor.execute(“create table Employee(id integer not null primary key
autoincrement, name text not null, salary numeric not null);”)
<sqlite2.Cursor object at 0x107f28ab0>
102 5 Standard libraries

>>>cursor.execute(“insert into Employee values(1, ‘Mr. ABC’, 100);”)

<sqlite2.Cursor object at 0x107f28ab0>
>>>cursor.execute(“insert into Employee values(1, ‘Mr. ABC’, 100);”)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
Sqlite3.IntegrityError: UNIQUE constraint failed: Employee.id
>>>cursor.execute(“insert into Employee(name, salary) values(‘Mr. KBC’, 150);”)
<sqlite2.Cursor object at 0x107f28ab0>
>>>cursor.execute(“insert into Employee values(3, ‘Mr. XYZ’, 175);”)
<sqlite2.Cursor object at 0x107f28ab0>
>>conn.commit()
>>>result=cursor.execute(“select * from Employee;”)
>>>for record in result:
. . . print(record)
...
(1, ‘Mr. ABC’, 100)
(2, ‘Mr. KBC’, 150)
(3, ‘Mr. XYZ’, 175)
>>>cursor.execute(“update Employee set salary=200 where id=1;”)
>>>result=cursor.execute(“select * from Employee;”)
>>>for record in result:
. . . print(record)
...
(1, ‘Mr. ABC’, 200)
(2, ‘Mr. KBC’, 150)
(3, ‘Mr. XYZ’, 175)
>>>cursor.execute(“create table Car(id integer not null primary key auto-
increment, brand text not null, model text not null, owner integer not null
references Employee on delete cascade);”)
<sqlite2.Cursor object at 0x107f28ab0>
>>>cursor.execute(“insert into Car values(1, ‘Maruti’, ‘Maruti 800’, 1);”)
<sqlite2.Cursor object at 0x107f28ab0>
>>>cursor.execute(“insert into Car values(1, ‘Maruti’, ‘Swift’, (select id
from Employee where name= ‘Mr. XYZ’));”)
<sqlite2.Cursor object at 0x107f28ab0>
>>>cursor.execute(“insert into Employee values(1, ‘Mr. ABC’, 100);”)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
Sqlite3.IntegrityError: UNIQUE constraint failed: Employee.id
 5.9 SQLAlchemy 103

>>>cursor.execute(“insert into Car values(1, ‘Maruti’, ‘Maruti 800’, 1);”)

Traceback (most recent call last):
File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>
Sqlite3.IntegrityError: UNIQUE constraint failed: Car.id

5.9 SQLAlchemy

SQLAlchemy is an object-relational mapping (ORM) tool to map database tables

with python objects, created by Mike Bayer. It provides a database server-
independent SQL expression language, no more SQL injection, no more complex
SQL queries, working with objects not tables, and fast execution of queries. It uses
a data mapper pattern. The following are the four significant components:
– Engine – connection pool management and database-independent SQL dialect
layer.
– MetaData – managing information about our database tables.
– SQL expression language – to execute SQL queries and update against our
table.
– ORM – database persistence to our Python objects without requiring us to de-
sign around database.

>>>import sqlalchemy
>>>sqlalchemy.__version__
‘1.2.15’
>>>engine=sqlalchemy.create_engine(“sqlite:///testdb.sqlite”, echo=True)

>>>engine=sqlalchemy.create_engine(“postgresql://root:password@local-
host/testdb”, echo=True)
>>>engine=sqlalchemy.create_engine(“
mysql+pymysql://root:password@localhost/testdb”, echo=True)
>>>metadata=sqlalchemy.MetaData()
>>>persons_table=sqlalchemy.Table('persons', metadata, sqlalchemy.Column
('id', sqlalchemy.Integer, primary_key=True), sqlalchemy.Column('name',
sqlalchemy.String))
>>>phone=sqlalchemy.Table('phone', metadata,sqlalchemy.Column('id', sqlal-
chemy.Integer, primary_key=True), sqlalchemy.Column('number',sqlalchemy.
String), sqlalchemy.Column('person_id', sqlalchemy.ForeignKey('persons.id')))
>>>metdata.create_all(engine)
>>>test=persons_table.insert(bind=engine)
104 5 Standard libraries

>>>test.execute(name="Tarkeshwar")
>>>del_stmt=persons_table.delete()
>>>del_stmt.execute(name= “Tarkeshwar”)

Summary

The highlights of this chapter are as follows:

– How to do basic file operations like read–write, and open file using built and
standard libraries quickly?
– Performing basic tasks like creating, deleting, renaming files and folders by OS
module.
– File and folder management such as current path of file and folder to perform
some task, from given file or directory.
– All the created files, to write Python code into a file known as a module, and
how to import modules in our package.
– Exception handling and creating user-defined exceptions using Exception class.
– Creating packages apart from built-in packages and importing packages par-
tially or entirely.
– Regular expression to find and replace any string on the basis of the given wild
cards.
– Math module to perform all the mathematical calculations efficiently.
– JSON is commonly used to transfer data between machines.
– SQLite is the small file-based database that supports all the RDBMS standards.
Being a file-based database, files can be transferred easily over the poor net-
works too.
– SQLAlchemy is one of the most popular object-relational Mapper (ORM) tool.
Using it we can generate complex SQL queries to interact with any database by
handling Python objects.

Key terms

Python supports write once and read many. To achieve this, the user can perform
file operations by OS module, creating package and modules and then importing
them into the useful writing code in the module, and the method to access module
in our code. During such operations, we may face unexpected problems like we are
trying to access the file but unfortunately that is not available in the system prob-
lem. This is called exception and this may cause an interruption in the program dur-
ing execution. This type of situation can be handled by exception handling.
Exceptions are of two types – checked (compile time) and unchecked (runtime ex-
ception). User can create their own exception classes to handle. Regular expression
 Review questions 105

is searching based on the wildcard based on the given string. Math module is used
to perform the mathematical calculations as per requirement. Mostly all the mathe-
matical formulas are built-in available. JSON is flexible and easy to transmit infor-
mation over the network. JSON information is readable by humans and machines. It
supports all the available devices. This is one of the leading causes of its popularity
among programmers. Organizations have always been storing and managing busi-
ness data using RDBMS, which requires to install and manage server that needs a
lot of resources and efforts. We can achieve this by using very lightweight data-
bases SQLite. It is file-based, cross-platform, open-source RDBMS. We can use it for
testing purposes. It supports all the features of RDBMS. SQL queries writing is a
challenging task, and it requires to learn SQL ueries individually now, we have a
solution one of the ORM tool SQLAlchemy. By using the SQLAlchemy, the program-
mer can focus on writing code instead of SQL ueries.

Review questions

1. What is the synonym of the Python source file?

2. How do we import module path from OS package?
3. What is the significant difference between Windows and Linux file systems to
make it cross-platform?
4. What is the value of os.path.curdir?
5. Write a code to remove a nonempty directory.
6. Write a program to list all the files and directory from the current directory.
7. What is the escape sequence for the new line and tab character?
8. What is the use of re.search() function?
9. What is responsible for JSON serialization in Python?
10. What will be the output of the command: print(json.dumps(“Mr. KBC”)[0])?
11. What will be the output of the command: print(type(json.dumps(‘“Mr.
KBC”’)))?
12. How would you join two arrays in JSON?
13. What are the meanings of DRY and SQL?
14. In what form is data stored inside the relational database?
15. Constraints are usually applied to which part of a database?
16. Write a program to interact with the database and perform CRUD (create, read,
update, delete) operations using SQLAlchemy.
106 5 Standard libraries

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. Which of the following function is a built-in function in Python?

a) seed()
b) sqrt()
c) factorial()
d) print()

Q.2. What is the output of the expression round(3.145663)?

a) 3
b) 4
c) 5
d) 2

Q.3. The function pow(x, y, z) is evaluated as ____________

a) (x**y)**z
b) (x**y)/z
c) (x**y)%z
d) (x**y)*z

Q.4. What is the output of the function complex(2+2j)?

a) Error
b) 1
c) 2
d) 2+2j

Q.5. Which of the function will not result in an error when no argument is passed to it?
a) min()
b) divmod()
c) all()
d) float()

Q.6. Python supports the creation of anonymous function at runtime using a con-
struct called ____________
a) lambda
b) pi
c) anonymous
d) None of the above
 Exercise 107

Q.7. What is the type of each element in sys.argv?

a) set
b) list
c) tuple
d) string

Q.8. What is return by math.ceil(3.4)?

a) 3
b) 4
c) 4.0
d) 3.0

Q.9. What is the order of namespaces in which Python looks for an identifier?
a) Python first searches the global namespace, then the local namespace, and
finally the built-in namespace.
b) Python first searches the local namespace, then the global namespace, and
finally the built-in namespace.
c) Python first searches the built-in namespace, then the global namespace,
and finally the local namespace.
d) Python first searches the built-in namespace, then the local namespace, and
finally the global namespace.

Q.10. Which of the following is false about the “import modulename” form of import?
a) The namespace of the imported module becomes part of the importing
module.
b) This form of import prevents name clash.
c) The namespace of the imported module becomes available to the importing
module.
d) The identifiers in the module are accessed as modulename.identifier.

Answers

Q.1. d) print()
Q.2. a) 3
Q.3. c) (x**y)%z
Q.4. d) 2+2j
Q.5. d) float()
Q.6. a) lambda
Q.7. d) string
Q.8. b) 4
108 5 Standard libraries

Q.9. c) Python first searches the built-in namespace, then the global namespace,
and finally the local namespace
Q.10. a) The namespace of the imported module becomes part of the importing
module

Fill in the blanks

1. These files are mostly written in _______________format.

2. A cursor is like a file handle we can use to perform_______________ on the data
stored in the database.
3. Regular expression is used to_______________ any substring based on some
specific condition.
4. SQLAlchemy is a/an _______________tool to map database tables with Python
objects, created by _______________.
5. JSON is a string with _______________pair.

Answers

1. ANSI textual(UTF-8)
2. operations
3. search
4. ORM (object relational mapping), Mike Bayer
5. key and value
6 Getting started with Kivy
Now, it’s my belief that Python is a lot easier than to teach to students programming and teach
them C or C++ or Java at the same time because all the details of the languages are so much
harder. Other scripting languages really don’t work very well there either. ~Guido van Rossum

6.1 Why cross-platform?

Mobile applications are basically of two types – native apps and cross-platform. Native
apps are developed only for specific platforms such as Android or iOS. But we cannot
use the Android app in iOS or vice versa; therefore, cross-platform is the only solution
to resolve it. Most of the cross-platform apps are being developed using HTML, CSS,
and JavaScript. These are based on the interpreted programming language that causes
poor performance and sometimes compatibility issues with the device.

6.2 What is Kivy

Kivy is a free and open-source Python library for developing mobile apps and other
multitouch application software with a natural user interface (NUI). It is developed
by Kivy organization along with Python for Android and Kivy OS. Kivy and
BeeWare are the most popular frameworks used to design GUI applications.
BeeWare is used to develop native apps for different platforms, but native apps
have specific limitation, that is why we will focus on cross-platform app develop-
ment. Kivy is a cross-platform framework to develop desktop and mobile applica-
tions. It was introduced in the year 2012; the latest version Python supports “write
once and read many”. Kivy uses the OpenGL library feature that makes it cross-
platform. We can rapidly develop multitouch applications.

6.3 Why Python in mobile app

There are many choices available to develop a mobile app; Python being the easiest
and most popular language is the preferred choice in mobile app development. Kivy
is a beautiful toolkit to start GUI programming. It’s based on Python, and Python is a
great first language to learn programming even in the mobile app development.
Moreover, we do not have to record our app for different platforms since Kivy sup-
ports Android, iOS, Desktop, Windows, Linux, and Mac. Also, we can use the same
codebase for all platforms. Python comes with large libraries, packages, and frame-
works to make the development easy. Python is one of the highest paid programming
languages. It is a flexible and dynamic language with scalability and wide range of

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-006
110 6 Getting started with Kivy

tools for development. Due to portability, apps can work on various operating sys-
tems (Windows, Linux/Unix, iOS, Mac, Android, OS/2, Amiga, Raspberry Pi, etc.) and
architecture. There is a wide availability of code over the Internet free of cost so the
developer can use several cross-platform techniques to create a quality app. Some
tools such as Whoop, Widgetpad, MoSync, MobiCart, RhoMobile, PhoneGap, and
Cordova are also available to develop a mobile app. Big competitors of Kivy are Qt
and Flash – these support multitouch too. These features make the competition very
tough, but still, there are some big advantages of Kivy that makes Kivy the first choice
to develop cross-platform apps.

Free – The major advantage is that it is free, being an open source there is no need
to pay anything for redistribution or developing applications, it has code patch fea-
ture so that we can directly contribute in it.

Easy – We can develop software by writing a few lines of code, but others are not
that easy. Kivy is exclusively written in Python, which makes it very convenient to
use. Kivy has its description language to describe UI. Thus, we can design applica-
tions according to our own way.

Development support – Kivy is developed by professionals in the community.

Some of the developers develop it for a living, which means it is not a small commu-
nity worldwide. There is very little chance to get support on it.

Flexibility – It can run on various platform devices (Android, iOS, Windows,

Linux, Raspberry pi). Its fast-paced development can adopt any technology, includ-
ing the third party as well, any time, any module, such as WM_TOUCH(Windows),
multi_touch(OS X), HID kernel(Linux), TUIO for other touch devices.

Fast – In this competitive environment, application development and its execution,

both are very fast in Kivy. Kivy implements time-critical functionality on the C level.
It has powerful algorithms to minimize big operations. In this channel, we support
CPU, GPU, TPU, and so on. This feature can process 3D graphics with increased
performance.

Design from scratch – Kivy is designed from scratch level to make an interaction be-
tween computer and human easy. We could face compatibility issues with any com-
puter that is having different design and architecture, but with Kivy the possibility is
remote because Kivy helps us to export executable code for each and every platform
for the production environment.

6.4 Kivy architecture

Kivy architecture plays a significant role in software engineering (Figure 6.1). Here, we
will discuss how everything is working with each other. It consists of many blocks.
 6.4 Kivy architecture 111

Widget Kv language
High level

Cache Clock Gesture Event loop Properties

Core providers Graphics Inputs

Window Vertex Buffer Motion Event
Text Frame Buffer Post processing
Image Texture (double tap,
Video Shader dejitter...)
Audio Instructions

Pygame PIL GStreamer GLES API GLEW Mouse TUIO

Low level

FFMpeg SDL Cairo WM_Touch Mac Touch

MTDev HIDInput

Figure 6.1: KivyaApp architecture.

Source: https://kivy.org/doc/stable/guide/architecture.html

Core providers and input providers – Basic or core tasks such as opening win-
dow, displaying images and text, playing audio, using the camera, spelling correc-
tion, handling a special pieces of code in all the platforms – this unique code is
known as core provider. For example, Windows, Linux, and OSX are natively differ-
ent platforms, but they can be handled by core providers. By using libraries that are
shipped with any platform, Kivy efficiently reduces code in size for distribution and
makes it easy to port to other platforms too. An interpreter is a piece of code that
adds support for a specific input device, such as a mouse, keyboard, or touchpad, if
we need to add support for the new input device, we can simply provide a new
class that reads our input data from our device and transforms them into Kivy basic
events.

Graphics – Kivy Graphics work on OpenGL at the lowest level. It issues hardware-
accelerated drawing commands using OpenGL. Writing OpenGL code is a very diffi-
cult and confusing job. Kivy provides graphics API that can draw the things very
quickly. Graphics API generates C level command for good performance and opti-
mized code. The default version is OpenGL 2.0 ES (GLES2) on the entire device to
fulfill all the cross-platform requirements.

Core – the provided features of core are as follows:

– Clock – We can use the clock to schedule timer event, which can be one-shot
time and periodic timer.
112 6 Getting started with Kivy

– Cache – If we are willing to store something in the catch, we can use cache
class instead of writing our own class.
– Gesture detection – We can use gesture detection to detect various types of
strokes like circle or rectangle, or we can train it according to our requirement.
– Kivy language – We can describe our UI with Kivy language easily.
– Properties – This is different from Python property, which can link our widget
code with the UI description.

UIX (Widget and Layouts) – it contains commonly used widgets and layouts that
help to create UI quickly.
– Widgets – These are user-interface elements that we add to our program to pro-
vide functionality. They may or may not be visible, like Button, label, and list.
– Layouts – Layouts are used to arrange the UI components automatically.
However, we can calculate components, positions, and size, but layouts pro-
vide them automatically, for example, Grid Layout and BoxLayout.

Modules – We can create small plugins, and these plugins can be used to inject
into the Kivy program. We can inject our own modules whether they are added by
Kivy developer or not.

Input events – Kivy supports input types such as touches, mic, TUIO, and so on.
All these input devices support only 2D onscreen position with any individual input
even. These inputs are handled by touch() class. A touch instance can be of any
these states.
– Down – Touch is down only once, every moment where it first appears.
– Move – In this position touch can be for unlimited time. A move happens
whenever the 2D position of touch changes.
– UP – We receive a touch event because nobody is going to hold a finger on the
screen.

Widgets and event dispatching – Widget is an object that receives input events.
All widgets are arranged in a tree. One widget can have any number of child widg-
ets or https://kivy.org/doc/stable/_images/architecture.png none.
All the widgets are directly or indirectly children of widget class. When new
input is available, Kivy sends it out in one event per touch. The root widget of the
widget tree receives the event depending upon the state of the touched location.
Each widget in the tree can choose either digest or pass the event on. The event
handler returns valid means digested and handled correctly, or it passes the event
to its child or parent class. As given in the code:
 6.5 Python developed mobile apps 113

def on_touch_down(self, touch):

if self.collide_point(*touch.pos):
self.pressed = touch.pos
return True

6.5 Python developed mobile apps

Dropbox – Dropbox is a cloud-based application where users can store their files,
and the same can be mounted on the local machines too. As the user makes any
changes in the local machine automatically, these changes reflect on the cloud too
through the Internet.

YouTube – YouTube is one of the products from Google. YouTube is a platform

where users can view and download videos along with generating logs such as
likes, subscribers, and comments on a video.

Instagram – Instagram is a social media platform where users can share their
views and see other user’s views on a particular topic.

BitTorrent – It is a platform where users can share their files over the Internet, and
anybody can download these files. Torrentis is a chain of files such as computer
applications, videos, audios, and images.

Ubuntu Software Center – It is a platform like Google Play store, Apple store, and
Microsoft store. Users using Ubuntu can download this useful application. Some of
the software are paid by most of the applications that are available free of cost.

Aarlogic CO5/3 – GSM/GPS tracking PCB Python development board along with
the support of Test Server based on Google Map.

App Backup – JailBroken iOS devices, uses to backup and restore settings and data
of an App Store app.

Food Plus – Mobile food app to process food orders and tracking of orders.

PyRoute – A GPS capable mapping/routing application, gstreamer is an optional

dependency that only needs to be installed if video display or audio is desired, ffpy-
player is an alternative dependency for audio.

PyGame Library – Here we can build friendly mobile games easily similar to Kivy.
114 6 Getting started with Kivy

6.6 History of Kivy

Kivy is developed by Kivy organization, a very prestigious organization that has de-
veloped projects such as Python for Android, and Kivy iOS. Kivy comes with Cython
because Cython is built-in with Kivy, and this is very important without that Kivy
cannot run. Cython helps to generate highly optimized machine code for the device.
Kivy is built over the Kivy language, also known as kv language. It is used to de-
scribe UI. The UI and event or actions can be created or added easily to it.

6.7 Why not Cordova

Cordova is an Apache project that is interwined with PhoneGap. We can say where
PhoneGap ends, Cordova begins. Being newer, Cordova eventually produced a 1.8 Mc
“Hello world.apk” a quarter size of the Kivy package. Though 20 times as big as a na-
tive Java app, deployed on Android, it initializes much faster than the Kivy app and
comes up in portrait mode but rotates correctly if the users rotate their phone. As for
the UI, Kivy should give us better performance as it works directly on OpenGL, but
browser-based solutions would give more flexibility and probably easiest development.

6.8 Kivy versions

Kivy’s supporting libraries are pygame, PIL, Cairo, and so on. Their installation is
required according to the required version. The best way is to go with Cython and
Pygame. Most of the problems can be reduced using this. Installation commands
are given as follows:

$ pip install cython

$ pip install hg+http://bitbucket.org/pygame/pygame
$ pip install kivy
Or
$ git clone https://github.com/kivy/kivy
$ cd kivy
$ make

6.9 How it is different from the cross-platform app framework

The cross-platform provides the ability to hit two targets with one arrow. Its feature is
“Write code once and run on almost all the platforms,” this sort of the frameworks
 6.11 Installation of Kivy 115

earlier came with performance issues and erratic application behavior; they have
now become mainstream as the cost of developing native apps for both the platforms
is increasing day by day.

6.10 System requirement

All codes given in this book are valid for both python (excluding few examples) ver-
sion but for the best result, tested environment is given in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: System requirements.

Specification Description

Python version .x(.. to ..) and .x(.. to ..)

Processor Pentium- or higher

RAM  MB ( GB recommended)

Operating system Windows XP (including bit), Linux(Any), Mac OS X ., Raspberry Pi,
Screen resolution *

6.11 Installation of Kivy

There are many ways to install Kivy on various platforms, some of them are men-
tioned later.

6.11.1 Installation in Windows?

Installation is straightforward in windows because of it being available in a bundle,

and this bundle can be downloaded from the given URL http://kivy.org/#downlod.
After completion of the download it will provide a zip file, that zip file can be ex-
tracted as shown in Figure 6.2. After this, we can find kivy.bat file, which will be
used to execute our application. After executing this file, command line opens with
Python interpreter with temporary environment settings.

6.11.2 Installation in Mac OS?

As shown in Figure 6.2, we can download Kivy-1.1.1-osx.dmg with all dependen-

cies from the given website http://kivy.org/#download. After downloading, we can
double click to install it and finally launch it from the launcher.
116 6 Getting started with Kivy

Figure 6.2: Download web page from http//kivy.org/#download.

Source: http//kivy.org/#download

6.11.3 Installation in Linux?

According to Figure 6.3, we can download Kivy-1.1.1.tar.gz with all dependencies from
the given website http://kivy.org/#download. After downloading we can set the envi-
ronment variable for our operating system. Ubuntu users can use the following given
command. For other versions, we can go to its website for all installation instructions:
 6.11 Installation of Kivy 117

Figure 6.3: Kivy zip file extraction in windows.

$ sudo add-apt-repository ppa:kivy-team/kivy

$ sudo apt install python-kivy //for python2
or
$ sudo apt install python3-kivy //for python3

6.11.4 What are Wheels and pip?

These are unofficial windows binaries for Python extension packages. Wheels are
pre-built distribution of a package that has already been compiled and does not re-
quire any additional step to install. We can download any file from https://www.
lfd.uci.edu/~gohlke/pythonlibs/, it comes as .whl extension name. If we have whl
file, it can be installed using the given command:

$ python -m pip install c:\Kivy-1.10.1-cp37-cp37m-win_amd64.whl

Kivy can be installed directly from the Internet as well. It will always install the lat-
est version of Kivy. If we wish to install some specific version of Kivy, we can pro-
vide its version along with the command.
118 6 Getting started with Kivy

$ pip install kivy

or
$ pip install kivy-1.10.1

6.11.5 Cython installation in Linux?

According to the above-mentioned figure, we can download Kivy-1.1.1.tar.gz with

$ sudo add-apt-repository ppa:cython-dev/master-ppa

$ sudo apt update
$ sudo apt install cython
$ sudo apt install python-pip
$ sudo pip install –upgrade cython

6.11.6 Verifying installation

Installation can be verified using the given command:

>>>import pygame
pygame 1.9.6
Hello from the pygame community. https://www.pygame.org/contribution.html

6.12 Creating the First Hello World App

Creating an application in Kivy is very easy. We need to inherit App class into our
application class, then we need to implement build() function/method, which al-
ways returns Widget instance (the root of our widget tree). Finally, we have to call
run() function/method to the instance of our class. As shown in the given code
(Figure 6.4):

>>>from kivy.app import App

>>>from kivy.uix.button import Button
>>>class MyFirstApp(App):
... def build(self):
... return Button(text= ‘My First Cross Platform Application’)
>>>MyFirstApp().run()
 6.12 Creating the First Hello World App 119

Figure 6.4: Hello World Program.

6.12.1 Event handling in Kivy

Events are an essential part of any programming language. Every event needs to be
bound. This makes it easy to build whatever behavior we need. Figure 6.5 shows
the given event-handling architecture.

6.12.2 Event dispatcher

It is the essential class of framework. We can register our event type and dispatch
them to interested parties. Widget, Animation, and clock are event dispatchers. It
depends on the main loop to generate and handle events.

6.12.3 Main loop

Loop is running in the entire lifetime of the application and stops when the applica-
tion gets terminated. Every iteration of the loop event generated from user input,
hardware sensors, and frames is rendered to display. If this callback called by our
120 6 Getting started with Kivy

Figure 6.5: Event-handling architecture.

Source: https://kivy.org/doc/stable/_images/Events.png

application takes longer or does not arrive, it means our application will stop work-
ing. We must avoid long loops or sleeping. Let us see the examples:

>>>while True:
. . . do_somthing()
. . . time.sleep(0.5)

This loop will never stop until we stop our application.

6.12.4 Custom events

User can create their custom events by inheriting EventDispacher class, as shown
in the given examples:

from kivy.event import EventDispatcher

class CustomEventDispatcher(EventDispatcher):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
self.register_event_type('custom_event')
super(CustomEventDispatcher, self).__init__(**kwargs)
 6.13 Anatomy of Kivy 121

def my_task(self, value):

self.dispatch('custom_event', value)
def testEvent(self, *args):
print ("An event has been dispatched", args)
def testCallbackEvent(value, *args):
print ("An event has been dispatched", args)
ev = CustomEventDispatcher()
ev.bind(on_test=testCallbackEvent) #register event
ev.do_something('test')

6.13 Anatomy of Kivy

All the Kivy apps have one entry point run() method, as we have seen in the last
code example. The essential class is App, which is available in kivy.app package
that is why we wrote a line from kivy.app import App and this class became par-
ent class of our application. In the next line, we wrote from kivy.uix.button im-
port import Button. In uix package, we have all the UI components like layouts
and widgets. build() is a default method to execute code and return an instance of
the widget. Kivy has kv design language, which is like the HTML and CSS, where it
is responsible for styling and adding elements to the display but does not handle
any logic. There are specific rules that are defined for .kv file writing; some of them
are given as follows:
– File must be saved with .kv extension name and the file name must be in lower
case.
– The filename must match with the name of our main class and our main class
ends with “*App”(lower or upper case).
– File must be saved in the same directory as our Python script.

----------------------------------my.kv---------------------------------
# Filename: my.kv
<MyGrid>:
GridLayout:
cols:2
size: root.width, root.height
GridLayout:
cols:2
122 6 Getting started with Kivy

Label:
text: "Name: "
TextInput:
multinline:False
Label:
text: "Email: "
TextInput:
multiline:False
Button:
text:"Submit"
on_press: app.btn()
------------------------------------------------------------------------
import kivy
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.gridlayout import GridLayout
from kivy.uix.textinput import TextInput
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class MyGrid(Widget):
pass
class MyApp(App): # <- Main Class
def build(self):
return MyGrid()
if __name__ == "__main__":
MyApp().run()

Figures 6.6 and 6.7 show the return Button instance.

6.13.1 Running Kivy application

We can write the displayed code in one file with an extension name .py. For exam-
ple, our file name is hello.py:

#filename hello.py
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.label import Label
 6.13 Anatomy of Kivy 123

Figure 6.6: KIVY example.

class MyFirstApp(App):
def build(self):
return Label(text= "Testing")
MyFirstApp().run()

We can execute our application by using the following command:

$ python hello.py #default python or python2

or
$ python3 hello.py #for python3

To execute the same on Android, we require a different file. We can refer to topic
packaging for Android. After execution, one window will open (Figure 6.8).
124 6 Getting started with Kivy

Figure 6.7: Life cycle of Kivy app.

https://kivy.org/doc/stable/_images/Kivy_App_Life_Cycle.png

6.13.2 Listing and uninstalling Kivy

Sometimes it becomes challenging to use the right version of Kivy because of multi-
ple installations of Kivy versions. In this case, we need to list all the versions in the
system, and then we can uninstall the earlier versions. The given command can be
used to list all the installed Kivy versions into our system:

$ python -c ‘import kivy; print(kivy.__path__)’

[‘/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist/packages/Kivt-1.0.1-py3.7-linux-x86-64.
egg/Kivy’, ‘/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist/packages/Kivt-1.1.1-py3.7-linux
-x86-64.egg/Kivy’, ‘/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist/packages/Kivt-1.1.2-py
3.7-linux-x86-64.egg/Kivy’]
 Summary 125

$ sudo apt remove –purge python-Kivy

Or
$ sudo apt remove –purge python-Kivy-1.0.1

Figure 6.8: KIVY application.

Summary

– Mobile applications are of two types: native and cross-platform. Native applica-
tions are developed only for specific platforms such as Android and iOS, while
cross-platform applications can play across all the operating systems.
– Kivy is an open-source and cross-platform library, which is developed for
Python. It is developed by Kivy organization with the help of project Python for
Android and kivy OS.
– We can design all the compatible device application using Kivy. Kivy applica-
tions are fast in performance (because of Cython). Kivy supports markup lan-
guage that makes application development secure and easy.
126 6 Getting started with Kivy

– Kivy architecture is good to understand its internal mechanism. Examples of

some most popular applications with their description are developed in Kivy
such as Pygame, Pytorch, and so on.
– Kivy comes with Cython, which supports kv language. Kivy is better than
Cordova. Various versions of Kivy are there with their installation system
requirements.
– Configuring and running Kivy application on various platforms such as
Windows, Mac, and Linux. Cython installation is done to generate optimized ex-
ecutable code and enables us to generate all machine-compatible code.
– Event handling in Kivy components, if anything happens like click, double click,
and tapping. We can create EventDispatcher and custom event for components.
– Creating one sample application with its life cycle. The process to run a Kivy
application from the command line. Listing and uninstalling Kivy from the
system.

Key terms

Kivy architecture is essential to understand to develop any Kivy application.

Cython plays a very important role in generating executable codes. Generally,
thing code is not highly optimized by Cython, as it was developed to generate C
language compatible code specific to any machine. Kivy installation and running
application in Python with custom event handling. The custom events can be
created to handle events by the programmer to avoid any mishappening during
execution of the code.

Review questions

1. What is Kivy and its architecture?

2. How to create a custom event handler?
3. What are benefits of using Kivy over Cordova like cross-platform frameworks?
4. What is the main Kivy developed application?
5. What is Cython, and how it is suitable for the program?
6. How to install Cython?
7. What is the life cycle of Kivy application?
 Exercise 127

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. The cross-platform application __________

a) works on Android
b) works on iOS
c) works on Windows
d) works on all operating system

Q.2. Which is not a framework for mobile application development?

a) Kivy
b) Beeware
c) Cordova
d) SQLAlchemy

Q.3. Which of these makes Kivy apps platform independent?

a) GNU
b) OpenGL
c) ASCII
d) ANSI

Q.4. Which is not touch library in Kivy?

a) WM_Touch
b) Multi_Touch
c) HID
d) None of the above

Q.5. Which command is used to uninstall Kivy framework?

a) purge
b) delete
c) kill
d) force close

Q.6. Which is not the command to execute Kivy program?

a) python abc.py
b) python3 abc.py
c) python2 abc.py
d) All of the above

Q.7. What is the main entry point in Kivy app?

a) run()
b) main()
c) MainString()
d) None of the above
128 6 Getting started with Kivy

Q.8. What is the use of cache in Kivy?

a) We can use cache class instead of writing our own class
b) Its exception class
c) Green computing
d) Variable declaration

Q.9. What is the use of kivy.bat?

a) To compile our application
b) To execute our application
c) To manage our application
d) To delete our application

Q.10. What are “wheels” in Kivy?

a) They are prebuild distribution of a package that has already been compiled
and does not require any additional step to install
b) They are car wheels
c) They are is python libraries
d) They are plugins

Answers

Q.1. d) works on all operating system

Q.2. d) SQLAlchemy
Q.3. b) OpenGL
Q.4. c) HID
Q.5. a) purge
Q.6. c) python2 abc.py
Q.7. a) run()
Q.8. c) Green computing
Q.9. b) To execute our application
Q.10. a) They are prebuild distribution of a package that has already been compiled
and does not require any additional step to install

Fill in the blanks

1. Kivy has a powerful support of ______________ algorithms to minimize big oper-

ation. In this channel we support CPU, GPU, TPU, and so on.
2. Every iteration of the loop event generated from______________ is rendered to
display.
3. Kivy helps us to export______________ for each platform for production
environment.
 Exercise 129

4. We can describe our UI with ______________ easily.

5. Inputs are handled by ______________ class.

Answers

1. Cython C level
2. user input, hardware sensors, and frames
3. executable code
4. Kivy language
5. touch()
7 Kivy basics
The only way to learn new programming language is by writing programs in it. ~Dennis Ritchie

7.1 Configuring environment

Kivy is an open source Python library for developing mobile apps and other multi-
touch application software with a Natural User Interface (NUI). There are many
more elements to the Kivi Language. We will learn how to organize elements with
the help of Kivy API. We should be able to display most of the elements available
for GUI design such as Canvas and Page Layout. Many environment variables are
available to control the initialization and behavior of Kivy. It is recommended to
install and use home brew (in Mac) or sudo pip (Ubuntu/other Linux), pip
(Windows) to install Kivy on the Terminal/Command Window in Linux, Mac and
Windows. The given command to restrict text render to the PIL (Pillow Library) im-
plementation. This environment variable must be set before importing Kivy. If we
are using PyCharm then most of the settings are done automatically on the default
Python interpreter. PyCharm is available in two versions: Professional and
Community. The Community version is free while the Professional version requires
license fee to be paid:

$ sudo apt install python #Command for Linux

$ KIVY_TEXT=pil python main.py #Code execute are command
$ brew install python-kivy #Kivy installation on python2
$ pip3 install –-upgrade pip #Upgrade pip version
$ pip install –-upgrade pip #Upgrade pip2
$ pip install python3-kivy #Kivy installation on python3
$ pip install cython #Cython installation to optimize code
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Each and every operating system has a different way to set the path, and it becomes
necessary to set a variable using an environment variable. Therefore, we can go to
set/get an environment variable value not only from the operating system but also
from using a Python script as given in the following code:

import os
os.environ['KIVY_TEXT'] = 'pil'
os.environ['myname']='Tarkesh'
os.environ["KIVY_NO_ARGS"] = "1"
os.environ["KCFG_KIVY_LOG_LEVEL"] = "warning"
os.environ['KIVY_HOME'] = "/home/tarkeshwar/kivy"

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-007
 7.1 Configuring environment 131

print("KIVY_TEXT = ",os.environ['KIVY_TEXT'])
print("myname = ",os.environ['myname'])
print('KIVY_NO_ARGS = ',os.environ['KIVY_NO_ARGS'])
print('KCFG_KIVY_LOG_LEVEL = ',os.environ['KCFG_KIVY_LOG_LEVEL'])
print('KIVY_HOME = ',os.environ['KIVY_HOME'])

----------------------------------output--------------------------------
KIVY_TEXT = pil
myname = Tarkesh
KIVY_NO_ARGS = 1
KCFG_KIVY_LOG_LEVEL = warning
KIVY_HOME = /home/tarkeshwar/kivy
------------------------------------------------------------------------

The above-mentioned variables KIVY_TEXT, KIVY_NO_ARGS, KCFG_KIVY_LOG_

LEVEL and KIVY_HOME are environmental variables that are operated by the system.
These environment variables can be set in various ways in different operating sys-
tems. The best practice in production environment is by programming code. These
environmental variables problematically can be removed too with os.environ.pop
(‘myname’). Following commands can be used to set environment variable:

$ touch ~/.bash_profile; open ~/.bash_profile # command to open bash shell

profile in linux

in the resulting window, we need to add new environment variable, as we can see
in the given file

$export MONGO_PATH=/Users/admin/Downloads/mongodb-osx-x86_64-4.0.6/bin
$export PATH=$PATH:$MONGO_PATH/bin
$export name=Tarkeshwar
$export PATH=$PATH:/Users/admin/Downloads/mongodb/bin./anaconda3/etc/pro-
file.d/conda.sh
$added by Anaconda3 2018.12 installer
$>>> conda init >>>
#!! Contents within this block are managed by 'conda init' !!
__conda_setup="$(CONDA_REPORT_ERRORS=false '/anaconda3/bin/conda' shell.
bash hook 2> /dev/null)"
if [ $? -eq 0 ]; then
\eval "$__conda_setup"
else
if [ -f "/anaconda3/etc/profile.d/conda.sh" ]; then
. "/anaconda3/etc/profile.d/conda.sh"
132 7 Kivy basics

CONDA_CHANGEPS1=false conda activate base

else
\export PATH="/anaconda3/bin:$PATH"
fi
fi
unset __conda_setup
$<<< conda init <<<

Then we use command source ~/.bash_profile to apply all the settings without re-
starting or if we want to restart our PC it is up to us. The same can be implemented
in Linux as well by using the following command:

$ vi ~/.bashrc

After adding this environmental variable, in the resulting file we can return back
with saving our file, by pressing:wq. After restarting our machine, things will ap-
pear or we can reload settings by:

source ~/.bashrc

In windows, the environment variable can be set as a temporary or permanent variable

too. Temporary variable can be set by the following command at the command line:

c:\>set path= “c:/Program Files/java/jdk1.8.1/bin”

c:\>set path= “c:/Program Files/kivy/bin”
 7.1 Configuring environment 133

Figure 7.1: Setting environment variable in PC.

134 7 Kivy basics

If we are willing to set the environment variable as permanent then we need to

right-click on My Computer (This PC)→ Properties→

Figure 7.2: System property of PC.

Advanced system settings →

 7.1 Configuring environment 135

Figure 7.3: Setting environment variable in PC.

Environment Variable →
136 7 Kivy basics

Figure 7.4: System environment variable in PC.

System Variable(System Wide) / User Variable (For Logged in User Only) →

 7.1 Configuring environment 137

Figure 7.5: Adding program path.

Path. Finally, clicking on edit to make changes in the existing one, we can create
new variables. The machine needs to be rebooted to use these environment varia-
bles to be replaced in the system. environment
138 7 Kivy basics

Figure 7.6: List of environment variable in PC.

Let us see the example sample program that uses scroll view. The scroll view is
one of the commonly used layouts to scroll options; we will be creating one scroll
view to navigate option easily. Displayed options are from the associated one excel
data.xlsx file:

import kivy
kivy.require('1.0.8')
import openpyxl
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.scrollview import ScrollView
from kivy.uix.gridlayout import GridLayout
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
 7.1 Configuring environment 139

from kivy.app import runTouchApp

class AllApp(App):
layout = BoxLayout(orientation='horizontal')
layout_questions = GridLayout(cols=1, size_hint=(None, None),
width=400, height=5500)
def get_questions(self, subject):
print(subject)
wb = openpyxl.load_workbook('data.xlsx')
sheet = wb[subject]
data = []
for row in range(2, sheet.max_row + 1):
question = sheet.cell(row=row, column=1).value
data.append(question)
return self.add_questions(data)
def add_questions(self, data):
self.layout_questions.clear_widgets()
for question in data:
question = Button(text=question, size=(480, 40), size_hint=(1,
None))
self.layout_questions.add_widget(question)
def build(self):
layout_subjects = GridLayout(cols=1, size_hint=(None, None),
width=400, height=1000)
subjects = ['Logic Building', 'SQL Server', 'Advanced Excel',
'Programming in Java', 'HTML5, CSS, JavaScript, JQuery', 'Web Development
using Servlet and JSP', 'Android Development using Java', 'Hibernate, Spring
and JSF', 'Application Testing using JUnit ', 'Programming using C#', 'Web de-
velopment using .Net Framework', 'Cross Platform app for Microsoft
PlayStore', 'distributed application with .net framwork', 'Machine Learning
using python', 'Big Data using R and Python']
subjects_d = {}
for subject in subjects:
subjects_d[subject] = subject
print(subjects_d)
for k, v in subjects_d.items():
k = Button(text=v, size=(480, 40), size_hint=(1, None))
k.bind(on_press=lambda k: self.get_questions(k.text))
layout_subjects.add_widget(k)
root = BoxLayout()
scroll_subject = ScrollView(size_hint=(1, 1))
scroll_question = ScrollView(size_hint=(1, 1))
root.add_widget(self.layout)
140 7 Kivy basics

self.layout.add_widget(scroll_subject)
scroll_subject.add_widget(layout_subjects)
self.layout.add_widget(scroll_question)
scroll_question.add_widget(self.layout_questions)
# runTouchApp(scroll_subject)
# runTouchApp(scroll_question)
return root
if __name__ == '__main__':
AllApp().run()

Figure 7.7: Scroll view display.

7.2 Configure Kivy and how to import Kivy library

Core tasks like opening window displaying images and text, playing audio and video,
capturing images from the camera, spelling correction, make API both easy to use
and extend. Configuration file for Kivy is named config.ini, and it adheres to the
standard INI format. The location of the file is controlled by the environment variable
KIVY_HOME. Sometimes it is desired to change the configuration only for certain
 7.2 Configure Kivy and how to import Kivy library 141

applications or during testing of a separate part of Kivy such as input provider. We

can create a separate configuration file using the given command as follows:

$ <HOME_DIRECTORY>/.kivy/config.ini

When we want to have a separate environment for garden, Kivy logs, and other
things, we need to change the KIVY_HOME environment variable in our application
to get the desired result. After doing this, the folder becomes like kivy local folder:

from kivy.config import Config

Config.read('config.ini')
# set config
Config.write()

---------------------------------config.ini-----------------------------
[kivy]
keyboard_repeat_delay = 300
keyboard_repeat_rate = 30
log_dir = logs
log_enable = 1
log_level = info
log_name = kivy_%y-%m-%d_%_.txt
window_icon =
keyboard_mode =
keyboard_layout = qwerty
desktop = 1
exit_on_escape = 1
pause_on_minimize = 0
kivy_clock = default
default_font = ['Roboto', 'data/fonts/Roboto-Regular.ttf', 'data/fonts/
Roboto-Italic.ttf', 'data/fonts/Roboto-Bold.ttf', 'data/fonts/Roboto-
BoldItalic.ttf']
log_maxfiles = 100
window_shape = data/images/defaultshape.png
config_version = 21
[graphics]
display = -1
fullscreen = 0
height = 600
left = 0
maxfps = 60
multisamples = 2
142 7 Kivy basics

position = auto
rotation = 0
show_cursor = 1
top = 0
width = 800
resizable = 1
borderless = 0
window_state = visible
minimum_width = 0
minimum_height = 0
min_state_time = .035
allow_screensaver = 1
shaped = 0
[input]
mouse = mouse
[postproc]
double_tap_distance = 20
double_tap_time = 250
ignore = []
jitter_distance = 0
jitter_ignore_devices = mouse,mactouch,
retain_distance = 50
retain_time = 0
triple_tap_distance = 20
triple_tap_time = 375
[widgets]
scroll_timeout = 250
scroll_distance = 20
scroll_friction = 1.
scroll_stoptime = 300
scroll_moves = 5
[modules]
[network]
useragent = curl
------------------------------------------------------------------------

7.3 First app

Kivy depends on many libraries such as pygame, PIL, and gstreamer. As per system
requirement, these libraries can be downloaded from their website or we can use
pip command to install any library. Kivy application is very easy to create, we just
 7.3 First app 143

have to keep in mind some of the rules such as sub-classing of the App class, imple-
menting its build() function so it returns a widgets instance and instantiating the
class and calling its run() function. Given code will pop up a black background with
one button with text “I can Display information over Screen.” A piece of code
uses one of these specific APIs to talk to the operating system. The advantage of
using specialized core provider for each platform is that we can fully leverage the
functionality exposed by the operating system. This makes easier to port Kivy to an-
other platform especially Android. It supports all the input devices such as Apple
trackpad, mouse emulator, TUIO, and so on. The starting Python module for all
Kivy applications should be named as main.py so that build tool can deploy auto-
matically to mobile platform. As we see in the given example:

import kivy
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.label import Label
kivy.require("1.0.6")

class LabelTestingApp(App):
def build(self):
return Button(text='I can Display information over Screen')

if __name__ == '__main__':
LabelTestingApp().run();

Figure 7.8: Label demo.

144 7 Kivy basics

In the above-mentioned example, we have used Python object orientation, but the
same given application can be developed using kv language too. Kv language is a
markup language like HTML. It is referred to as kvlang. We can design good-looking
screens using it. UI files should be saved as application class name along with .kv ex-
tension name. In the above-mentioned example, application class name is
LabelTesting, which should be written as labeltesting or labelTesting. So the file
name will be like this labeltesting.kv. The Kivy file contains property in the form of
key-value pair. If value is string, then it must be enclosed by double or single quotes.

import kivy
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.label import Label
kivy.require("1.0.6")
class LabelTestingApp(App):
pass
if __name__ == '__main__':
LabelTestingApp().run();
-------------------------------labeltesting.kv--------------------------
#filename labelTesting.kv or labeltesting.kv
Button:
text:"I can Display information over Screen"
------------------------------------------------------------------------

One kv file can contain many components see in this code.

from kivy.app import App

class HelloApp(App):
pass

if __name__=="__main__":
HelloApp().run()

----------------------------------hello.kv------------------------------
#filename hello.kv
BoxLayout:
orientation:"vertical"
Button:
text:'Button1'
Button:
text:'Button2'
Button:
text:'Button3'
 7.3 First app 145

Figure 7.9: Multiple button demo.

By default, BoxLayout renders its child components horizontally(left to right), and

orientation can be changed to vertical (top to bottom). KV parser is responsible to
compile kv file. In case any error is found in it then it will raise ParseException
that must be handled in production environment. The given exception is raised by
traceback along with its line number in kv file.

7.3.1 Widgets

Widgets are used to describe any user interface (UI) element such as Label, Button, text
input, file chooser, and tabbed boxes, and the layouts are used to layout these GUI com-
ponents such as BoxLayout, GridLayout, and FloatLayout. If we are looking to create
our own widget, just by extending that particular widget we can make our own imple-
mentation. “Any component can contain any other,” can be achieved by using indenta-
tion in kv language. Outer most boxes are known as root widget; only one root widget
is possible in one kv file. In the above-mentioned code, Button is the root widget.
Kivy widgets can be categorized as follows:

UX widgets – Classical UI widgets, ready to be assembled to create more complex

widgets such as Label, Button, CheckBox, Image, Slider, Progress Bar, Text Input,
Togge Button, Switch, and Video.
146 7 Kivy basics

Layout – A layout widget does no rendering but just acts as a trigger that arranges
its children in a specific way. Examples of Layouts are Anchor Layout, Box Layout,
Float Layout, and Grid Layout.

Complex UX widgets – Nonatomic widgets are the result of combining multiple

classic widgets. Its assembly and usages are not as generic as the classic widgets
such as Bubble, Drop-down List, File Chooser, Popup, spinner, Recycler View,
Tabbed Panel, Video Player, and Vkeyboard.

Behavior widgets – These widgets do not render but act on the graphics instructions
or interaction(touch) behavior of the children such as Scatter, Stencil View, and so on.

Screen manager – Screen manager manages the screens and transitions when
switching from one to another screen. Such as screen manager.

7.3.2 Custom widgets

We can create custom widget that encapsulates all of the required components as a
single component. Inheritance provides capability by inheriting all the parent state
and behavior. All the inherited state and behavior can be overridden according to
requirement in the child class:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.widget import Widget

class MyCustomForm(Widget):
pass
class MyApp(App):
def build(self):
return MyCustomForm()

if __name__=="__main__":
MyApp().run()

-----------------------------------my.kv--------------------------------
#filename my.kv
<MyCustomForm@BoxLayout>:
orientation:"vertical"
BoxLayout:
orientation:"vertical"
Button:
text:'Add'
Button:
 7.4 Orientation horizontal and vertical 147

text:'Remove'
FileChooserListView:
id:filechooser
#item_strings:["Tarkeshwar","Swapnil","Anand","Devendra"]
BoxLayout:
orientation:"vertical"
TextInput:
hint:'Address'
multiline:False

Figure 7.10: Custom widget.

MyCustomForm is a root widget. The @ symbol in Kv language indicates that class

is extending BoxLayout using inheritance, which creates it as BoxLayout and angle
bracket telling that it is a new class rule and not a root widget.

7.4 Orientation horizontal and vertical

Kivy creates an impressive amount of screen just using simple object-oriented code.
BoxLayout arranges children in a vertical and horizontal box. The position widgets
are above/below each other in vertical box. To position widgets next to each other we
use a horizontal BoxLayout. In the given example, we have used 10 pixels spacing
between children. The first button covers 70% of the horizontal space and second
one 30% of available space. If orientation is vertical x, right and center_x will be
used and if orientation is horizontal y, top and center_y. The size_hint uses the avail-
able space after subtracting all the fixed-size widgets. First button will be 200px wide
and rest according to the available space. Let us see the sample code:

btn1 = Button(text=‘Hello’, size=(200, 100), size_hint=(None,None))

btn2 = Button(text=‘Kivy’, size_hint=(.5, 1))
btn3 = Button(text=‘World’, size_hint=(.5, 1))

--------------------------------Example---------------------------------
import kivy.uix.boxlayout
import kivy.uix.textinput
import kivy.uix.label
import kivy.uix.button
148 7 Kivy basics

from kivy.app import App

class SimpleApp(App):
def build(self):
self.textInput = kivy.uix.textinput.TextInput()
self.label = kivy.uix.label.Label(text="Your Message.")
self.button = kivy.uix.button.Button(text="Click Me.")
self.button.bind(on_press=self.displayMessage)
self.boxLayout = kivy.uix.boxlayout.BoxLayout(orientation="vertical")
self.boxLayout.add_widget(self.textInput)
self.boxLayout.add_widget(self.label)
self.boxLayout.add_widget(self.button)
return self.boxLayout

def displayMessage(self, btn):

self.label.text = self.textInput.text

if __name__ == "__main__":
simpleApp = SimpleApp()
simpleApp.run()

Figure 7.11: Orientation vertical.

Let us see another program that uses horizontal orientation for its component:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.uix.button import Button
class MainApplication(App):
def build(self):
layout = BoxLayout(orientation='horizontal')
btn1 = Button(text='Hello')
 7.4 Orientation horizontal and vertical 149

btn2 = Button(text='World')
layout.add_widget(btn1)
layout.add_widget(btn2)
return layout

if __name__ =='__main__':
MainApplication().run()

Figure 7.12: Orientation horizontal.

7.4.1 size-hint, pos_hint

There are plenty of problems one may face during rendering UI. The size_hint and
position_hints are partially working, depending on the orientation. This is very
easy to handle in kv language. If orientation is vertical vertical X and center_x will
be used or Y top and center_y will be used. A horizontal BoxLayout will always
make its children the same height as itself, no matter what the child widget re-
quests. Child widget can make two types of size hint and absolute size, for each
type of request, properties are X and Y dimension. All the given code in this book
are valid for both Python versions but for the best result. A tested environment is
given in the following example:

----------------------------------boxtest.kv----------------------------
# Filename: boxtest.kv
BoxLayout:
150 7 Kivy basics

orientation: 'vertical'
Label:
text: 'this on top'
Label:
text: 'this right aligned'
size_hint_x: None
size: self.texture_size
pos_hint: {'right': 1}
Label:
text: 'this on bottom'

--------------------------code with kv language---------------------------

from kivy.app import App
class boxtestApp(App):
pass

if __name__=='__main__':
boxtestApp().run()

Figure 7.13: Component alignment.

 7.4 Orientation horizontal and vertical 151

The given orientation can be used to apply with horizontal and vertical. Let us have
a look on the given code:

--------------------------App with python code----------------------------

from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.uix.button import Button

class MainApplication(App):
def build(self):
layout = BoxLayout(orientation='vertical')
btn1 = Button(text='Hello', size=(200, 100), size_hint=(None, None))
btn2 = Button(text='Kivy', size_hint=(.5, 1))
btn3 = Button(text='World', size_hint=(.5, 1))
layout.add_widget(btn1)
layout.add_widget(btn2)
layout.add_widget(btn3)
return layout

if __name__ =='__main__':
MainApplication().run()

Figure 7.14: Vertical component alignment.

152 7 Kivy basics

The size_hint is a proportional measure. If the three widgets have the same size_hint,
they will be the same size. If one widget size_hint is twice as big as another widget,
then it will be rendered at double the size. The size of widget is calculated based on
the sum of the size_hint value for all the widgets. A single widget with a size_hint of
1 has no meaning unless we also know that its child widgets have a size_hint of 2 or
0.5. default value for size-hint is 1.0. We can disable it too just by setting None to it.
For example, size-hint=(None, None). And other possible options are 1 cm, 0.75 in,
and 50 dp to set the size. Going with relative rendering is always a good practice be-
cause various devices such as retina display and pixel can be three times.

7.4.2 pos_hint

post_hint plays a very important role to position any UI component, in absence of

this, it is called dumb positioning. Components are rendering repeatedly because
their current position is initializing point (0, 0), which is the bottom left corner and
buttons default size is (100, 100). Let us see in given example:

import kivy
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
kivy.require("1.0.6")

class HelloApp(App):
def build(self):
root = Widget()
b1 = Button(text='Button-1')
b2 = Button(text='Button-2')
root.add_widget(b1)
root.add_widget(b2)
return root

# HelloApp().run()
if __name__ == '__main__':
HelloApp().run();
 7.4 Orientation horizontal and vertical 153

Figure 7.15: Button position 2D.

With the above-mentioned example, we study how to place a button, but some
times in the industry it requires to place a button over and over. Then the following
example will be useful:

import kivy
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
kivy.require("1.0.6")

class HelloApp(App):
def build(self):
root = Widget()
b1 = Button(text='Button-1', pos=(root.width,root.height))
b2 = Button(text='Button-2',pos=(200,200))
root.add_widget(b1)
root.add_widget(b2)
return root

# HelloApp().run()
if __name__ == '__main__':
HelloApp().run();
154 7 Kivy basics

Figure 7.16: Button position overlapping.

7.4.3 FileChooser

If we want to choose files in the UI, Kivy provides widgets to do so using file
chooser. We can display and browse files systems. It is one of the widgets, it sup-
ports Model view control design pattern. It can be customized according to our re-
quirement. Let us see in the given code:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.floatlayout import FloatLayout
from kivy.factory import Factory
from kivy.properties import ObjectProperty
from kivy.uix.popup import Popup
import os
class LoadDialog(FloatLayout):
load = ObjectProperty(None)
cancel = ObjectProperty(None)

class SaveDialog(FloatLayout):
save = ObjectProperty(None)
text_input = ObjectProperty(None)
cancel = ObjectProperty(None)

class Root(FloatLayout):
loadfile = ObjectProperty(None)
 7.4 Orientation horizontal and vertical 155

savefile = ObjectProperty(None)
text_input = ObjectProperty(None)

def dismiss_popup(self):
self._popup.dismiss()

def show_load(self):
content = LoadDialog(load=self.load, cancel=self.dismiss_popup)
self._popup = Popup(title="Load file", content=content,
size_hint=(0.9, 0.9))
self._popup.open()

def show_save(self):
content = SaveDialog(save=self.save, cancel=self.dismiss_popup)
self._popup = Popup(title="Save file", content=content,
size_hint=(0.9, 0.9))
self._popup.open()

def load(self, path, filename):

with open(os.path.join(path, filename[0])) as stream:
self.text_input.text = stream.read()
self.dismiss_popup()

def save(self, path, filename):

with open(os.path.join(path, filename), 'w') as stream:
stream.write(self.text_input.text)
self.dismiss_popup()

class Editor(App):
pass

Factory.register('Root', cls=Root)
Factory.register('LoadDialog', cls=LoadDialog)
Factory.register('SaveDialog', cls=SaveDialog)
if __name__ == '__main__':
Editor().run()

-------------------------------editor.kv--------------------------------
#:kivy 1.1.0
#filename editor.kv
Root:
text_input: text_input
background:1,0,0,1
BoxLayout:
orientation: 'vertical'
BoxLayout:
156 7 Kivy basics

size_hint_y: None
height: 30
Button:
text: 'Load'
on_release: root.show_load()
Button:
text: 'Save'
on_release: root.show_save()
BoxLayout:
TextInput:
id: text_input
text: ''
RstDocument:
text: text_input.text
show_errors: True
<LoadDialog>:
BoxLayout:
size: root.size
pos: root.pos
orientation: "vertical"
FileChooserListView:
id: filechooser
BoxLayout:
size_hint_y: None
height: 30
Button:
text: "Cancel"
on_release: root.cancel()
Button:
text: "Load"
on_release: root.load(filechooser.path, filechooser.selec-
tion)
<SaveDialog>:
text_input: text_input
BoxLayout:
size: root.size
pos: root.pos
orientation: "vertical"
FileChooserListView:
id: filechooserr
on_selection: text_input.text = self.selection and self.selec-
tion[0] or ''
 7.4 Orientation horizontal and vertical 157

TextInput:
id: text_input
size_hint_y: None
height: 30
multiline: False
BoxLayout:
size_hint_y: None
height: 30
Button:
text: "Cancel"
on_release: root.cancel()
Button:
text: "Save"
on_release: root.save(filechooser.path, text_input.text)
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Figure 7.17: File chooser.

158 7 Kivy basics

7.5 super, padding, __init__, add_widget

Padding is the space widget box and children; it can be defined in pixel such as
padding_left, padding_right, padding_top, padding_bottom. To set all padding we
can use only padding too, then the given padding will be applicable to all padding.
It can accept two parameters too, which means horizontal and vertical.

7.5.1 Super

Super keyword is used to call any parent class state and behavior. Let us see in the
given code where Vehicle is a parent class and Car, Bus, Bike are child classes. All
the child classes are inheriting all parent class properties. However, these properties
are being overridden and we call some properties (like constructor, functions and
variables) from the child class using super keyword:

class Vehicle(object):
def __init__(self, model, max_speed):
self.model = model
self.max_speed = max_speed
self.speed = 0

def accelerate(self, speed_difference):

self.speed += abs(speed_difference)
self.speed = min(self.speed,self.max_speed)

def slow_down(self, speed_difference):

self.speed -= abs(speed_difference)
self.speed = max(self.speed,-5)

def __str__(self):
return " "+self.model+" "+str(self.max_speed)

def show_status(self):
print("Vehicle is ",self.model, "Its speed is ",str(self.speed),-
" km/h")
class Car(Vehicle):
pass
 7.5 super, padding, __init__, add_widget 159

class Bus(Vehicle):
def slow_down(self, speed_difference):
super().slow_down(speed_difference)
self.speed=max(self.speed,0)

class Bike(Vehicle):
def __init__(self, name,max_speed):
max_speed=min((max_speed,30))
super().__init__(name,max_speed)

def slow_down(self, speed_difference):

super().slow_down(speed_difference)
self.speed=max(self.speed,0)

def show_status(self):
print("Bike is ",self.model, "Its speed is ",str(self.speed)," km/h")

bmw=Car("BMW-X6",300)
print(bmw)
bmw.max_speed=400
bmw.model="BMW-X7"
print(bmw.speed)
bmw.accelerate(30)
print(bmw.speed)
bmw.slow_down(5)
print(bmw.speed)

-----------------------------------output-------------------------------
BMW-X6 300
0
30
25

7.5.2 __init__

“init” stands for initialization. It is used to create user-defined constructor in the

class. By default, all the classes have one default and zero parameterized con-
structor. This constructor is being created by the interpreter at runtime. To create
our own constructor, init will help us. After creating customized constructor, inter-
preter will not create any constructor. In the first code we have given details about
160 7 Kivy basics

default constructor and in the second code customized constructor. dir function is
used to list all the information about a object. Let us see in the given code:

class Person:
def __str__(self):
return "Name : "+str(self.name)+" Address : "+str(self.address)+" Phone
: "+ str(self.phone)
print (dir(Person))

------------------------------------output----------------------------
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__',
'__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__',
'__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__se-
tattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Let us see one more example by calling class parameterized constructor and over-
riden function __str__ function:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name="No Name",address="No Address", phone =
"00000000"):
self.name = name
self.address = address
self.phone = phone

def __str__(self):
return "Name : "+str(self.name)+" Address : "+str(self.address)+"
Phone : "+ str(self.phone)

person1=Person()
person2=Person("Tarkeshwar")
person3=Person("Tarkeshwar", "Monrovia")
person4=Person("Tarkeshwar", "Monrovia", "334423424")
print("Person1 ",person1)
print("Person2 ",person2)
print("Person3 ",person3)
print("Person4 ",person4)

print (dir(Person))

----------------------------------output--------------------------------
Person1 Name : No Name Address : No Address Phone : 00000000
Person2 Name : Tarkeshwar Address : No Address Phone : 00000000
 7.5 super, padding, __init__, add_widget 161

Person3 Name : Tarkeshwar Address : Monrovia Phone : 00000000

Person4 Name : Tarkeshwar Address : Monrovia Phone : 334423424
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__',
'__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__',
'__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__se-
tattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
------------------------------------------------------------------------

7.5.3 add_widget

add_widget is used to all view (such as Button, Text, Radio, FileChooser etc.) into
the layout (such as BoxLayout, AnchorLayout, and GridLayout). Let us see the
example:

import kivy.uix.boxlayout
import kivy.uix.textinput
import kivy.uix.label
import kivy.uix.button
from kivy.app import App
class SimpleApp(App):
def build(self):
self.textInput = kivy.uix.textinput.TextInput()
self.label = kivy.uix.label.Label(text="Your Message.")
self.button = kivy.uix.button.Button(text="Click Me.")
self.button.bind(on_press=self.displayMessage)
self.boxLayout = kivy.uix.boxlayout.BoxLayout(orientation="vert-
ical")
self.boxLayout.add_widget(self.textInput)
self.boxLayout.add_widget(self.label)
self.boxLayout.add_widget(self.button)
return self.boxLayout

def displayMessage(self, btn):

self.label.text = self.textInput.text

if __name__ == "__main__":
simpleApp = SimpleApp()
simpleApp.run()
162 7 Kivy basics

Figure 7.18: add_widget function.

Summary

– Configuring development environment is the first and basic step. There are var-
ious operating systems available, according to the operating system its installa-
tion is different too.
– Environmental variable plays a very important role during any configuration.
We can use them into production environment on various platforms such as
Windows, Linux, and Mac.
– Every Python written code file is known as module and Python supports write
once and read many. This means we need to write our code only one time, and
it can be used multiple times using import keyword.
– By default, it imports entire model code, but if we want a specific one than we
can do by selecting one piece of code.
– Python supports Kv language too. Kv language is a markup language; using it
we can create difficult UI within short period. We have created out first Kivy
application using Python and Kv language.
 Review questions 163

– If mobile device user rotates its screen, then the mobile device needs to reload
its UI again. This situation is known as orientation change. Kivy application sup-
ports both horizontal and vertical orientation. Default orientation is vertical.
– Position of the each and every component is fixed by machine because every
device is different, to handle this condition we have size and pos hint. size_hint
and pos_hint assures same type of screen rendered in all the devices.
– Super keyword is used to call properties from parent class.
– Padding is the space left between two or more than two components. Padding
can be inherited from parent to child or directly to the child.
– Programmer can create their own customized widgets by inheriting, and prop-
erties can be modified by constructor too at the time of creating of object.
– add_widget id is used to add components to a layout instance. Any layout and
any component can hold instances.

Key terms

Every Python code written code Python file is known as module and Python sup-
ports write once and read many, by default Python program imports entire model
code but if we want specific code only then we can do by selecting one piece of
code. Kv language is a markup language; using it we can create difficult UI within
short period of time. If mobile device user rotates its screen, then the device needs
to reload its UI again. This situation is known as orientation change. Default orien-
tation is vertical. Position of the each and every component is fixed by machine be-
cause every device is different, to handle this condition we have size_hint and pos
hint. These assure same type of screen rendered in all the devices. Super keyword is
used to call properties from parent class. Padding is the space left between two or
more than two components. Padding can be inherited from parent to child or di-
rectly to the child.

Review questions

1. What is the synonym of Python source file?

2. How to import module path from os package?
3. What is the major difference between Windows and Linux file system to make it
cross-platform?
4. What is the escape sequence for new line and tab character?
5. What do DRY and SQL mean?
6. In which form is data stored inside relational database?
7. Constraints are usually applied to which part of a database?
164 7 Kivy basics

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. What is the command to install Kivy __________?

a) brew
b) pip
c) sudo pip
d) All of the above

Q.2. Which of the following environment variables must be set before importing
Kivy __________?
a) KIVY_HOME
b) JAVA_HOME
c) HOME
d) PYTHON_HOME

Q.3. Which of these versions of PyCharm is available free of cost __________?

a) PyCharm Professional
b) PyCharm Home
c) PyCharm Community
d) PyCharm Enterprise

Q.4. Which function of the os module is used to remove environment

variable__________?
a) os.environ.pop(‘myname’)
b) os.environ.popitem()
c) os.environ.remove(‘myname’)
d) os.environ.clear(‘myname’)

Q.5. Which file controls the configuration of our application __________?

a) Config.ini
b) requirements.txt
c) gitignore
d) LICENSE

Q.6. What is Kv language __________?

a) It is markup language
b) It is based on the HTML language
c) It is java language
d) It is Python language

Q.7. Which is not a widget __________?

a) Button
b) BoxLayout
 Exercise 165

c) FileChooser
d) Tabbed box

Q.8. By which OOP concept we can create own customized widget __________?
a) Encapsulation
b) Abstraction
c) Polymorphism
d) Inheritance

Q.9. How would you inherit in Kv language __________?

a) CustomClass~ParentClass
b) CustomClass$ParentClass
c) CustomClass@ParentClass
d) CustomClass^ParentClass

Q.10. What is the purpose of __init__ keyword __________?

a) Creating function
b) Creating variable
c) Creating constructor
d) Static constructor

Answers

Q.1. d) All of the above

Q.2. a) KIVY_HOME
Q.3. c) PyCharm Community
Q.4. a) os.environ.pop(‘myname’)
Q.5. a) config.ini
Q.6. a) It is markup language
Q.7. b) BoxLayout
Q.8. d) Inheritance
Q.9. c) CustomClass@ParentClass
Q.10. c) Creating constructor

Fill in the blanks

1. Configuration file for Kivy is named _______________.

2. In Kivy logs and other things, we will need to change the _______________ envi-
ronment variable in our application to get the desired result.
3. _______________ supports all the input devices such as Apple trackpad, mouse
emulator, and TUIO.
166 7 Kivy basics

4. UI files should be saved as application class name along with _______________

extension name.
5. A horizontal _______________ will always make its children the same height as
itself, no matter what child widget requests.

Answers

1. config.ini
2. KIVY_HOME
3. Kivy language
4. .kv
5. BoxLayout
8 Layouts

Python has been important part of Google since the beginning and remains so as the system
grows and evolves. Today dozens of Google engineers use Python, and we are looking for more
people with skill in this language. ~Peter Norvig

8.1 What is the layout

Layouts are user rearrange user interface (UI) components, it is possible to calculate
the component position and size. However, it is more convenient to use it from a ma-
chine because every machine is unique. Any layout widget does not render but it acts
as a trigger that arranges its children in a specific way. Any layout can be nested. It is
a special kind of widget that handles size and position of its child widgets. Various
types of layouts have various ways to manage their child widgets. Almost all of them
support the orientation of the screen like horizontal and vertical; when we change
the orientation of mobile, they again draw over the screen. The same layout can be
used in both orientations, but we can design different layouts too for another orienta-
tion to maintain better view rendered over the screen. size_hint indicates the size rel-
ative to the layout’s size instead of absolute size. Values should be provided in the
percentage-based tuple.

8.2 Box layout

Box layout arranges widgets in an adjacent way to fill all the available space. Its
properties are size_hint, pos_hint. size_hint_y and size_hint_x it:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.properties import ListProperty
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class RootWidget(BoxLayout):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(RootWidget, self).__init__(**kwargs)
self.add_widget(Button(text='btn1'))
cb = CustomBtn()
cb.bind()
self.add_widget(cb)
self.add_widget(Button(text='btn2'))
def btn_pressed(self, instance, pos):

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-008
168 8 Layouts

print ('pos: printed from root widget: {pos}'.format(pos=pos))

class CustomBtn(Widget):
def _local_func(instance, pos):
pressed = ListProperty([0, 0])
def on_touch_down(self, touch):
if self.collide_point(*touch.pos):
self.pressed = touch.pos
return True
return super(CustomBtn, self).on_touch_down(touch)
def on_pressed(self, instance, pos):
print ('pressed at {pos}'.format(pos=pos))
class TestApp(App):
def build(self):
return RootWidget()
if __name__ == '__main__':
TestApp().run()

Figure 8.1: Vertical orientation.

 8.2 Box layout 169

Let us see another example:

#filename LoadDialog.kv
BoxLayout:
size:root.size
pos:root.pos
orientation:"vertical"
FileChooserListView:
size_hint:.6,.70
pos:0,100
id:filechooser
BoxLayout:
#size_hint_y:200
height:10
Label:
color:1,0,0,1
size_hint:.35,.10
background_color:0,1,1,1
font_size:50
pos:0,0
text:"Custom"
Button:
color:1,0,0,1
size_hint:.35,.10
background_color:0,1,1,1
font_size:50
pos:600,300
text:"Cancel"
on_release:root.cancel()
Button:
background_color:0,1,1,1
text:"Load"
font_size:50
color:0,1,0,1
size_hint:.35,.10
pos:600,400
on_release:root.load(filechooser.path, filechooser.selection)
orientation:"vertical"
TextInput:
size_hint:.5,.1
background_color:0,1,1,1
font_size:40
170 8 Layouts

font_color:1,0,1,1
pos:400,0

--------------------------------Main Program-----------------------------
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.floatlayout import FloatLayout
class LoadDialog(FloatLayout):
def load(self,filename):
print(filename)
def cancel(self):
pass
class LoadDialogApp(App):
pass
LoadDialogApp().run()

Figure 8.2: Box layout demo.

8.3 Float layout

It allows locating a child with arbitrary location and size, and it can be absolute or
relative to the layout size. Default value is size_hint(1, 1) for every child. In case of
more than one child, we can set size_hint=None and pos_hint=None, which
means the machine will render components in absolute placing:
 8.3 Float layout 171

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.lang import Builder
root=Builder.load_string('''
FloatLayout:
canvas.before:
Color:
rgba:0,1,0,1
Rectangle:
pos:self.pos
size:self.size
Button:
text:'Click Me'
text_size:self.size
font_size:'50sp'
markup:True
size_hint:.5,.5
pos_hint:{'center_x':.5,'center_y':.5}
''')

class MainApplicationApp(App):
def build(self):
return root
MainApplicationApp().run()

Figure 8.3: Float layout demo by internal KV.

172 8 Layouts

Let us see another example:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.graphics.context_instructions import Color
from kivy.graphics.vertex_instructions import Rectangle
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.floatlayout import FloatLayout
class RootWidget(FloatLayout):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(RootWidget,self).__init__(**kwargs)
self.add_widget(Button(text="Click Me", size_hint=(.5,.5),
pos_hint={'center_x':.5,'center_y':.5}))
class MainApp(App):
def build(self):
self.root=root=RootWidget()
root.bind(size=self._update_rect, pos=self._update_rect)
with root.canvas.before:
Color(0,1,0,1)
self.rect=Rectangle(size=root.size, pos=root.pos)
return root

def _update_rect(self,instance,value):
self.rect.pos=instance.pos
self.rect.size=instance.size
MainApp().run()

Figure 8.4: Float layout.

 8.3 Float layout 173

Let us see another code with external kv file:

#filename FloatTest.kv
FloatLayout:
Button:
text:"Button1"
pos:100,100
size_hint:.2,.4
Button:
text:"Button2"
pos:200,200
size_hint:.4,.2
Button:
text:"Button3"
pos_hint:{'x':.3,'y':.6}
size_hint:.5,.2
------------------------------------------------------------------------
from kivy.app import App
class FloatTestApp(App):
pass
FloatTestApp().run()

Figure 8.5: Float layout with buttons.

174 8 Layouts

Let us see one more example:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.floatlayout import FloatLayout
from kivy.uix.gridlayout import GridLayout
from kivy.uix.image import Image, AsyncImage
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.textinput import TextInput
class LoginScreen(FloatLayout):
def on_touch_down(self, touch):
for child in self.children[:]:
if child.dispatch('on_touch_down', touch):
return True
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(LoginScreen, self).__init__(**kwargs)
self.cols=1
self.add_widget(Image(source="dog.png"))
self.add_widget(AsyncImage(source="dog.png"))
self.add_widget(Label(text="User Name",font_size=40,
pos_hint={'x':0.12,'y':0.15},
pos=(200,200),
size_hint=(0,1),
color=(0.9,0.8,0,1)))
self.username = TextInput(multiline=False,font_size=40,
pos_hint={'x':0.3,'y':0.6},
pos=(1,1),
size_hint=(0.6,0.1))
self.add_widget(self.username)
self.add_widget(Label(text="Password",font_size=40,
pos_hint={'x':0.11,'y':0.010},
pos=(200,100),
size_hint=(0,1),
color=(0.9,0.8,0,1)))
self.password = TextInput(password=True, multiline=False,font_size=40,
pos_hint={'x':0.3,'y':0.45},
pos=(1,1),
size_hint=(0.6,0.1))
self.add_widget(self.password)
self.add_widget(Button(text="Login",font_size=40,
pos_hint={'x':0.1,'y':0.2},
 8.4 Anchor layout 175

pos=(200,100),
size_hint=(0.4,0.2),
color=(0.9,0.8,0,1),
background_color=(0,1,1,1)))
self.add_widget(Button(text="Cancel",font_size=40,
pos_hint={'x':0.5,'y':0.2},
pos=(200,100),
size_hint=(0.4,0.2),
color=(0.9,0.8,0,1),
background_color=(0,1,1,1)))
class MyFirstAppApp(App):
def build(self):
return LoginScreen()
if __name__ == "__main__":
MyFirstAppApp().run()

Figure 8.6: Float layout example.

8.4 Anchor layout

Anchor layout allows arranging the child at a position relative to the border of the
layout. size_hint is not valid here. It only cares for its children position. This posi-
tion is relative to a border(left, right, top, bottom, center) of the layout. By default,
it is “center” for both X and Y where x is horizontal, and y is vertical. As we can see
in this code:
176 8 Layouts

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.properties import ListProperty
from kivy.uix.anchorlayout import AnchorLayout
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class RootWidget(AnchorLayout):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(RootWidget, self).__init__(**kwargs)
cb = CustomBtn()
cb.text="Hello"
cb.bind()
self.add_widget(cb)
self.add_widget(Button(text='Button',
font_size=40,
pos_hint={'x':0.2,'y':0.2},
pos=(200,100),
size_hint=(0.5,0.2),
color=(0.9,0.8,0,1),
background_color=(0,1,1,1)))
def btn_pressed(self, instance, pos):
print ('pos: printed from root widget: {pos}'.format(pos=pos))
class CustomBtn(Widget):
#super.height = 10
#super. width = 10
pos = 100,100
text="Custom Button"
def _local_func(instance, pos):
instance.pressed = ListProperty([0, 0])
def on_touch_down(self, touch):
if self.collide_point(*touch.pos):
self.pressed = touch.pos
return True
return super(CustomBtn, self).on_touch_down(touch)
def on_pressed(self, instance, pos):
print ('pressed at {pos}'.format(pos=pos))
class TestApp(App):
def build(self):
return RootWidget()
if __name__ == '__main__':
TestApp().run()
 8.4 Anchor layout 177

Figure 8.7: Anchor layout example.

Let us see another code:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.anchorlayout import AnchorLayout
from kivy.uix.button import Button
class MyAnchorApp(App):
def build(self):
layout = AnchorLayout(anchor_x="left", anchor_y="center")
btn = Button(text='Hello World',
font_size=40,
pos_hint={'x':0.2,'y':0.2},
pos=(200,100),
size_hint=(0.5,0.2),
color=(0.9,0.8,0,1),
background_color=(0,1,1,1))
layout.add_widget(btn)
return layout
if __name__=="__main__":
MyAnchorApp().run()
178 8 Layouts

Figure 8.8: Anchor layout.

8.5 Grid layout

Grid layout is used to layout UI components in rectangular/tabular/grid format in

specified rows and columns, a group that places its child screens in a rectangular
grid that can be scrolled. We must specify at least one dimension of the grid so Kivy
can compute the size of the element and decide how to arrange them. Let us see the
given code:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.gridlayout import GridLayout
from kivy.uix.image import Image
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.textinput import TextInput
class LoginScreen(GridLayout):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(LoginScreen, self).__init__(**kwargs)
self.cols=1
self.add_widget(Image(source="dog.png"))
self.add_widget(Label(text="User Name"))
self.username = TextInput(multiline=False)
self.add_widget(self.username)
self.add_widget(Label(text="password"))
 8.5 Grid layout 179

self.password = TextInput(password=True, multiline=False)

self.add_widget(self.password)
self.add_widget(Button(text="Login"))
self.add_widget(Button(text="Cancel"))
class MyFirstAppApp(App):
def build(self):
return LoginScreen()
if __name__ == "__main__":
MyFirstAppApp().run()

Here GridLayout class is used as a base class for root widget; we have overloaded the
method __init__(), to add widget and add defined behavior. This thing is achieved by
super method. The resulting screen is completely responsive, it means it will arrange
UI components according to the available space. This is because of size hinting.

Figure 8.9: Grid layout.

180 8 Layouts

We can see the same example by kv language too:

import kivy
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.gridlayout import GridLayout
from kivy.uix.textinput import TextInput
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class MyGrid(Widget):
pass
class MyApp(App): # <- Main Class
def build(self):
return MyGrid()
if __name__ == "__main__":
MyApp().run()

----------------------------------my.kv---------------------------------
# Filename: my.kv
<MyGrid>:
GridLayout:
cols:1
size: root.width, root.height
GridLayout:
cols:2
Label:
text: "Name: "
TextInput:
multinline:False
Label:
text: "Email: "
TextInput:
multiline:False
Button:
text:"Submit"
on_press: app.btn()
 8.6 Relative layout 181

Figure 8.10: Grid layout demo.

8.6 Relative layout

Just like the Float layout, excluding positions are related to layout, not the screen.
It allows to set relative coordinates for widgets. It supports the absolute positioning
of the component. The child widget coordinates remain 0, 0 as they are always rela-
tive to the parent layout:

from kivy.app import App

class TwoApp(App):
pass
TwoApp().run()

----------------------------------two.kv--------------------------------
BoxLayout:
Label:
text: 'Left'
Button:
text: 'Middle'
on_touch_down: print('Middle: {}'.format(args[1].pos))
RelativeLayout:
on_touch_down: print('Relative: {}'.format(args[1].pos))
182 8 Layouts

Button:
text: 'Right'
on_touch_down: print('Right: {}'.format(args[1].pos))

Figure 8.11: Relative layout.

Figure 8.12: Output in the background.

8.7 Stack layout

It arranges child over each other. It can be used to design games based on image
clicks scrolling bottom and top. This is useful to display child in a predefined size.
We need to fix the size first. It arranges widgets to one another but with a set size in
one of the dimensions, without trying to make them fit within the entire space. It is
useful to display widgets of the same predefined size:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.label import Label
 8.7 Stack layout 183

from kivy.uix.pagelayout import PageLayout

from kivy.uix.stacklayout import StackLayout
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class MainApp(App):
def printme(self,a):
print("Yes Button has been Clicked",a)
a.color = (1, 1, 0, 0)
def printed(self,b):
print("button released",b.text)
def statetest(self,x,y):
print("State Geting Changed")
def colorchange(self,instance):
print("instance ",instance)
instance.color=(1,1,0,0)
def build(self):
btn=Button(text="Click Me",
font_size=30,
color=(1, 0, 0, 1),
size_hint=(0.2,0.2),
background_color=(0, 1, 0, 1))
lbl = Label(text="Good Morning",
font_size=40,
color=(0, 1, 0, 1),
#size_hint=(0.2, 0.2),
#background_color=(0, 0, 1, 1))
lbl.bind(on_press=self.colorchange)
btn.bind(on_press=self.printme,
on_release=self.printed,
state=self.statetest)
layout=StackLayout()
layout.add_widget(btn)
layout.add_widget(lbl)
return layout
if __name__=='__main__':
MainApp().run()
184 8 Layouts

Figure 8.13: Stack layout.

8.8 Page layout

Page layout is entirely different to render layout dynamically. Components are

stacked on each other, they flip through the pages, which means we can see the
first added screen only. Multiple pages can be swaped with each other from left to
right or right to left. Page layout does not support size_hint, size_hint_min, size_-
hint_max, pos_hint:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.pagelayout import PageLayout
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class MainApp(App):
def printme(self,a):
print("Yes Button has been Clicked", a)
def printed(self,b):
print("button released", b.text)
def statetest(self,x,y):
print("State Getting Changed")
def build(self):
btn1 = Button(text="Button",
 8.8 Page layout 185

font_size=40,
color=(1, 0, 0, 1),
size_hint=(0, 0),
background_color=(0, 1, 0, 1))
btn=Button(text="Click Me",
font_size=40,
color=(1, 0, 0, 1),
size_hint=(0,0),
background_color=(0, 1, 0, 1))
lbl = Label(text="Good Morning",
font_size=40,
color=(0, 1, 0, 1),
size_hint=(0.2, 0.2))
btn1.bind(on_press=self.printme,
on_release=self.printed,
state=self.statetest)
layout=PageLayout()
layout.add_widget(btn1)
layout.add_widget(lbl)
layout.add_widget(btn)
return layout
if __name__=='__main__':
MainApp().run()

Figure 8.14: Page layout.

186 8 Layouts

Summary

– Layout is one UI component that instructs the child components to render in

the available space. Each device is unique that makes application UI develop-
ment very difficult.
– Layouts help us to control the rendering of child components. According to the
way of rendering Layouts can be classified in various types. For example,
BoxLayout arranges child components adjacent to the available screen space
according to size_hint, pos_hint. FloatLayout arranges according to the arbi-
trary location of components.
– Float layout uses size_hint, pos_hint as None.
– Anchor layout arranges child components by position related to the border.
– Grid layout locates components by rectangular or grid, it is a combination of
rows and columns.
– The relative layout is alike float layout, but it arranges relatively to parent lay-
out instead of available screen space.
– Stack layout places widgets over each other in predefined size in parent widget.
Page layout stacks screen on each other. These screens are scrollable from left
to right or right to left. The properties like size_hint and pos_hint are not valid
in page layout.

Key terms

Each device is unique that makes application UI development very difficult. According
to the way of rendering, Layouts can be classified in various types. BoxLayout ar-
ranges child components adjacent to the available screen space according to size_hint,
pos_hint. Float layout uses size_hint, pos_hint as None. Grid layout locates compo-
nents by rectangular or grid, it’s a combination of rows and columns. The relative lay-
out is alike float layout, but it arranges relative to parent layout instead of available
screen space. Stack layout places widgets over and over in predefined size in parent
widget. Page layout screens are scrollable from left to right or right to left.

Review questions

1) What is layout?
2) What is the difference between float layout and relative layout?
3) What is the functionality of size_hint and pos_hint?
4) What is page layout? Explain.
5) Difference between stack and page layout.
 Exercise 187

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. Which of the essential device characteristics that we should consider when
we design and develop our application ____________?
a) Screen size and density
b) Devices features
c) Platform version
d) All the above

Q.2. Which of the screen size is not available ____________?

a) Small
b) Normal
c) Large
d) All the available

Q.3. Layouts in Kivy are ____________

a) BoxLayout
b) GridLayout
c) PageLayout
d) All of the above

Q.4. Which layout can be swapped with each other from left to right or right to
left ____________?
a) FloatLayout
b) PageLayout
c) BoxLayout
d) GridLayout

Q.5. Stack layout is used ____________

a) to display child in a predefined size
b) to swap screen
c) to stack over and over
d) all the above

Q.6. Anchor layout position is ____________

a) relative to the available screen space
b) relative to a border(left, right, top, bottom, center) of the layout
c) manually arranging widgets
d) relative to a border left
e) relative to a border(top, bottom, center) of the layout
188 8 Layouts

Q.7. In which layout child components have stacked on each other ____________?
a) StackLayout
b) BoxLayout
c) GridLayout
d) PageLayout

Q.8. Which of the following layout divides the available space between its chil-
dren equally ____________?
a) StackLayout
b) StackLayout
c) BoxLayout
d) GridLayout

Q.9. Which layout allows placing their children in an arbitrary location

____________?
a) BoxLayout
b) GridLayout
c) StackLayout
d) FloatLayout

Q.10. Which layout allows putting the children at a position relative to a border of
the layout ____________?
a) AnchorLayout
b) BoxLayout
c) StackLayout
d) GridLayout

Answers

Q.1. d) All of the above

Q.2. b) Normal
Q.3. d) All of the above
Q.4. b) PageLayout
Q.5. a) to display child in a predefined size
Q.6. b) relative to a border(left, right, top, bottom, center) of the layout
Q.7. d) PageLayout
Q.8. c) BoxLayout
Q.9. d) FloatLayout
Q.10. a) AnchorLayout
 Exercise 189

Fill in the blanks

1. Any layout widget does not render but just acts as a _______________that ar-
ranges its children in a specific way.
2. Box layout arranges widgets in an _______________way to fill all the available
space.
3. Page payout does not support _______________.
4. _______________arranges widgets to one another but with a set size in one of
the dimensions, without trying to make them fit within the entire space.
5. _______________allows arranging the child at a position relative to border of
the layout.

Answers

1. trigger
2. adjacent
3. size_hint, size_hint_min, size_hint_max, pos_hint
4. StackLayout
5. RelativeLayout
9 Designing user interfaces
If you’re talking about Java in particular, Python is about the best fit you can get among all
the other languages. Yet the funny thing is, from a language point of view, JavaScript has lot
in common with Python, but it is a sort of restricted subset. ~Guido Van Rossum

9.1 What is UI (user interface) components

The user interface (UI) components are different types of views that can be used to
design the layout screen for the app. Basically, views are of three types:

Basic views – such as Labels, input text, buttons, image button, checkbox, toggle
button, radio button, and radio group.

Picker view – that enables one to select from the list such as TimePicker and
DatePicker.

List view – displays a long list of items and to select one of them, such as list view
and recycler view.

9.2 Buttons

Buttons are used to perform some task by clicking on them and this action triggers
while the button is pressed/released/clicked/touched. Every button has some spe-
cific properties such as border, font size, font face, font style, and padding:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class MainApp(App):
def printme(self,a):
print("Yes Button has been Clicked")
def printed(self,b):
print("button released")
def build(self):
btn=Button(text="Click Me",
font_size=30,
color=(1, 0, 0, 1),
size_hint=(0.2,0.2),
background_color=(0, 1, 0, 1))

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-009
 9.2 Buttons 191

btn.bind(on_press=self.printme, on_release=self.printed)
return btn
if __name__=='__main__':
MainApp().run()

Figure 9.1: Button demo.

And the same program can be written as follows using Kv language:

#filename main.kv
BoxLayout:
#size: (100, 100)
#size_hint:(None, None)
canvas:
Color:
rgb: 1,0,0
Rectangle:
size: (5,5)
pos: (0,0)
cols: 2
padding : 40,40
spacing: 40, 40
row_default_height: '50dp'
192 9 Designing user interfaces

background_color: 0, .5, .5, 1

orientation:"vertical"
Button:
id:test_btn
text_size: self.size
font_size: 25
text_color:1,0,0,1
on_press: print('Button Clicked')
#on_press: root.display_data(uname.text)
text:"OK"
valign: "middle"
halign: "center"
padding_x: 5
background_color: 0, 1, 1, 1
size_hint_y: None
size_hint_x: None
#height: self.parent.height * 0.120
#width:self.width/2
Button:
id:'cancelbtn'
color:1,0,1,1
canvas:
Color:
rgb: 1,1,0,1
Rectangle:
size: (5,5)
pos: self.pos
text:"Close"
size_hint_y: None
size_hint_x: None
on_press: app.stop()
----------------------------------MainApp-------------------------------
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class MainApp(App):
pass
if __name__=='__main__':
MainApp().run()
 9.3 Labels 193

Figure 9.2: Button example.

9.3 Labels

The label is used to display a piece of information to the user. It acts as the label to
the app, let us have a look on the given code:

import kivy
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.label import Label
kivy.require("1.0.6")
class LabelTestingApp(App):
def build(self):
Window.clearcolor = (0, 1, 0, 1)
return Label(text='I am Label', pos=(0,0), size_hint=(.5,.5), color=
(0,0,1,1),font_size=40)
if __name__ == '__main__':
LabelTestingApp().run();
194 9 Designing user interfaces

Figure 9.3: Label example.

And the same program can be written as follows using Kv language:

#filename main.kv
BoxLayout:
#size: (100, 100)
#size_hint:(None, None)
canvas:
Color:
rgb: 1,0,0
Rectangle:
size: (5,5)
pos: (0,0)
cols: 2
padding : 40,40
spacing: 40, 40
row_default_height: '50dp'
background_color: 0, .5, .5, 1
orientation:"vertical"
Label:
id:test_btn
text_size: self.size
font_size: 25
text_color:1,0,0,1
text:"Label 1"
valign: "middle"
halign: "center"
padding_x: 5
background_color: 0, 1, 1, 1
 9.3 Labels 195

size_hint_y: None
size_hint_x: None
#height: self.parent.height * 0.120
#width:self.width/2
Label:
id:'cancelbtn'
color:1,0,1,1
canvas:
Color:
rgb: 1,1,0,1
Rectangle:
size: (5,5)
pos: self.pos
text:"Label 2"
size_hint_y: None
size_hint_x: None
--------------------------------MainApp---------------------------------
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class MainApp(App):

Figure 9.4: Label with KV.

196 9 Designing user interfaces

pass
if __name__=='__main__':
MainApp().run()

9.4 ListView

ListView is a very important part in GUI programming:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.lang import Builder
from kivy.uix.button import Button
items = [
{"color":(1, 1, 1, 1), "font_size": "20sp", "text": "white", "input_data":
["some","random","data"]},
{"color":(.5,1, 1, 1), "font_size": "30sp", "text": "lightblue", "input_-
data": [1,6,3]},
{"color":(.5,.5,1, 1), "font_size": "40sp", "text": "blue", "input_data":
[64,16,9]},
{"color":(.5,.5,.5,1), "font_size": "70sp", "text": "gray", "input_data":
[8766,13,6]},
{"color":(1,.5,.5, 1), "font_size": "60sp", "text": "orange", "input_data":
[9,4,6]},
{"color":(1, 1,.5, 1), "font_size": "50sp", "text": "yellow", "input_data":
[852,958,123]}
]
class MyButton(Button):
def print_data(self,data):
print(data)
KV = '''
<MyButton>:
on_release:
root.print_data(self.input_data)
RecycleView:
data: []
viewclass: 'MyButton'
RecycleBoxLayout:
default_size_hint: 1, None
orientation: 'vertical'
'''
class Test(App):
 9.4 ListView 197

def build(self):
root = Builder.load_string(KV)
root.data = [item for item in items]
return root
if __name__=="__main__":
Test().run()

Figure 9.5: Button demo.

9.4.1 RecyclerView

When we have to display a lot of information on the screen then we face performance
issues with our device, this thing usually happens when we use ListView. To resolve
this type of problem we have RecyclerView. It displays only a limited amount of re-
cords in recycling mode, meaning it will not create many objects into memory. It is
memory efficient as it loads the contents into the memory according to the size of the
screen while ListView loads all the items into memory that causes performance is-
sues. We can apply animations on recycle view to create an interactive list. It has two
major components View Holder and Adapter. View Holder is responsible to hold
the view and recycle it while the adapter is responsible to hold data into memory to
load on the recycle view holder. It provides a flexible model for viewing selected
data. Its design is based on model view control. Let us see the given code:

from random import sample

from string import ascii_lowercase
198 9 Designing user interfaces

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.lang import Builder
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
kv = """
<Row@BoxLayout>:
canvas.before:
Color:
rgba: 0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 1
Rectangle:
size: self.size
pos: self.pos
value: ''
Label:
text: root.value
<Test>:
canvas:
Color:
rgba: 0.3, 0.3, 0.3, 1
Rectangle:
size: self.size
pos: self.pos
rv: rv
orientation: 'vertical'
GridLayout:
cols: 3
rows: 2
size_hint_y: None
height: dp(108)
padding: dp(8)
spacing: dp(16)
Button:
color:0,1,0,1
font_size:35
background_color:1,0,0,1
text: 'Populate list'
on_press: root.populate()
Button:
color:0,0,1,1
font_size:35
background_color:1,0,0,1
text: 'Sort list'
 9.4 ListView 199

on_press: root.sort()
Button:
color:0,0,0,1
font_size:35
background_color:1,1,.2,1
text: 'Clear list'
on_press: root.clear()
BoxLayout:
spacing: dp(8)
Button:
color:0,1,0,1
font_size:15
background_color:1,0,0,1
text: 'Insert new item'
on_press: root.insert(new_item_input.text)
TextInput:
id: new_item_input
size_hint_x: 0.6
hint_text: 'value'
padding: dp(10), dp(10), 0, 0
BoxLayout:
spacing: dp(8)
Button:
text: 'Update first item'
on_press: root.update(update_item_input.text)
TextInput:
id: update_item_input
size_hint_x: 0.6
hint_text: 'new value'
padding: dp(10), dp(10), 0, 0
Button:
text: 'Remove first item'
color:1,0,0,1
font_size:15
background_color:1,0,0,1
on_press: root.remove()
RecycleView:
color:1,.5,.5,1
id: rv
scroll_type: ['bars', 'content']
scroll_wheel_distance: dp(114)
bar_width: dp(10)
200 9 Designing user interfaces

viewclass: 'Row'
RecycleBoxLayout:
default_size: None, dp(56)
default_size_hint: 1, None
size_hint_y: None
size_hint_x: 1
height: self.minimum_height
#width:self.minimum_width
orientation: 'vertical'
spacing: dp(6)
"""
Builder.load_string(kv)
class Test(BoxLayout):
def populate(self):
self.rv.data = [{'value': ''.join(sample(ascii_lowercase, 20))} for
x in range(100)]
def sort(self):
self.rv.data = sorted(self.rv.data, key=lambda x: x['value'])
def clear(self):
self.rv.data = []
def insert(self, value):
self.rv.data.insert(0, {'value': value or 'No Data'})
def update(self, value):
if self.rv.data:
self.rv.data[0]['value'] = value or 'No New Data'
self.rv.refresh_from_data()
def remove(self):
if self.rv.data:
self.rv.data.pop(0)
class TestApp(App):
def build(self):
return Test()
if __name__ == '__main__':
TestApp().run()
 9.5 Image 201

Figure 9.6: Recycle view.

9.5 Image

In the earlier topics we have learned about various views that are used to display
information in various ways, and some views are used to collect information from
the user. If we want to show an image on the screen, Image view is used:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.image import Image
from kivy.loader import Loader

class TestApp(App):
def _image_loaded(self, proxyImage):
if proxyImage.image.texture:
self.image.texture = proxyImage.image.texture
def build(self):
proxyImage = Loader.image("9.png")
proxyImage.bind(on_load=self._image_loaded)
self.image = Image()
202 9 Designing user interfaces

return self.image
TestApp().run()

Figure 9.7: Image display.

9.6 Events and properties

Properties make it easy to pass updates from Python objects to GUI objects while bind-
ing passes the changes from GUI to Python objects. Let us see in the given example:

----------------------------------main.kv-------------------------------
#filename main.kv
BoxLayout:
size: (500, 500)
size_hint:(None, None)
canvas:
Color:
rgb: 1,0,0
Rectangle:
size: (5,5)
pos: (0,0)
 9.6 Events and properties 203

Widget:
id:wig
pos: (250,250)
canvas:
Color:
rgb: 1,1,1
Rectangle:
size: (5,5)
pos: self.pos
Label:
id: boo
text:"boo"
color: 0,0,1,1
size_hint:(1,1)
pos_hint:{"center_x":1,"center_y":1}
Label:
id: foo
text: "foo"
color: 0,1,0,1
size_hint: (.6,.6)
pos_hint:{"x":1,"y":1}
Label:
id: bar
text:"bar"
color: 1,0,0,1
size:(500,500)
size_hint:(None, None)
pos_hint:{"right":1,"top":1}
pos:100, 10
Button:
text:"goo"
size_hint:0.1,0.1
pos:(1,1)
#some debug info, i know the code is ugly
on_press: print (self.parent.size,'\n', self.parent.right, self.parent.top,
self.parent.x, self.parent.y, self.parent.center_x, self.parent.center_y,
"\n","bar_right_top:", bar.pos,"foo_x_y:", foo.pos,"boo_center:", boo.pos,
"\nwhite square:", wig.pos, "\n", bar.size, foo.size, boo.size)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
204 9 Designing user interfaces

class MainApp(App):
pass
if __name__=="__main__":
MainApp().run()

Figure 9.8: Events.

9.7 Fonts and their properties

By default, Kivy supports a number of fonts, namely, Roboto-Bold, Roboto-BoldItalic,

Roboto-Itelic, Roboto-Regular, RobotoMono-Regular, and DejaVuSans. The list can
be found in the URL: https://github.com/kivy/kivy/tree/master/kivy/data/fonts. Font
is a namespace where multiple fonts are loaded. If a font is missing a glyph needed
to render text, it can fall back to a different font in the same context. The font context
manager can be used to query and manipulate the state of font context while using
the Pango text provider. Font context can be created automatically by widget.

9.8 Popup menu

Popup menu displays the menu below the anchor text if space is available, other-
wise it appears above the anchor text. It disappears if we click outside the popup
menu. Let us see the given code:
 9.8 Popup menu 205

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.popup import Popup
from kivy.lang import Builder
from kivy.uix.button import Button
Builder.load_string('''
<SimpleButton>:
on_press: self.fire_popup()
<SimplePopup>:
id:pop
size_hint: .4, .4
auto_dismiss: False
title: 'Hello world!!'
Button:
text: 'Click here to dismiss'
on_press: pop.dismiss()
''')
class SimplePopup(Popup):
pass
class SimpleButton(Button):
text = "Fire Popup !"
def fire_popup(self):
pops=SimplePopup()
pops.open()

class SampleApp(App):
def build(self):
return SimpleButton()
SampleApp().run()
206 9 Designing user interfaces

Figure 9.9: Popup menu.

9.9 TextInput

TextInput is used to get input in the Python program. Let us see the code:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.textinput import TextInput
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
class ClearApp(App):
def build(self):
self.box = BoxLayout(orientation='vertical', spacing=20)
self.txt = TextInput(hint_text='Your text goes here', size_hint=(1,
1))
self.btn = Button(text='Clear All', on_press=self.clearText, size_-
hint=(1, 1))
self.box.add_widget(self.txt)
self.box.add_widget(self.btn)
return self.box

def clearText(self, instance):

self.txt.text = ''
ClearApp().run()
 9.10 ScrollView 207

Figure 9.10: Text input.

9.10 ScrollView

The ScrollView provides a scrollable view. It can be scrolled on both x axis and y
axis on the screen. Function runTouchApp() is responsible to scrollview touch. Let
us see in the code.

from kivy.base import runTouchApp

from kivy.lang import Builder
root = Builder.load_string(r'''
ScrollView:
Label:
text: 'Mastering Mobile Application Development using Python with
Kivy' * 100
font_size: 30
size_hint_x: 1.0
size_hint_y: None
text_size: self.width, None
height: self.texture_size[1]
''')
runTouchApp(root)
208 9 Designing user interfaces

Figure 9.11: Scroll view.

9.11 Kivy clock

The Kivy clock object is used to schedule a function call after a specific period or
interval. Let us see the given code:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.clock import Clock
class ClockExample(App):
i=0
def build(self):
self.mybtn = Button(text='Number of Calls')
Clock.schedule_interval(self.clock_callback, 2)
return self.mybtn
def clock_callback(self, dt):
self.i += 1
self.mybtn.text = "Call = %d" % self.i
ClockExample().run()
 Summary 209

Figure 9.12: Kivy clock.

Summary
– UI components are views that are used to design responsive and attractive app.
These are of three types: basic view, picker view, and list view.
– Basic views are labels, radio buttons, radio group, input text, buttons, and so on.
– Picker views are date picker and time picker.
– List view is used to display long list, such as ListView and RecyclerView.
– Button is used to trigger some events when it is pressed, released, clicked, or
touched. A button has properties like padding, font face, font style, font size,
and border.
– Label is the way to display information on the app.
– ListView and Recycler View are used to display the long list of data. Recycler
View is the best choice when we have a long list to display.
– Image is used to display any image as asynchronously or synchronously. Every
component has some events and properties to render on the screen.
– Event binding is very important to communicate between Python objects to UI
objects.
– Kivy supports many fonts. A font is a namespace where multiple fonts are
loaded. If a font is missing a glyph needed to render text, it automatically falls
back to the different font in the same context.
– Popup menu is used to anchor text, and it is very eager to display text even
when screen space not available.
– User can provide input text from the input text.
– Scrollview can scroll on both x and y axes.
– Kivy clock is used to schedule a function call after certain period or interval.
210 9 Designing user interfaces

Key terms

Kivy UI components are basic, picker, and list views. Any component of UI fires
events when it is being clicked, touched, pressed, and so on, and these events are
needed to bind with the components. Binding is the way to communicate between
Python objects to GUI components. Kivy clock is responsible to perform some tasks
at a certain time and period. UI scrollable property comes from the scroll view. This
scrolling is available on both axes x and y. The popup menu is eager UI that can be
rendered on the priority over the screen. Kivy supports various fonts to display text
from its loaded context.

Review questions

1. What types of UI components are available in Kivy?

2. How to load context works to render text in a different font?
3. What is the difference between ListView and RecyclerView?
4. How Image and AsyncImage are different?
5. What is event binding in Kivy, and how is it useful in Kivy?
6. What is the difference between basic and picker views?

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. Which is not a type of Kivy component __________?

a) Button
b) List
c) Picker
d) Basic view

Q.2. Which of the following is a list view _____________?

a) Button view
b) Time picker view
c) Recycler view
d) CheckBox view

Q.3. Which of these is a type of label ________________?

a) List View
b) Basic view
c) Picker view
d) None of the above
 Exercise 211

Q.4. Which view is loaded in image view________?

a) Asynchronously
b) Synchronously
c) Do not know
d) All of the above

Q.5. Which is not a button property________?

a) Font style
b) Padding
c) Border
d) None of the above

Q.6. Fonts are loaded from Kivy namespace________

a) single font
b) multiple font
c) only selected font
d) None of the above

Q.7. How event binding is important to Kivy________?

a) To make Kivy program easy
b) To improve application performance
c) To communicate between Python object and GUI components
d) To protect from virus

Q.8. How is Kivy clock useful________?

a) To call set date and time to Kivy application
b) To call a function after a certain period or interval
c) To connect the database on time
d) To connect server

Q.9. Can the scroll view be scrolled on________?

a) x axis
b) y axis
c) z axis
d) Both a and b

Q.10. Which of the UI component can help to get input text from
keyboard________?
a) Button
b) Checkbox
c) Input text
d) Radio button
212 9 Designing user interfaces

Answers

Q.1. a) Button
Q.2. c) RecyclerView
Q.3. b) Basic view
Q.4. b) synchronously
Q.5. d) None of the above
Q.6. b) multiple
Q.7. c) to communicate between Python object and GUI components
Q.8. b) to call a function after a certain period or interval
Q.9. d) Both a and b
Q.10. c) Input text

Fill in the blanks

1. UI components are views that are used to design_______________ app.

1. The main stakeholders of the cloud ecosystem are the _______________.
2. There are two types of list views, namely_______________ and _______________.
3. A button has properties like _______________.
4. Image view loads image _______________ while asyncImage loads_______________.
5. Popup menu is used to_______________ even when space not available.

Answers

1. responsive and attractive

2. ListView, RecyclerView
3. padding and font face border
4. synchronously, asynchronously
5. anchor text
10 UX widgets
My Favorite language for maintainability is Python. It has simple clean syntax, object encap-
sulation, good library support, and optional named parameters. ~Bram Cohen

10.1 ActionBar and slider

ActionBar was introduced for the first time in the 1.8.0 version of Kivy. It is like
Android’s ActionBar, where items are stacked horizontally or vertically. It contains
one ActionView and many ContextualActionView. An ActionView will contain an
ActionPrevious that has title, app_icon, previous_icon properties. An ActionView con-
tains ActionItems, some of them are ActionButton, ActionToggleButton, ActionCheck,
ActionSeparator, and Action Group. When an area becomes too small, widgets are
moved into the ActionOverFlow area.
ActionGroup is used to show ActionItems in the group. ActionView shows an
ActionGroup after other ActionItem. ActionView contains ActionOverflow.
ContextualAction is a subclass of ActionView:

from kivy.base import runTouchApp

from kivy.factory import Factory as F
actionbar = F.ActionBar(pos_hint={'top': 1})
av = F.ActionView(background_color= (1, .5, 0, 1))
av.add_widget(F.ActionPrevious(title='My Action Bar', with_previous=False))
av.add_widget(F.ActionOverflow())
av.add_widget(F.ActionButton(text='Btn0',
icon='atlas://data/images/defaulttheme/audio-volume-low'))
for i in range(1, 10):
av.add_widget(F.ActionButton(text='Btn{}'.format(i)))
ag = F.ActionGroup(text='Group1')
for i in range(11, 15):
ag.add_widget(F.ActionButton(text='Btn{}'.format(i)))

av.add_widget(ag)
actionbar.add_widget(av)
# can't be set in F.ActionView() -- seems like a bug
av.use_separator = True
runTouchApp(actionbar)

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-010
214 10 UX widgets

Figure 10.1: ActionBar demo.

Slider is a scroll bar. It supports horizontal and vertical orientations, min/max values,
and a default value. Kivy supports several slider options for customizing between the
minimum value and maximum value. Kivy also supports several slider options for cus-
tomizing the cursor, cursor image, border, and background to be used in different ori-
entations and regions between the minimum value and the maximum value:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.core.window import Window
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.slider import Slider
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class SliderExample(App):
def build(self):
root=BoxLayout()
Window.clearcolor = (.5, .5, 1, 1)
#root = Widget()
root.add_widget(Button(text="Click Me"))
slider = Slider()
root.add_widget(slider)
#root.clear_widgets()
#remove_widget(slider)
return root
if __name__=='__main__':
SliderExample().run()
 10.2 Checkbox and text on window 215

Figure 10.2: Button and slider.

10.2 Checkbox and text on window

Checkbox is a unique two-state button that can be either checked or unchecked. It

provides single and multiple check options. If used in the group, it becomes radio
button that ensures single selection within available options (see Figure 10.3):

Figure 10.3: Checkbox window.

The checkbox is the part of kivi.uix package, so it can be used in code like the given
code:

from kivy.uix.label import Label

from kivy.uix.checkbox import CheckBox
from kivy.uix.gridlayout import GridLayout
from kivy.graphics import InstructionGroup
from kivy.graphics import Color
from kivy.graphics import Rectangle
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.core.window import Window
class UserInterface(GridLayout):
216 10 UX widgets

def __init__(self, **kwargs):

super(UserInterface, self).__init__(**kwargs)
# Add labels and checkbox
self.cols = 2
self.add_widget(Label(text='Accept License'))
self.cb_roateMode = CheckBox(active=True)
self.add_widget(self.cb_roateMode)
self.lbl_roateMode = Label(text='License Accepted')
self.add_widget(self.lbl_roateMode)
# Change the color of the background to grey
backgroundColor = InstructionGroup()
backgroundColor.add(Color(1, .5, 1, .3))
backgroundColor.add(Rectangle(pos=self.pos, size=(Window.width,
Window.height)))
self.canvas.add(backgroundColor)
# Attach a callback
self.cb_roateMode.bind(active=self.on_roateMode_Active)
# Callback for the checkbox
def on_roateMode_Active(self, checkboxInstance, isActive):
if isActive:
self.lbl_roateMode.text = "License Accepted"
else:
self.lbl_roateMode.text = "License not Accepted"
# App derived from App class
class CheckBoxApp(App):
def build(self):
ux = UserInterface()
return ux
# Run the app
if __name__ == '__main__':
CheckBoxApp().run()

Figure 10.4: Checkbox demo.

 10.2 Checkbox and text on window 217

Text box is used to get input from user; let us see the code:

#:kivy 1.10.0
<CustomLabel@Label>:
text_size: self.size
valign: "middle"
padding_x: 5
<SingleLineTextInput@TextInput>:
multiline: False
<GreenButton@Button>:
background_color: 1, 1, 1, 1
size_hint_y: None
height: self.parent.height * 0.120
UserGroup
GridLayout:
cols: 2
padding : 30,30
spacing: 20, 20
row_default_height: '30dp'
CustomLabel:
text: 'Name'
text_size: self.size
valign: 'middle'
SingleLineTextInput:
id: uname
CustomLabel:
text: 'Address'
text_size: self.size
valign: 'middle'
SingleLineTextInput:
id: uaddress
CustomLabel:
text: 'Phone'
text_size: self.size
valign: 'middle'
SingleLineTextInput:
id: uphone
GreenButton:
text: 'Ok'
on_press: root.display_data(uname.text,uaddress.text,uphone.
text)
218 10 UX widgets

GreenButton:
text: 'Cancel'
on_press: app.stop()
Label:
text: ''
text_size: self.size
valign: 'middle'

---------------------------------MainApp---------------------------------
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.popup import Popup
from kivy.uix.screenmanager import Screen
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.lang import Builder
from kivy.core.window import Window
from kivy.properties import StringProperty
Window.size = (400, 300)
class UserGroup(Screen):
gender = StringProperty("")
def display_data(self, uname,uaddress,uphone):
popup = Popup(title="User Information",
content=Label(text=uname+"\n"+uaddress+"\n"+uphone),
auto_dismiss=False)
popup.open()
class FactUserGroup(App):
def build(self):
self.root = Builder.load_file('test.kv')
return self.root

if __name__ == '__main__':
FactUserGroup().run()
 10.2 Checkbox and text on window 219

Figure 10.5: Text input example.

10.2.1 Toggle button

Toggle button behaves like a checkbox, the only difference is when we click or touch,
it changes its state normal to down. Toggle buttons can also be grouped to make
radio buttons – only one button in a group can be in a downstate. A group name can
be a string or hash-able Python object. Only one choice can be selected at a time.

Figure 10.6: Toggle button.

Let us see the following code:

#from ipywidgets import ToggleButton

from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.anchorlayout import AnchorLayout
220 10 UX widgets

from kivy.uix.button import Button

from kivy.uix.floatlayout import FloatLayout
#import prompt_toolkit.formatted_text
from kivy.uix.gridlayout import GridLayout
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.textinput import TextInput
from kivy.uix.togglebutton import ToggleButton
class MyApp(App):
def build(self):
layout = GridLayout()
layout.padding=1
layout.cols=2
btn = Button(text='Submit')
layout.add_widget(btn)
canclebtn = Button(text='Cancle')
Testbtn = Button(text='Test Button')
layout.add_widget(canclebtn)
layout.add_widget(Testbtn)
parentlayout=GridLayout()
parentlayout.rows=4
upperlayout=GridLayout()
upperlayout.rows=7
name=TextInput()
name.hint_text="Student Name only"
label=Label()
label.text="Student Name"
address = TextInput()
address.hint_text = "Student Address only"
addresslabel = Label()
addresslabel.text = "Student Address"
phone = TextInput()
phone.hint_text = "Student Phone only"
phonelabel = Label()
phonelabel.text = "Student Phone"
btn1 = ToggleButton(text='Male', group='sex',)
btn2 = ToggleButton(text='Female', group='sex', state='down')
btn3 = ToggleButton(text='Third Gender', group='sex')
lowerLayout=GridLayout()
lowerLayout.cols=4
gender = Label()
gender.text = "Gender"
 10.2 Checkbox and text on window 221

lowerLayout.add_widget(gender)
lowerLayout.add_widget(btn1)
lowerLayout.add_widget(btn2)
lowerLayout.add_widget(btn3)
upperlayout.add_widget(label)
upperlayout.add_widget(name)
upperlayout.add_widget(addresslabel)
upperlayout.add_widget(address)
upperlayout.add_widget(phonelabel)
upperlayout.add_widget(phone)
upperlayout.add_widget(lowerLayout)
#upperlayout.add_widget(layout)
parentlayout.add_widget(upperlayout)
#parentlayout.add_widget(lowerLayout)
parentlayout.add_widget(layout)
return parentlayout
if __name__=='__main__':
MyApp().run()

Figure 10.7: Toggle button example.

222 10 UX widgets

10.2.2 TreeView

TreeView is a widget that is used to represent a tree structure. The TreeView always
creates a default root node, based on TreeViewLabel. A TreeView is populated with
TreeViewNode instances, but we cannot use a TreeViewNode directly. We have to
combine it with widgets such as Label and Button. It is currently very basic, sup-
porting a minimal feature set:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.gridlayout import GridLayout
from kivy.uix.scrollview import ScrollView
from kivy.uix.treeview import TreeView, TreeViewLabel
class MyApp(App):
def build(self):
tv = TreeView()
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='My first item'))
tv = TreeView()
oneYear = tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='One Year Program'))
twoYear = tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Two Year Program'))
sixMonth = tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Six Month Program'))
threeMonth = tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Three Month Program'))
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Data Science'), oneYear)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Data Anylytics'), oneYear)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='CCNA'), oneYear)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Python Programming'), threeMonth)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='JavaScript Programming'),
threeMonth)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Mean Stack'), threeMonth)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Web Desine'), sixMonth)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Web Development'), sixMonth)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Graphics Design'), sixMonth)
networking=tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Networking'),twoYear)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-1'), networking)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-2'), networking)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-3'), networking)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-4'), networking)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-5'), networking)
 10.2 Checkbox and text on window 223

software = tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Software'),twoYear)
swsemeste1=tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-1'), software)
swsemeste2=tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-2'), software)
swsemeste3=tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-3'), software)
swsemeste4=tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-4'), software)
swsemeste5=tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Semester-5'), software)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Working Smart with Office and
Internet'), swsemeste1)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Logic Building'), swsemeste1)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='SQL Server 2012'), swsemeste1)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Advanced Excel'), swsemeste1)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Programming in Java'), swsemeste2)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='HTML5 CSS and JavaScript '),
swsemeste2)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='JSP and Servlet'), swsemeste2)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Android'), swsemeste3)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Hibernate Spring and JSF'),
swsemeste3)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='JUnit'), swsemeste3)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='C# Programming'), swsemeste4)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='ASP.Net programming'), swsemeste4)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Cross Plateform Applocation By
HTML-5 CSS and JavaScript'), swsemeste4)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Distribute Application
Development'), swsemeste5)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='ORM'), swsemeste5)
tv.add_node(TreeViewLabel(text='Windows App Development using HTML5
CSS and JavaScript'), swsemeste5)
return tv

if __name__=='__main__':
MyApp().run()
224 10 UX widgets

Figure 10.8: TreeView demo.

10.3 Radio/checkbox button and label management

A checkbox is a unique two-state button that can be either checked or unchecked.

It provides single and multiple check options, if used in the group it becomes a
radio button that ensures single selection within available options, as can be seen
in the snapshot:

---------------------------------test.kv---------------------------------
#:kivy 1.10.0 filename test.kv
<CustomLabel@Label>:
text_size: self.size
valign: "middle"
padding_x: 5
 10.3 Radio/checkbox button and label management 225

<SingleLineTextInput@TextInput>:
multiline: False
<GreenButton@Button>:
background_color: 1, 1, 1, 1
size_hint_y: None
height: self.parent.height * 0.120
UserGroup
GridLayout:
cols: 2
padding : 30,30
spacing: 20, 20
row_default_height: '30dp'
CustomLabel:
text: 'Name'
text_size: self.size
valign: 'middle'
SingleLineTextInput:
id: uname
Label:
text: 'Male'
text_size: self.size
valign: 'middle'
CheckBox:
group: 'check'
id : chk
text: "Male"
on_active:
root.gender = self.text
Label:
text: 'Female'
text_size: self.size
valign: 'middle'
CheckBox:
group: 'check'
text: "Female"
on_active:
root.gender = self.text
GreenButton:
text: 'Ok'
on_press: root.display_data(uname.text)
GreenButton:
text: 'Cancel'
226 10 UX widgets

on_press: app.stop()
Label:
text: ''
text_size: self.size
valign: 'middle'

--------------------------------------mainapp---------------------------
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.popup import Popup
from kivy.uix.screenmanager import Screen
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.lang import Builder
from kivy.core.window import Window
from kivy.properties import StringProperty
Window.size = (400, 300)
class UserGroup(Screen):
gender = StringProperty("")
def display_data(self, uname):
popup = Popup(title=uname, content=Label(text=self.gender),
auto_dismiss=False)
popup.open()

class FactUserGroup(App):
def build(self):
self.root = Builder.load_file('test.kv')
return self.root

if __name__ == '__main__':
FactUserGroup().run()

Labels are used to display information over the screen. It supports ASCII and
Unicode strings too. The size of Label is not affected by the text content and the text
is not affected by the size. In order to control the size, we must specify text_size to
constrain the text. Let us see the following code:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.compat import unichr
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.label import Label
class MainMenu(BoxLayout):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
 10.3 Radio/checkbox button and label management 227

Figure 10.9: Radio button and text box.

super(MainMenu, self).__init__(**kwargs)
self.orientation = 'vertical'
self.background_color=(0,1,0,1)
lb2 = Label(text=u"This is [font=Arial]Unicode[/font] String with
markup\ n"+unichr(178), markup=True, font_size="30sp", color=
(0.5,0,1,1),shorten=True)
lbl = Label(text="[color=ff3322]'This is [b]Bold Markup[/b]
String'[/color]", markup=True,font_size="40sp")
self.add_widget(Label(text='This is Ordinary ANSI UTF-8 String'))
self.add_widget(lbl)
self.add_widget(lb2)

class Test1App(App):
def build(self):
return MainMenu()
if __name__ == "__main__":
Test1App().run()
228 10 UX widgets

Figure 10.10: Display information using label.

10.4 ProgressBar and carousel

The progress bar is used to check the progress of completion with a certain task.
The Progressbar does not have interactive elements and is a display-only widget.
We can visualize the progress of some tasks. Currently, only horizontal mode is
supported:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.progressbar import ProgressBar
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.clock import Clock
from time import sleep
class MainMenu(BoxLayout):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(MainMenu, self).__init__(**kwargs)
self.orientation = 'vertical'
btn = Button(text="Start")
btn.bind(on_release=self.trigger)
 10.4 ProgressBar and carousel 229

self.add_widget(btn)
self.MyList = ('this', 'is', 'a', 'test')
self.i = 0
self.pb = ProgressBar(max=len(self.MyList), value=0)
self.add_widget(self.pb)
def trigger(self, *args):
self.i = 0
self.pb.value = 0
Clock.schedule_interval(self.heavyFunc, 0.1)
def heavyFunc(self, dt):
sleep(0.5)
print(self.MyList[self.i])
self.i += 1
self.pb.value += 1
if self.i >= len(self.MyList):
Clock.unschedule(self.heavyFunc)
print('unscheduled')
class Test1App(App):
def build(self):
return MainMenu()
if __name__ == "__main__":
Test1App().run()

Figure 10.11: Carousel example.

230 10 UX widgets

Kivy clock

Kivy clock allows us to schedule a function call in the future. This function call may
be scheduled once or repeatedly at specified intervals. We can get the time elapsed
between the scheduling and the calling of the callback via dt argument. If the call-
back returns False, the schedule will be canceled and never repeated:

import kivy
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.clock import Clock
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.popup import Popup
from kivy.uix.progressbar import ProgressBar
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
from kivy.properties import ObjectProperty
kivy.require('1.5.1')
class MyWidget(Widget):
progress_bar = ObjectProperty()
def __init__(self, **kwa):
super(MyWidget, self).__init__(**kwa)
self.progress_bar = ProgressBar()
self.popup = Popup(title='Popup',content=self.progress_bar)
self.popup.bind(on_open=self.puopen)
self.add_widget(Button(text='Download', on_release=self.pop))
def pop(self, instance):
self.progress_bar.value = 1
self.popup.open()
def next(self, dt):
if self.progress_bar.value>=100:
return False
self.progress_bar.value += 1
def puopen(self, instance):
Clock.schedule_interval(self.next, 1/25)
class MyApp(App):
def build(self):
return MyWidget()
if __name__ in ("__main__"):
MyApp().run()
 Kivy clock 231

Figure 10.12: Kivy clock.

10.4.1 Custom ProgressBar

To customize a ProgressBar, it requires defining the attribute or properties for the

background and progress of our progress bar. We need to extend Python class as a
child class of ProgressBar class, and then child class will occupy all the properties
of the parent class. In the child class, we can make the required changes that are
not needed from the parent class. We can do the same thing with kv language by
extending child class. There are two types of progress bars – the determinate prog-
ress bar (for a fixed duration) and the indeterminate progress bar (for unknown
duration):

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.progressbar import ProgressBar
from kivy.core.text import Label as CoreLabel
from kivy.lang.builder import Builder
from kivy.graphics import Color, Ellipse, Rectangle
from kivy.clock import Clock
class CircularProgressBar(ProgressBar):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(CircularProgressBar, self).__init__(**kwargs)
232 10 UX widgets

# Set constant for the bar thickness

self.thickness = 60
# Create a direct text representation
self.label = CoreLabel(text="0%", font_size=self.thickness)
# Initialise the texture_size variable
self.texture_size = None
# Refresh the text
self.refresh_text()
# Redraw on innit
self.draw()
def draw(self):
with self.canvas:
# Empty canvas instructions
self.canvas.clear()
# Draw no-progress circle
Color(0.5, 0.50, 0.26)
Ellipse(pos=self.pos, size=self.size)
# Draw progress circle, small hack if there is no progress (an-
gle_end = 0 results in full progress)
Color(1, 1, 0)
Ellipse(pos=self.pos, size=self.size,
angle_end=(0.001 if self.value_normalized == 0 else
self.value_normalized*360))
# Draw the inner circle (colour should be equal to the background)
Color(0, 0, 0)
Ellipse(pos=(self.pos[0] + self.thickness / 2, self.pos[1] + self.
thickness / 2),
size=(self.size[0] - self.thickness, self.size[1] -
self.thickness))
# Center and draw the progress text
Color(1, 1, 1, 1)
Rectangle(texture=self.label.texture, size=self.texture_size,
pos=(self.size[0]/2 - self.texture_size[0]/2, self.
size[1]/2 - self.texture_size[1]/2))
def refresh_text(self):
# Render the label
self.label.refresh()
# Set the texture size each refresh
self.texture_size = list(self.label.texture.size)
 Kivy clock 233

def set_value(self, value):

# Update the progress bar value
self.value = value
# Update textual value and refresh the texture
self.label.text = str(int(self.value_normalized*100)) + "%"
self.refresh_text()
# Draw all the elements
self.draw()
class Main(App):
# Simple animation to show the circular progress bar in action
def animate(self, dt):
if self.root.value < 80:
self.root.set_value(self.root.value + 1)
else:
self.root.set_value(0)
# Simple layout for easy example
def build(self):
container = Builder.load_string(
'''CircularProgressBar:
size_hint: (1, 1)
height: 200
width: 400
max: 50''')
# Animate the progress bar
Clock.schedule_interval(self.animate, 0.1)
return container
if __name__ == '__main__':
Main().run()
234 10 UX widgets

Figure 10.13: Progress bar.

10.4.2 Carousel layout

Carousel can be used to create a slide show. Here, we will have a 1-second delay
between each screen. Carousel widget is the superclass of the root. We are using
the clock as a timer. Root is based on the carousel. The update function runs the
carousel load next function to load the next slide:

from kivy.uix.carousel import Carousel

from kivy.uix.gridlayout import GridLayout
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.lang import Builder
Builder.load_string('''
<Page>:
cols: 3
Label:
text: str(id(root))
Button
Button
Button
Button
text: 'load(page 3)'
on_release:
carousel = root.parent.parent
 Kivy clock 235

carousel.load_slide(carousel.slides[2])
Button
Button
text: 'prev'
on_release:
root.parent.parent.load_previous()
Button
Button
text: 'next'
on_release:
root.parent.parent.load_next()
''')
class Page(GridLayout):
pass
class TestApp(App):
def build(self):
root = Carousel()
for x in range(10):
root.add_widget(Page())
return root
if __name__ == '__main__':
TestApp().run()

Figure 10.14: Carousel.

236 10 UX widgets

All the given code in this book are valid for both Python versions but, for the best
results, tested. Let us see another example of Carousel view:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.carousel import Carousel
from kivy.uix.image import AsyncImage
class CarouselDemo(App):
def build(self):
carouselObject = Carousel(direction='left')
for i in range(10):
imageFile = "pic.png"
asyncImageObject = AsyncImage(source=imageFile)
carouselObject.add_widget(asyncImageObject)
carouselObject.index = 2
return carouselObject

# Start the Carousel App

if __name__ == '__main__':
CarouselDemo().run()

Figure 10.15: AsyncImage with Carousel.

 Kivy clock 237

10.4.3 Scatter

Scatter provides feature to drag and drop over the screen. Scatter has its own matrix
transformation. It is used to build interactive widgets that can be translated, rotated,
and scaled with two or more fingers on a multitouch system. Children’s components
are positioned relative to scatter similarly. Let us see how we can achieve it:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.properties import StringProperty
from kivy.lang import Builder
KV = """
#:import win kivy.core.window
<Picture@Scatter>:
source: None
on_size: self.center = win.Window.center
size: image.size
size_hint: None, None
Image:
id: image
source: root.source
FloatLayout:
Picture:
source: "img/2.png"
Picture:
source: "img/1.png"
"""
class MyApp(App):
def build(self):
return Builder.load_string(KV)
MyApp().run()
238 10 UX widgets

Figure 10.16: Scatter view.

Let us see another example for drag and drop objects:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.scatter import Scatter
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.floatlayout import FloatLayout
class TutorialApp(App):
def build(self):
f = FloatLayout()
s = Scatter()
l = Label(text="Drag and Drop Me",
font_size=150)
f.add_widget(s)
s.add_widget(l)
return f
if __name__ == "__main__":
TutorialApp().run()
 10.5 Canvas 239

Figure 10.17: Drag and drop.

10.5 Canvas

Canvas is the root object for drawing by a widget. It uses the performance of the
graphics engine by drawing a large number of small dots. Canvas is available to all
widgets. When we create a widget, we can create all the instructions required for
drawing. For more information, we can refer to the documentation:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.lang import Builder
kv = '''
BoxLayout:
orientation: 'vertical'
BoxLayout:
size_hint_y: None
height: sp(100)
BoxLayout:
orientation: 'vertical'
Slider:
id: e1
min: -360.
max: 360.
Label:
text: 'angle_start = {}'.format(e1.value)
BoxLayout:
orientation: 'vertical'
Slider:
id: e2
min: -360.
max: 360.
240 10 UX widgets

value: 360
Label:
text: 'angle_end = {}'.format(e2.value)
BoxLayout:
size_hint_y: None
height: sp(100)
BoxLayout:
orientation: 'vertical'
Slider:
id: wm
min: 0
max: 2
value: 1
Label:
text: 'Width mult. = {}'.format(wm.value)
BoxLayout:
orientation: 'vertical'
Slider:
id: hm
min: 0
max: 2
value: 1
Label:
text: 'Height mult. = {}'.format(hm.value)
Button:
text: 'Reset ratios'
on_press: wm.value = 1; hm.value = 1
FloatLayout:
canvas:
Color:
rgb: 1, 1, 1
Ellipse:
pos: 100, 100
size: 200 * wm.value, 201 * hm.value
source: '9.png'
angle_start: e1.value
angle_end: e2.value
'''
class CircleApp(App):
def build(self):
return Builder.load_string(kv)
CircleApp().run()
 10.6 AsyncImage 241

Figure 10.18: Canvas.

We must keep in mind a few things before using canvas:

1) Canvas is not the space in which we paint like HTML5 canvas.
2) It is a set of instructions not like bitmap image(.bmp) or vector images (GIF,
PNG images).
3) Widgets share the same coordinate space, not the same canvas. No special
space is being provided to the canvas.
4) Color is an exception because of PushMatrix and PopMatrix do not have an ef-
fect over the Color.
5) The instruction execution order follows a traversal order.
6) Drawing before the children with canvas.before.
7) Drawing after the children with canvas.after.

10.6 AsyncImage

Image and AsyncImage both are used to display an image over the screen.
AsyncImage is used to load image asynchronously, and it is useful as it prevents
our application from waiting until the image is loaded. If we want to display a large
image or retrieve them from URLs, using AsyncImage will allow these resources to
be retrieved on a background thread without blocking our application, and image
242 10 UX widgets

by default is centered and fits inside the widget binding box. If we do not want that
we can set allow_stretch to True and keep_ratio to False, we can inherit from Image
and create our own style, as shown in the following code:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.image import AsyncImage
from kivy.lang import Builder
Builder.load_string('''
<CenteredAsyncImage>:
size_hint: 0.8, 0.8
pos_hint: {'center_x': 0.5, 'center_y': 0.5}
mipmap: True
''')
class CenteredAsyncImage(AsyncImage):
pass
class TestAsyncApp(App):
def build(self):
url = ('9.png')
return CenteredAsyncImage(source=url)
if __name__ == '__main__':
TestAsyncApp().run()

Figure 10.19: AsyncImage view.

 10.7 Spinner 243

10.7 Spinner

Spinner is alternate to the radio button. It provides a quick way to select one value from
a given set. It displays only a selected value at a time. A spinner can have multiple values
to be selected. Spinner updates its text properties every time attr:values are changed:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.core.window import Window
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.slider import Slider
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class SliderExample(App):
def build(self):
root=BoxLayout()
Window.clearcolor = (.5, .5, 1, 1)
#root = Widget()
root.add_widget(Button(text="Click Me"))
slider = Slider()
root.add_widget(slider)
#root.clear_widgets()
#remove_widget(slider)
return root
if __name__=='__main__':
SliderExample().run()

Figure 10.20: Slider demo.

244 10 UX widgets

10.8 Accordion

An accordion is a form of the menu where the options are stacked either vertically
or horizontally, and the item click opens to display its content. It may contain
plenty of items with individual root content widgets. It has two types – first one
container for the title bar and second another container for the content. Let us have
a look at the example:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.accordion import Accordion
class Accor(Accordion):
pass

class AccorApp(App):
def build(self):
return Accor()
if __name__ == '__main__':
AccorApp().run()

Figure 10.21: Accordion.

 10.9 Switching between two screens 245

# accor.kv file of the Accordion App file

<MyImage@Image>:
keep_ratio: False
allow_stretch: True
<Accor>:
orientation: 'horizontal'
AccordionItem:
title: 'Chestnut'
MyImage:
source: 'pic/chestnut.webp'
AccordionItem:
title: 'Chilly/Pepe'
MyImage:
source: 'pic/chilly.webp'
AccordionItem:
title: 'Coffee Beans'
MyImage:
source: 'pic/coffee.webp'
AccordionItem:
title: 'Fruit'
MyImage:
source: 'pic/fruit.webp'
AccordionItem:
title: 'Grains'
MyImage:
source: 'pic/grains.webp'

10.9 Switching between two screens

Now, we know that we have multiple activities in our app. But these activities have
no use if they are not related or linked to each other. In this section, we will see
how these activities can be linked to each other. Linking two activities means that
we want to pass information from one activity to another activity by click or simple
pass true or false value. In our app, we have two screens and we are switching be-
tween them, as shown in the code:

import kivy
kivy.require('1.9.0')
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.lang import Builder
246 10 UX widgets

from kivy.uix.screenmanager import ScreenManager, Screen

# You can create your kv code in the Python file
Builder.load_string("""
<FirstScreen>:
BoxLayout:
Button:
text: "Click or Swap for Second Screen"
on_press:
# You can define the duration of the change and the direction
of the slide
root.manager.transition.direction = 'left'
root.manager.transition.duration = 1
root.manager.current = 'second_screen'
<SecondScreen>:
BoxLayout:
Button:
text: "Click or Swap for First Screen"
on_press:
root.manager.transition.direction = 'right'
root.manager.current = 'first_screen'
""")
# Create a class for all screens in which you can include
# helpful methods specific to that screen
class FirstScreen(Screen):
pass

class SecondScreen(Screen):
pass
# The ScreenManager controls moving between screens
screen_manager = ScreenManager()
# Add the screens to the manager and then supply a name
# that is used to switch screens
screen_manager.add_widget(FirstScreen(name="first_screen"))
screen_manager.add_widget(SecondScreen(name="second_screen"))
class SwitchingScreenApp(App):
def build(self):
return screen_manager

sample_app = SwitchingScreenApp()
sample_app.run()
 Summary 247

Figure 10.22: Swapping screens.

Summary

– ActionBar is like ActionBar in Android where items are stacked horizontally.

ActionView contains ActonItems, ActionButtons, ActionToggle Buttons,
ActionCheck, ActionSeperator and ActionGroup. It was introduced in Kivy 1.8.0
for the first time.
– Slider is a horizontal or vertical scrollbar. It supports minimum/maximum
value and default value.
– Checkbox is a special two-state button that can be either checked or unchecked.
It provides single (if we are using in the group) and multiple check options (with-
out any group). Group name can be a string or a hash-able Python object.
– Toggle Button is like checkbox the only difference is when we click or touch, it
changes its state normal to down. It can be used in a group to convert into
radio buttons where it ensures only one button can be down at a time.
– The TreeView is used to represent a tree structure. It always creates a default
root node, which is based on TreeViewLabel. A TreeView is populated with
TreeViewNode instances, but we cannot use a TreeViewNode directly. We need
to combine it with widgets like Label and Button.
– Checkbox is a special two-state button that can be either checked or unchecked.
It provides single and multiple check options. If we use it in a group, it becomes
a radio button that ensures single selection within available options.
248 10 UX widgets

– Labels are used to display information over the screen, it supports ASCII and
Unicode strings too. The size of the label is not affected by text content and the
text is not affected by the size.
– The progress bar is used to check the progress of completion with a certain
task. The progress bar does not have interactive elements and is a display-only
widgets. We can visualize the progress of some tasks. Currently, it supports
only horizontal orientation.
– The Kivy clock allows us to schedule a function call in the future. This function
call can be scheduled maybe for once or repeatedly at specified intervals. We
can get the time elapsed between the scheduling and the calling of the callback
via dt argument. If a callback function returns False, it means schedule has
been canceled and will never be repeated.
– The progress bar requires defining the attribute and properties for the back-
ground and progress of our progress bar. We need to extend Python class as a
child class of progress bar class then child class will occupy all the properties
from the parent class. In the child class, we can make the required changes
that are not needed from the parent class. The progress bars are of two types –
determinate progress bar and indeterminate progress bar.
– The Carousel is used to create a slide show. Carousel widget is a superclass of
the root that is based on the carousel. Update function runs the carousel load
next function to load the next slide.
– Scatter is used to drag and drop features over screen. Scatter has its own matrix
transformation. It is used to build interactive widgets that can be translated,
rotated, and scaled with two or more fingers on a multitouch system.
– The canvas is the root object for drawing by a widget. It is not the space in
which we can paint like HTML5 or other canvas. It uses the performance of the
graphics engine by drawing a large number of small dots. Canvas is available
to all widgets. Canvas is a set of instructions in Kivy. All widgets share the
same coordinate space, not the same canvas, means no special space will be
allocated to canvas.
– The Image and asyncImage are used to display image over screen. AysncImage
is used to load Image asynchronously. It is useful as it prevents our application
from waiting till the image is loaded. If we want to display a large image or
retrieve from URLs, using AsyncImage will allow these resources to be retrieved
on background thread without blocking our application. By default, image is
centered and fits inside the widget boundary box. We can avoid this default
behavior by setting allow_stretch=True
– The spinner is an alternate of the radio button. It provides a quick way to select
one value from a given set. It displays only a selected value at a time. A spinner
can have multiple values to be selected. Spinner updates its text properties
every time attr:value is changed.
 Key terms 249

– The accordion is a form of menu where the options are stacked either vertically
or horizontally. The item click opens to display its content. It may contain
plenty of items with individual root content widget. It has two types – first one
container for the title bar and second another container for the content.
– More than one activity can be linked to each other. It requires to pass informa-
tion from one activity to another activity by click or touch. This information
passes through the activities as True or False.

Key terms

The action bar was introduced in Kivy 1.8.0. Action bar contains ActionItems,
ActionButton, ActionToggleButtons, ActionCheck, ActionSeperator, and ActionGroup.
Slider supports orientation horizontal and vertical. A checkbox is a special state button
that can be either checked or unchecked. If the checkbox is being used along with
group, then it turns into a radio button. The checkbox groupname can be a string or
hash-able Python object. Toggle Button is one of them with some different feature that
supports only on/off state. While used in the group, it allows only one selection at a
time. TreeView always creates a default root node, which is based on TreeViewLabel.
A TreeView is populated with TreeViewNode instances but we cannot use a
TreeViewNode directly. We need to combine it with widgets such as labels and but-
tons. Labels are used to display ASCCI and Unicode base string over the screen. The
progress bar is used to check the progress of completion of the task. The progress
bar has no interactive elements. Currently, the progress bar supports only hori-
zontal orientation. Progress bar requires defining the attribute and properties for
the background and progress of our progress bar. Kivy clock allows us to schedule
a function call in the future. This function may be called once or repeatedly at a
certain period. The carousel is used to create a slide show. The scatter is used to
drag and drop features over screen. The scatter has its own matrix transformation,
which is used to build interactive widgets that can be translated, rotated, and
scaled with two or more fingers on a multitouch screen. The canvas is the root
object for drawing by a widget. It is not the space in which we paint like HTML5.
The Image and AsyncImage are used to display images over the screen.
AsyncImage is more efficient than Image because it waits for image loading from
URL. Loading image from URL is a very time-consuming task and still, there is no
guarantee that the image loads successfully. This process is introduced by another
new child thread, it avoids pausing user thread. Spinner is an alternate to the
radio button. It provides a quick way to select one value from a given set. Spinner
can allow multiple values to be selected. An accordion is a form of the menu
where the options are stacked either vertically or horizontally.
250 10 UX widgets

Review questions

1. What is ActionBar and what are its key components?

2. How is slider different from a spinner?
3. What is the major difference between the Checkbox and radio button?
4. What is the difference between toggle button and radio button?
5. How do we create a TextInput code?
6. What is TreeView and how is it useful in designing an app?
7. What is label in Kivy and how do we use ASCII and Unicode in it?
8. How does carousel work? Explain.
9. What is the progress bar and how is it different from slider?
10. What is the use of dt argument in Kivy clock?
11. How do we create a custom progress bar?
12. What is the scatter view?
13. How is canvas different from HTML5 canvas?
14. What is the difference between Image and AsyncImage?
15. How is Spinner better than radio button and toggle button?

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. What is the file extension created for Kivy programming _________________?
a) ky file
b) kb file
c) ki file
d) kv file

Q.2. What is alternate of radio button and toggle button _________________?

a) Spinner
b) Checkbox
c) Radio button
d) Toggle button

Q.3. How many value selections can be made in toggle button _________________?
a) One
b) Many
c) Depends upon the usage implementation in code
d) Do not know
 Exercise 251

Q.4. Accordion view supports which orientation _________________?

a) Horizontal
b) Vertical
c) Horizontal and vertical
d) Neither horizontal nor vertical

Q.5. Which version of kivy had introduced Action bar _________________?

a) 1.7.0
b) 1.8.0
c) 1.8.5
d) 1.8.4

Q.6. A group name can be _________________

a) any string
b) any hash-able object
c) both
d) none of the above

Q.7. TreeView always creates a default _________________

a) TreeViewNode
b) TreeViewLabel
c) root node
d) None of the above

Q.8. If we are using checkbox in a group, then it behaves like _________________

a) toggle button
b) TextInput box
c) Checkbox
d) radio button

Q.9. text_size attribute is used to _____________.

a) support ASCII code
b) control size of the text
c) Size of the label does not get affected by text content
d) support Unicode

Q.10. The update function runs the carousel loads next function to
load___________.
a) first slide
b) last slide
c) previous slide
d) next slide
252 10 UX widgets

Answers

Q.1. d) kv file
Q.2. a) Spinner
Q.3. c) Depends upon the usage implementation in code
Q.4. c) Horizontal and vertical
Q.5. b) 1.8.0
Q.6. c) both
Q.7. c) default root node
Q.8. d) radio button
Q.9. b) control size of the text
Q.10. d) next slide

Fill in the blanks

1. Action bar is like_______________ action bar.

2. The Kivy supports several slider options for customizing between the
_______________.
3. _______________is a special two-state button that can be either checked or
unchecked.
4. _______________changes its state normal to down.
5. TreeView is a widget that is used to represent _______________.

Answers

1. Android’s
2. minimum value and maximum
3. Checkbox
4. Toggle button
5. Cloud resellers
11 Graphics handling
In many ways, it’s a dull language, borrowing solid old concepts from many other languages
and styles: boring syntax, unsurprising semantics, few automatic corrections etc. But that’s
one of the things I like about Python. ~Tim Peters

11.1 Graphics

Using graphics programming we can make our app interactive and attractive. It re-
quires lots of programming efforts. But when we use Python it becomes very easy
as Python provides graphics module. In this example, we are going to draw the
Sierpinski triangle, it is a three-way recursive algorithm. Let us see the following
code:

import turtle
def draw_triangle(points, color, my_turtle):
my_turtle.fillcolor(color)
my_turtle.up()
my_turtle.goto(points[0][0],points[0][1])
my_turtle.down()
my_turtle.begin_fill()
my_turtle.goto(points[1][0], points[1][1])
my_turtle.goto(points[2][0], points[2][1])
my_turtle.goto(points[0][0], points[0][1])
my_turtle.end_fill()

def get_mid(p1, p2):

return ((p1[0] + p2[0]) / 2, (p1[1] + p2[1]) / 2)

def sierpinski(points, degree, my_turtle):

color_map = ['blue', 'red', 'green', 'white', 'yellow', 'violet', 'orange']
draw_triangle(points, color_map[degree], my_turtle)
if degree > 0:
sierpinski([points[0], get_mid(points[0], points[1]), get_mid(points
[0], points[2])], degree-1, my_turtle)
sierpinski([points[1], get_mid(points[0], points[1]), get_mid(points
[1], points[2])], degree-1, my_turtle)
sierpinski([points[2], get_mid(points[2], points[1]), get_mid(points
[0], points[2])], degree-1, my_turtle)

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-011
254 11 Graphics handling

def main():
my_turtle = turtle.Turtle()
my_win = turtle.Screen()
my_points = [[-100, -50], [0, 100], [100, -50]]
sierpinski(my_points, 3, my_turtle)
my_win.exitonclick()
main()

Figure 11.1: The Sierpinski triangle.

In the given code we are going to use recursion. Recursion is the technique of prob-
lem-solving and calling function. In recursion, a function is called by itself again
and again until a given condition is true. Here we break a problem down into
smaller and smaller subproblems until we get to a problem small enough that it can
be solved trivially. Let us see one more example with graphics turtle:

import turtle
my_turtle = turtle.Turtle()
my_win = turtle.Screen()
def draw_spiral(my_turtle, line_len):
if line_len > 0:
my_turtle.forward(line_len)
my_turtle.right(90)
draw_spiral(my_turtle, line_len – 5)

draw_spiral(my_turtle, 200)
my_win.exitonclick()
 11.1 Graphics 255

Figure 11.2: Turtle with recursion.

Fractal tree comes from a branch of mathematics and has much in common with
recursion. The definition of a fractal is that, when we look at it, the fractal has the
same basic concept no matter how much we magnify it. Let us see in the given
code:

import turtle
def tree(branch_len, t):
if branch_len > 5:
t.forward(branch_len)
t.right(20)
tree(branch_len - 15, t)
t.left(40)
tree(branch_len - 15, t)
t.right(20)
t.backward(branch_len)
def main():
t = turtle.Turtle()
my_win = turtle.Screen()
t.left(90)
t.up()
t.backward(100)
t.down()
t.color("green")
tree(75, t)
my_win.exitonclick()
main()
256 11 Graphics handling

Figure 11.3: Fractal tree with turtle.

11.2 Interacting with another framework

Function kivy.support.install_twisted_reactor is used to install a twisted reactor that will

run inside the Kivy event loop, passing argument to this function on thread selected
reactor interleave function. Let us see the code where the server app has a simple
twisted server running and logs messages if any. The client app can send a message to
the server and will print its message and response it got. We will write code into two
different modules, server.py and client.py. Let us see first server-side code:

from kivy.support import install_twisted_reactor

install_twisted_reactor()
from twisted.internet import reactor
from twisted.internet import protocol
class EchoServer(protocol.Protocol):
def dataReceived(self, data):
response = self.factory.app.handle_message(data)
if response:
self.transport.write(response)

class EchoServerFactory(protocol.Factory):
protocol = EchoServer
def __init__(self, app):
self.app = app
------------------------------Twisted Server Code---------------------------
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.label import Label
 11.2 Interacting with another framework 257

class TwistedServerApp(App):
label = None
def build(self):
self.label = Label(text="server started\n")
reactor.listenTCP(8000, EchoServerFactory(self))
return self.label
def handle_message(self, msg):
msg = msg.decode('utf-8')
self.label.text = "received: {}\n".format(msg)
if msg == "ping":
msg = "Pong"
if msg == "plop":
msg = "Kivy Rocks!!!"
self.label.text += "responded: {}\n".format(msg)
return msg.encode('utf-8')
if __name__ == '__main__':
TwistedServerApp().run()

Figure 11.4: Permission popup menu to start server.

258 11 Graphics handling

Figure 11.5: Server started.

Client.py code begins from here:

from kivy.support import install_twisted_reactor

install_twisted_reactor()
# A Simple Client that send messages to the Echo Server
from twisted.internet import reactor, protocol

class EchoClient(protocol.Protocol):
def connectionMade(self):
self.factory.app.on_connection(self.transport)

def dataReceived(self, data):

self.factory.app.print_message(data.decode('utf-8'))

class EchoClientFactory(protocol.ClientFactory):
protocol = EchoClient
def __init__(self, app):
self.app = app
 11.2 Interacting with another framework 259

def startedConnecting(self, connector):

self.app.print_message('Started to connect.')

def clientConnectionLost(self, connector, reason):

self.app.print_message('Lost connection.')

def clientConnectionFailed(self, connector, reason):

self.app.print_message('Connection failed.')

-----------------------------Twisted client code----------------------------

from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.textinput import TextInput
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout

# A simple kivy App, with a textbox to enter messages, and

# a large label to display all the messages received from
# the server
class TwistedClientApp(App):
connection = None
textbox = None
label = None

def build(self):
root = self.setup_gui()
self.connect_to_server()
return root

def setup_gui(self):
self.textbox = TextInput(size_hint_y=.1, multiline=False)
self.textbox.bind(on_text_validate=self.send_message)
self.label = Label(text='connecting. . .\n')
layout = BoxLayout(orientation='vertical')
layout.add_widget(self.label)
layout.add_widget(self.textbox)
return layout

def connect_to_server(self):
reactor.connectTCP('localhost', 8000, EchoClientFactory(self))

def on_connection(self, connection):

self.print_message("Connected successfully!")
self.connection = connection
260 11 Graphics handling

def send_message(self, *args):

msg = self.textbox.text
if msg and self.connection:
self.connection.write(msg.encode('utf-8'))
self.textbox.text = ""

def print_message(self, msg):

self.label.text += "{}\n".format(msg)

if __name__ == '__main__':
TwistedClientApp().run()

Figure 11.6: Server connection with client.

11.3 Modules

The modules are small pieces of codes that help us to write our code easily. These
are Python code written files, known as modules. These are just like an add-on, plu-
gins in a web browser, and any plugin can be added/removed at any moment with-
out affecting the existing one. Some of the classes and modules are needed to start
Kivy applications. They have to be loaded during Kivy application start from the
Kivy path (PATH_TO_KIVY/kivy/modules) and user path (HOME/.kivy/mods), and
a configuration file manages this. Some of the important modules are as follows:
 11.4 Network support 261

1) joycursor – It is a joystick navigator to know the current location in our app.

2) webdebugger – It is like a testing tool to test an app using the web browser.
3) touchring – Its task is to draw a circle around the touched area.
4) monitor – It adds a red top bar that indicates the FPS and a small graph indi-
cating input activity.
5) showborder – It is responsible to display a border around the widget.
6) inspector – It is like an examining tool to test hierarchy and widget properties.
7) screen – It is used to examine the screen resolution and density of various
screens.
8) recorder – It is a sequence of events like record and playback.
9) keybinding – Some keys need to be bound to perform some special tasks such
as screenshot.

To activate these modules, we use configuration file (HOME/.kivy/config.ini), com-

mand line, and Config statement in Python code:

-------------------------------Config.ini--------------------------------
[modules]
showborder =
inspector =
touchring =
monitor =
keybinding =
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
import kivy
kivy.require('1.0.8')
# Activate the monitor, showborder, touchring, inspector module
from kivy.config import Config
Config.set('modules', 'monitor','showborder')

or

$ python configuration.py -m webdegger #to activate web debugger from command

line

11.4 Network support

To communicate over network, Kivy provides UrlRequest to make asynchronous re-

quest on the web and gets the result when the request is complete. The content is
also decoded if the Content-Type is “application/json” and the result is automati-
cally passed to json.loads function:
262 11 Graphics handling

from kivy.network.urlrequest import UrlRequest

def got_json(req, result):
for key, value in result['persons'].items():
print('{}: {}'.format(key, value))
req = UrlRequest('http://localhost:5000/persons', got_json)

In the UrlRequest, the first argument is mandatory and the second one is optional.
By default, it gets the HTTP method, and as per requirement, the method can be
POST, DELETE, PUT, and so on as given in the syntax class:

class kivy.network.urlrequest.UrlRequest(url, on_success=None, on_redirect=None,

on_failure=None, on_error=None, on_progress=None, req_body=None, req_headers=None,
chunk_size=8192, timeout=None, method=None, decode=True, debug=False,
file_path=None, ca_file=None, verify=True, proxy_host=None, proxy_port=None,
proxy_headers=None, user_agent=None, on_cancel=None)

11.5 Storage tool

Storage module is used to store and retrieve any number of key-value pair with in-
dexed key. The access of this module is not available to use directly, and it requires
future version if we are working with Python2 or less than Python3.6. Some of them
are given as follows:
1) kivy.storage.dictstore.DictStore – It is used to store Python dictionaries.
2) kivy.storage.jsonstore.JsonStore – It is used to store JSON files.
3) kivy.storage.redisstore.RedisStore – It uses Redis database to store redis-py.

A dictionary is a collection that is unordered, mutable, and indexed. In Python, dictio-

naries are written with braces, and they have key-value pairs like a map. The dictionary
is stored as data, unlike other data types that hold only a single value as an element.
Using dictionaries data becomes more readable and optimized because of key-value
pairs. Each key-value pair in dictionaries is separated by : (colon) whereas each key is
separated by, (comma). Dictionary’s key can be anything immutable data type like in-
teger, float, string, and tuple. Let us see the code with DictStore:

from kivy.storage.dictstore import DictStore

store = DictStore('myjson.json')
# put some values
store.put('programmer', name='Tarkeshwar Barua',org='BlueCrest University')
 11.5 Storage tool 263

store.put('Trainer', name='Emmanuel Teage', age=34)

# using the same index key erases all previously added key-value pairs
store.put('Network', name='Taddy', age=30) # get a value using a index key and
key
print('Tarkeshwar is', store.get('programmer')['org'])
print('Tarkeshwar is exists', store.exists('programmer'))
store.delete("programmer")
print('Tarkeshwar is exists', store.exists('programmer'))
for item in store.find(name='Emmanuel Teage'):
print('Emmanuel Teage index key is', item[0])
print('his key value pairs are', str(item[1]))

----------------------------------output--------------------------------
Tarkeshwar is BlueCrest University
Tarkeshwar is exists True
Tarkeshwar is exists False
Emmanuel Teage index key is Trainer
his key-value pairs are {'name': 'Emmanuel Teage', 'age': 34}
------------------------------------------------------------------------

JSON stands for JavaScript Object Notation, it is used to store information in

an organized, and easy-to-easy access manner. It is more readable and like
Directory in Python, but dictionaries can be used only in Python while JSON is
cross-platform. It is widely used to transmit data between various devices.
Let us see in the code how to store JSON in kivy Object:

from kivy.storage.jsonstore import JsonStore

store = JsonStore('myjson.json')
# put some values
store.put('programmer', name='Tarkeshwar Barua', org='BlueCrest University')
store.put('Trainer', name='Emmanuel Teage', age=34)
# using the same index key erases all previously added key-value pairs
store.put('Network', name='Taddy', age=30)
# get a value using a index key and key
print('Tarkeshwar is', store.get('programmer')['org'])
print('Tarkeshwar is exists', store.exists('programmer'))
store.delete("programmer")
print('Tarkeshwar is exists', store.exists('programmer'))
for item in store.find(name='Emmanuel Teage'):
print('Emmanuel Teage index key is', item[0])
print('his key value pairs are', str(item[1]))
264 11 Graphics handling

---------------------------------output---------------------------------
Tarkeshwar is BlueCrest University
Tarkeshwar is exists True
Tarkeshwar is exists False
Emmanuel Teage index key is Trainer
his key value pairs are {'name': 'Emmanuel Teage', 'age': 34}
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Redis is an open-source, BSD-licensed, advanced key-value store. It is often re-

ferred to as a data structure server since the keys can contain strings, hashes,
lists, sets, and sorted sets. Redis is written in C language. To store implementa-
tion using Redis, we must have installed redis-py. Let us have a look at the fol-
lowing code:

import redis
pool=redis.ConnectionPool(host='192.168.255.148',port=6379,db=0)
r = redis.Redis(connection_pool=pool)
r.set('foo', 'bar')
print(r.get("foo"))
r.mset({"FirstName": "Tarkeshwar", "LastName": "Barua"})
r.set("Country", "INDIA")
print("FirstName : ", r.get("FirstName"))
print("LastName : ", r.get("LastName"))
print("foo Key : ", r.get("foo"))
print("Country : ", r.get("Country"))
---------------------------------output---------------------------------
b'bar'
FirstName : b'Tarkeshwar'
LastName : b'Barua'
foo Key : b'bar'
Country : b'INDIA'
------------------------------------------------------------------------

11.6 Rotate clock and rotate speed

The Clock Object allows us to schedule a function call in the future, once or repeat-
ably at specified intervals. We can get the time elapsed between the schedule and
the calling of the callback via dt argument. The callback is a weak reference. We are
 11.6 Rotate clock and rotate speed 265

responsible to keep the reference to our original object to execute our callback. The
clock will execute all the callbacks with a timeout of −1 before the next frame even
if we add a new callback with −1 from a running back. The given clock has its itera-
tion limit for callback (default is 10). If we schedule a callback that schedules a call-
back as more then 10 then it will leave the loop and send a warning to the console,
and then continue after the next frame:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.lang import Builder

kv = '''
FloatLayout:

Button:
text: 'Python Kivy'
font_size:35
background_color:1,0,1,1
color:0,1,1,1
size_hint: 1,1
pos_hint: {'center_x': .5, 'center_y': .5}
canvas.before:
PushMatrix
Rotate:
angle: 330
origin: self.center
canvas.after:
PopMatrix
'''

class RotationApp(App):
def build(self):
return Builder.load_string(kv)

RotationApp().run()
266 11 Graphics handling

Figure 11.7: Clocking and rotating object.

11.7 Triggered events

A triggered event is a way to defer a callback. It functions exactly like schedule_once()

and schedule_interval() except that it does not immediately schedule the callback. It
ensures that we can call the event multiple times, but it would not schedule more than
once:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.clock import Clock
from kivy.uix.label import Label
class ClockDemo(App):
count = 0
def build(self):
self.myLabel = Label(text='Count down Start. . .')
self.myLabel.color=1,1,0,1
self.myLabel.font_size=100
 11.7 Triggered events 267

Clock.schedule_interval(self.Callback_Clock, 2)
return self.myLabel

def Callback_Clock(self, dt):

self.count = self.count + 1
self.myLabel.text = str(self.count)

if __name__ == '__main__':
ClockDemo().run()

Figure 11.8: Event trigger.

And unscheduling can be done by the following code:

def my_callback(dt):
pass

# call my_callback every 0.5 seconds

event = Clock.schedule_interval(my_callback, 0.5)
268 11 Graphics handling

# call my_callback in 5 seconds

event2 = Clock.schedule_once(my_callback, 5)

event_trig = Clock.create_trigger(my_callback, 5)
event_trig()

# unschedule using cancel

event.cancel()

# unschedule using Clock.unschedule

Clock.unschedule(event2)

# unschedule using Clock.unschedule with the callback

# NOT RECOMMENDED
Clock.unschedule(my_callback)

All the scheduling and canceling methods are fully thread-safe and can be safely
used from external threads. Kivy clock attempts to execute any schedule callback.

11.8 Animations

Animation and AnimationTransition are used to animate widget properties. We

must specify at least a property name and target value. This animation will last for
1 sec unless duration is specified when anim.start() is called; the widget will move
smoothly from the current position to (100, 100) location. We can animate multiple
properties and use built-in or custom transition functions using transactions. To an-
imate a widget, we can use the following code:

from kivy.animation import Animation

from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.pagelayout import PageLayout
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget

class MainApp(App):
def printme(self,a):
print("Yes Button has been Clicked",a)

def printed(self,b):
print("button released",b.text)

def statetest(self,x,y):
print("State Geting Changed")
 11.8 Animations 269

def build(self):
btn=Button(text="Click Me", font_size=30, color=(1, 0, 0, 1), size_-
hint=(0.2,0.2), background_color=(0, 1, 0, 1))
lbl = Label(text="Good Morning", font_size=40, color=(0, 1, 0, 1),
#size_hint=(0.2, 0.2), #background_color=(0, 0, 1, 1))
btn.bind(on_press=self.printme, on_release=self.printed, state=self.
statetest)
layout=PageLayout()
anim = Animation(x=100, y=100, t="in_quad", duration=2)
anim.start(btn)
anim.start(lbl)
layout.add_widget(btn)
layout.add_widget(lbl)
return layout
if __name__=='__main__':
MainApp().run()

Figure 11.9: Animation with trigger.

270 11 Graphics handling

11.9 Audio

In Kivy we can load and play an audio file. Class SoundLoader.load() will be the
best sound provider for that file type depends upon the different sound file types.
Event can also be handled over sound such as event loop:

#file name audio.kv

<RootScreen>
SoundBoard:
<SoundBoard>
name: 'soundboard'
BoxLayout:
Button:
text: 'click here to play music'
font_size:70
background_color:1,0,0,1
color:1,1,0,1
on_press: root.scotch()
-----------------------------MainApp------------------------------------
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.properties import ListProperty, ObjectProperty, NumericProperty
from kivy.uix.screenmanager import ScreenManager, Screen
from kivy.core.audio import SoundLoader

class SoundBoard(Screen):
def scotch(self):
sound = SoundLoader.load('song.wav')
if sound:
sound.play()
sound.seek(0.00)
print("Sound found at %s" % sound.source)
print("Sound is %.3f seconds" % sound.length)
print("Sound status %s" % sound.status)

class RootScreen(ScreenManager):
pass

class audio(App):
def build(self):
return SoundBoard()
 11.10 Video 271

if __name__ == "__main__":
audio().run()

Figure 11.10: Playing audio.

11.10 Video

In Kivy Video widget is available to display video files and streams. We can con-
trol the entire video such as play, pause, volume, and position. Depending on
our video core provider, platform and plugins, we will be able to play various
formats. The widget can’t be customized much because of the complex assembly
of numerous base widgets. Pygame video provider allows only MPEG1 on Linux
and OSX. GStreamer is moving versatile and can read many video containers and
codes such as MKV, OGV, AVI, MOV, and FLV. Video loading is asynchronous
meaning many properties may not available until the video is loaded. Let us see
the given code:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.videoplayer import VideoPlayer
272 11 Graphics handling

class MyVideoApp(App):
def build(self):
self.player = VideoPlayer(source='video.mkv', state='play', options=
{'allow_stretch': True})
return (self.player)
if __name__ == '__main__':
MyVideoApp().run()

Figure 11.11: Playing video https://kivy.org/doc/stable/api-kivy.uix.videoplayer.html.

Let us see another example to play video with kv language:

#:kivy 1.9.0
<ScreenOne>:
name: "screen1"
ScrollView:
pos_hint: {'bottom':1}
do_scroll_y: True
GridLayout:
name: "screen1"
cols: 1
padding: 0
 11.10 Video 273

spacing: 0
#size_hint: None, None
size_hint_y: None
height: self.minimum_height
Button:
text: "1"
background_color: (0.502, 0, 0.502, 1) if self.state
== 'normal' else (0.502, 0, 0.502, .75)
on_release: root.onNextScreen(self, 'small')
Button:
text: "2"
background_color: (0, 0, 1, 1) if self.state == 'normal'
else (0, 0, 1,.75)
on_release: root.onNextScreen(self, 'sample1')
Button:
text: "3"
background_color: (0.251, 0.878, 0.816, 1) if self.
state == 'normal' else (0.251, 0.878, 0.816,.75)
on_release: root.onNextScreen(self, 'sample2')
Button:
text: "4"
background_color: (0, 0.502, 0, 1) if self.state == 'nor-
mal' else (0, 0.502, 0, .75)
on_release: root.onNextScreen(self, 'sample3')
Button:
text: "5"
background_color: (1, 1, 0, 1) if self.state == 'normal'
else (1, 1, 0, .75)
on_release: root.onNextScreen(self, 'sample4')
Button:
text: "6"
background_color: (1, 0.843, 0,1) if self.state == 'nor-
mal' else (1, 0.843, 0,.75)
on_release: root.onNextScreen(self, 'sample5')
Button:
text: "7"
background_color: (1, 0.647, 0, 1) if self.state == 'nor-
mal' else (1, 0.647, 0, .75)
on_release: root.onNextScreen(self, 'sample6')
Button:
text: "8"
274 11 Graphics handling

background_color: (1, 0.549, 0, 1) if self.state ==

'normal' else (1, 0.549, 0, .75)
on_release: root.onNextScreen(self, 'sample7')
Button:
text: "9"
background_color: (1, 0, 0, 1) if self.state == 'nor-
mal' else
(1, 0, 0, .75)
on_release: root.onNextScreen(self, 'sample8')
<ScreenTwo>:
GridLayout:
name: "ScreenGrid"
pos_hint: {'top': 1}
cols:1
rows:2
ActionBar:
pos_hint: {'top': 1}
height:'100sp'
ActionView:
ActionPrevious:
with_previous: True
on_release: root.onBackBtn()
<Manager>:
id: screen_manager
screen_one: screen_one
screen_two: screen_two
ScreenOne:
id: screen_one
name: 'screen1'
manager: screen_manager
ScreenTwo:
id: screen_two
name: 'screen2'
manager: screen_manager
<VideoPlayer>:
options: {'eos': 'loop'}
allow_stretch:True
<Button>:
height: '100sp'
size_hint_y: None
 11.10 Video 275

------------------------------------MainApp-----------------------------
import kivy
kivy.require('1.9.0')
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.screenmanager import ScreenManager, Screen, NoTransition
from kivy.properties import ObjectProperty
from kivy.uix.videoplayer import VideoPlayer
from kivy.uix.actionbar import ActionBar
from kivy.uix.button import Button

class ScreenTwo(Screen):
def test_on_enter(self, vidname):
#self.add_widget(Button(text="Back"))
self.vid = VideoPlayer(source=vidname, state='play', options={'al-
low_stretch':False, 'eos': 'loop'})
self.add_widget(self.vid)

def on_leave(self):
pass

def onBackBtn(self):
self.vid.state = 'stop'
self.remove_widget(self.vid)
self.manager.current = self.manager.list_of_prev_screens.pop()

class ScreenOne(Screen):
def onNextScreen(self, btn, fileName):
self.manager.list_of_prev_screens.append(btn.parent.name)
self.manager.current = 'screen2'
self.manager.screen_two.test_on_enter('2.mp4')

class Manager(ScreenManager):
transition = NoTransition()
screen_one = ObjectProperty(None)
screen_two = ObjectProperty(None)
screen_three = ObjectProperty(None)

def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):

super(Manager, self).__init__(*args, **kwargs)
# list to keep track of screens we were in
self.list_of_prev_screens = []
276 11 Graphics handling

class Screen_testApp(App):
def build(self):
return Manager()

if __name__ == "__main__":
Screen_testApp().run()

Annotation

Annotations are used to display text at a time and duration. Annotation files are based
on JSON. The player loads it automatically like .kv file. Annotation files are saved with
the extension name “.jsa.” How to do basic file operations like read–write, open file
using built and standard libraries, let us see the syntax:

[
{"start": 0, "duration": 10,
"text": "My First annotation"},
{"start": 1, "duration": 20,
"bgcolor": [0.2, 0.1, 0.3, 0.4],
"text": "background color changible"}
]

Summary

– Graphics make our app interactive and attractive. Python provides graphics
module to do so.
– The recursion is a way of resolving problem where we break a problem down
into smaller and smaller subproblems until we get a problem small enough and
can be solved trivially.
– Fractal tree comes from mathematics and has much in common with recursion.
– Function kivy.support.install_twisted_reactor is used to install a twisted reac-
tor that will run inside the Kivy event loop, passing argument to this function
on thread selected reactor interleave function.
– The modules are small pieces of codes that we write in Python file (.py).
– These have to be loaded during Kivy application. Starting from the Kivy path
(PATH_TO_KIVY/kivy/modules) and user path (HOME/.kivy/mods), this is
managed by a configuration file.
– The Kivy needs some modules to be loaded at the time of execution. Some of
them are joycursor, webdebugger, touchring, monitor, showborder, inspector,
screen, recorder, and keybinding.
 Summary 277

– These modules are associated with file (HOME/.kivy/config.ini) and can be acti-
vated using it.
– The network communication can be established between other devices with
the help of UrlRequest. In the UrlRequest function one first argument is manda-
tory.This function works asynchronously. The function json.loads decodes con-
tent into “application/json.” It supports all the HTTP functions.
– The key-value pair with indexed keys data can be stored and retrieved with the
storage module. It is only available with Python 3.7 and above. The storage
modules are kivy.storage.dictstore.DictStore, kivy.storage.jsonstore.JsonStore,
and kivy.storage.redisstore.RedisStore
– A dictionary is a collection that is unordered, mutable, and indexed. In Python,
dictionaries are written with braces, and they have key-value pairs like a map.
The dictionary stores data, unlike other data types that hold only a single value
as an element. Using dictionaries data becomes more readable and optimized
because of key-value pairs.
– JSON stands for Java Script Object Notation, it is used to store information in
an organized, and easy-to-easy access manner. It is more readable and similar
to Directory in Python, but dictionaries can be used only in Python while JSON
is cross-platform.
– Redis is an open-source, BSD-licensed, advanced key-value store. It is often re-
ferred to as a data structure server since the keys can contain strings, hashes,
lists, sets, and sorted sets. Redis is written in C language. To store implementa-
tion using Redis, we must have installed redis-py.
– The Clock Object allows us to schedule a function call in the future, once or
repeatably at specified intervals. We can get the time elapsed between the
schedule and the calling of the callback via dt argument. The callback is a
weak reference. We are responsible to keep a reference to our original object to
execute our callback.
– A triggered event is a way to defer a callback. It functions exactly like schedu-
le_once() and schedule_interval() except that it does not immediately schedule
the callback. It ensures that we can call the event multiple times, but it would
not schedule more than once.
– Animation and AnimationTransition are used to animate widget properties. We
must specify at least a property name and target value. This animation will last
for 1 sec unless duration is specified when anim.start() is called; the widget will
move smoothly from the current position to 100, 100.
– The class SoundLoader.load() will be the best sound provider for that file type
depends upon the different sound file types. Event also can be handled over
sound such as event loop.
– Kivy Video widget is available to display video files and streams. We can con-
trol the entire video such as play, pause, volume, and position. Depending on
278 11 Graphics handling

our video core provider, platform, and plugins, we will be able to play various
formats.
– Annotations are used to display text at a time and duration. Annotation files
are based on JSON. The player loads it automatically like .kv file. Annotation
files are saved with the extension name “.jsa.”

Key terms

Graphics programming requires lots of effort while we are using graphics module
things become very easy. The recursion is a problem-resolving technique where we
break a problem down into smaller and smaller subproblems until we get to a prob-
lem small enough that it can be solved trivially. The server app is running which
logs messages if any and the client app can send message to the server and will
print message and response to a client. The modules are small pieces of codes that
we write in Python file (.py). They have to be loaded during Kivy application start-
ing from the Kivy path (PATH_TO_KIVY/kivy/modules) and user path (HOME/.kivy/
mods), a configuration file manages this. The Kivy needs some modules to be
loaded at the time of execution. These modules are associated with file (HOME/.
kivy/config.ini) and can be activated using it. The network communication can be
established between other devices with the help of UrlRequest. In the UrlRequest
function, one first argument is mandatory. This function works asynchronously.
The function json.loads decodes content into “application/json.’ It supports GET,
PUT, POST, DELETE, and so on. The key-value pair with indexed keys data can be
stored and retrieved with the storage module. It is only available with Python 3.7
and above. The storage modules are kivy.storage.dictstore.DictStore, kivy.storage.
jsonstore.JsonStore and kivy.storage.redisstore.RedisStore. In the dictionary, each
key-value pair is separated by: (colon) and each key separated by, (comma). The
dictionaries key can be anything immutable data type such as int, string, float, and
tuple. JSON is widely used to transmit data between devices because it is more read-
able and easier to consume and produce. Redis is often referred to as a data struc-
ture server since the keys can contain strings, hashes, lists, sets, and sorted sets.
Redis is written in C language. Store implementation using Redis, we must have in-
stalled redis-py. The Clock Object allows us to schedule a function call in the future,
once or repeatably at specified intervals. We can get the time elapsed between the
schedule and the calling of the callback via dt argument. The callback is a weak
reference. We are responsible to keep a reference to our original object to execute
our callback. A triggered event is a way to defer a callback. It functions exactly like
schedule_once() and schedule_interval() except that it does not immediately sched-
ule the callback. It ensures that we can call the event multiple times, but it would
not schedule more than once. Animation and AnimationTransition are used to ani-
mate widget properties. We must specify at least a property name and target value.
 Exercise 279

The class SoundLoader.load() will be the best sound provider for that file type de-
pends upon the different sound file type. Kivy Video widget is available to display
video files and streams. We can control entire video such as play, pause, volume,
and position. Annotations are used to display text at a time and duration.
Annotation files are based on JSON. The player loads it automatically like .kv file.
Annotation files are saved with the extension name “.jsa.”

Review questions

1. What is the role of the graphics module in Kivy?

2. How do we handle events in Kivy?
3. What is recursion and how can we use it in our program?
4. How are modules useful in programming?
5. What is the difference between the user path and kivy path?
6. Write all the modules that are needed to be loaded at the time of execution.
7. Which file is responsible to activate modules and how would we do that?
8. How to use UrlRequest?
9. List all the storage modules in kivy.
10. What are dictionaries and how are they useful in Kivy object storage?
11. Why is JSON widely used by programmers?
12. What is the Redis server and what is the mechanism to store data at the server?
13. What is a Clock object?
14. How do we handle event triggers?
15. Write a program to design animation.

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. Which is correct format of writing JSON name/value pair ______________?

a) “name”:“value”
b) name=“value”
c) name=‘value’
d) ‘name:value’

Q.2. Which modules are necessary to load at Kivy application start ______________?
a) Keybinding
b) Threading
c) Mouse
d) All of the above
280 11 Graphics handling

Q.3. What is a module in Python ______________?

a) A kivy file
b) A JSON file
c) Graphics annotation file
d) A Python program file

Q.4. What is fractal tree ______________?

a) A tree data structure
b) A plant
c) A big tree
d) Banyan tree

Q.5. Which device does provide positional information ______________?

a) Input devices
b) Output devices
c) Pointing devices
d) Both a and c

Q.6. Which of the problem cannot be resolved using recursion ______________?

a) Problem without base case
b) Length of a string
c) Fibonacci number up to nth position
d) Factorial of a number

Q.7. Which file is responsible for configuration ______________?

a) HOME/.kivy/config.kv
b) HOME/.kivy/config.cnf
c) HOME/.kivy/config.ini
d) HOME/.kivy/config.yml

Q.8. Which is not a storage module?

a) kivy.storage.dictstore.DictStore
b) kivy.storage.redisstore.RedisStore
c) kivy.storage.jsonstore.JsonStore
d) kivy.storage.tuplestore.TupleStore

Q.9. Which HTTP protocol is not supported by UrlRequest function ______________?

a) GET
b) PUT
c) POST
d) All of the above
 Exercise 281

Q.10. What is the extension name associated with annotations ______________?

a) .kv
b) .jsa
c) .py
d) .ipynb

Answers

Q.1. a) “name”:“value”
Q.2. a) Keybinding
Q.3. d) a Python program file
Q.4. a) A tree data structure
Q.5. b) Output device
Q.6. a) Problem without base case
Q.7. c) HOME/.kivy/config.ini
Q.8. d) kivy.storage.tuplestore.TupleStore
Q.9. d) All of the above
Q.10. b) .jsa

Fill in the blanks

1. Recursion function is called by itself again and again until the given con-
dition is ______________.
2. _____________comes from a branch of mathematics.
3. _____________is a testing tool to test an app using web browser.
4. The content is also decoded if the Content-Type is _____________and the result
automatically is passed to jsonloads function.
5. Each key-value pair in a dictionary is separated by _____________whereas each
key is separated by_____________.

Answers

1. true
2. Fractal tree
3. webdebugger
4. application/json
5. :(colon), (comma)
12 Packaging app for various platforms

Python is a truly wonderful language. When somebody comes up with a good idea to take
about 1 minute and five lines to program something that almost does what we want. Then it
takes one an hour to extend the script to 300 lines, after which it still does almost what you
want. ~Jack Jansen

12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class

This module implements behavior that can be mixed in with the existing base wid-
get. The ButtonBehavior mixin class provides button behavior. The behavior can be
added locally and globally. We can combine this class with widgets, such as an
Image, to provide alternative buttons that preserve Kivy button behavior. Let us
suppose we want all background colors should be common in every built-in widget
automatically. The idea behind these classes is to encapsulate properties and
events associated with the type of widgets. This module implements behaviors that
can be mixed in with existing widgets. Isolating these properties and events in a
mixin class allows us to define our own implementation for standard Kivy widgets
that can act as drop-in replacements. This means we can restyle and redefine widg-
ets as desired without breaking compatibility as long as they implement the behav-
iors correctly. They can simply replace the standard widgets. Let us have a look on
the given code:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.behaviors import ButtonBehavior
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.image import Image

class IconButton(ButtonBehavior, Image):

def on_press(self):
print("on_press")

def state_changed(*args):
print('state changed')

class AddingBehaviorApp(App):
def build(self):
return IconButton()

if __name__=='__main__':
AddingBehaviorApp().run()

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-012
 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 283

Figure 12.1: Adding behavior to components.

Let us see another example with Kv language:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.lang import Builder

kv = '''
FloatLayout:
# Define the root widget
ScatterLayout:
size_hint: 1.0, 0.2
do_translation_y: False
Label:
size_hint: 1.0, 1
text: 'You can Drag me'
canvas.before:
Color:
rgb: 0, .6, .6
284 12 Packaging app for various platforms

Rectangle:
pos: self.pos
size: self.size
'''

class RectangleApp(App):
def build(self):
object = Builder.load_string(kv)
return object

if __name__ == '__main__':
RectangleApp().run()

Figure 12.2: Adding behavior to components with kv language.

12.1.1 Packaging application

There are various ways to package Kivy application that depends on factors such as
the requirement, location, platform, and the plan to execute the application.
Packaging application for distribution is based on the platform, means generating
platform should be the same for which we are generating. Packaging could be ei-
ther 32 bit or 64 bit, which depends on the Python version and platforms such as
Windows, Linux, Android, and iOS. PyInstaller is one of the tools that is used for
packing. We can install pyinstaller using pip with the following procedure:

$pip install pyinstaller

$pyinstaller myapp.py #to generate multiple file application
$pyinstaller --onefile myapp.py #to generate one executable file application
 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 285

$pyinstaller hello.py --icon=path/to/icon.ico #to set specific icon to our

application
$pyinstaller hello.py --noconsole #to generate app only for GUI
$pyinstaller hello.spec hello.py #to generate app with given specifica-
tion file

Other changes can be done with .spec file to generate the required output file. In
this example, we use pyinstaller 3.5. The executable file generation process takes
some time. After completion of this process, the executable file can be located in
the dist folder. If possible, always try to use the latest version of Kivy, which pro-
vides new features and easy-to-test application.

12.1.2 Testing application with android device

Here is a simple “Hello World” program to be tested on android platform. We require

to connect our android device (Physical or emulator). In case of physical device, we
need to make sure that we have enabled “USB debugging connected” and “USB con-
nected.” If it is not, then we can go to Settings→ Application →Development. We are
assuming Python4Android is at class path to the Python for Android installation, and
the current directory is called “testapp,” the given script after the application code
will build a debug APK and install it on the phone as given in Figure 12.3.

Figure 12.3: Settings on home screen.

286 12 Packaging app for various platforms

Figure 12.4: Systems in settings menu.

 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 287

Figure 12.5: About phone in systems menu.

288 12 Packaging app for various platforms

Figure 12.6: Build number in about phone menu.

We need to click (press) here five times and then it will display a toast message
on the screen “You are developer now.” We are already, it is enabled then it will
display “you are already developer.” This is the only one-time job on our phone.
Now our phone is ready to test android apps with the computer. While we are devel-
oping an app, it may display a dialog box “Allow to Run Application,” and then we
just allow it and proceed to test our app. We need to wait until our app displays at
the device screen. The testing device can be any physical and virtual devices.
 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 289

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button

class TestApp(App):
def build(self):
return Button(text='Hello World')
if __name__ in ('__main__', '__android__'):
TestApp().run()

Figure 12.7: Sample app for packaging.

The APK will be built in “$Python4Android/dist/default/bin,” and it appears to

be necessary to remove the previous build in order to get a new version. The screen
height and width can be changed by config file “$HOME/.kivy”. The default orien-
tation is landscape, but it can be changed by using the command “--orientation por-
trait” and the icon can be replaced with “--icon $currdir/test_icon.png.”

currdir=’pwd’
cd $Python4Android/dist/default
rm bin/testapp*
290 12 Packaging app for various platforms

./build.py --package org.test.myapp --name myapp --version 1.0 --dir $currdir

debug
adb install -r bin/testapp-1.0-debug.apk

Figure 12.8: Android sample application snapshot.

 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 291

As shown in Figure 12.8, Kivy app has been installed on an Android device. It
may take some time to generate APK and installation of our app. Before releasing
APK over the Play Store we need to sign it first. We can sign it by using the given
command:

/build.py --package com.test.testapp --name testapp --version 1.0 --dir $curr-

dir release
jarsigner -verbose -keystore your_key_store testapp-1.0-release-unsigned.apk
your_key
jarsigner -verify testapp-1.0-release-unsigned.apk
zipalign -v 4 testapp-1.0-release-unsigned.apk testapp.apk
adb install -r testapp.apk

In the code, first command builds a release version. The second command signs the
app and the third one verifies the signing. The fourth one aligns bytes in the app’s
files. The last command installs the app on the device.

12.1.3 Packaging for android

Android packaging is important because of its popularity in the market. Python-for-

android tool is a popular packaging tool for Android. It is only supported by Linux.
Python-for-android supports both Python2 and Python3 versions. We can package
our fully optimized app for multiple architectures. It can be installed with the given
command:

$pip install python-for-android

or
$pip install git+https://github.com/kivy/python-for-android.git

After setting SDK and NDK for android, we can build APK with the given command:

$p4a apk --requirements=kivy --private /home/tarkeshwar/devel/planewave_-

frozen/ – package=net.inclem.planewavessdl2 --name="planewavessdl2" --
version=0.5 --bootstrap=sdl2

But Buildozer is one of the tools that automates this entire process. The easiest
way to android packaging is Buildozer to make full APK. We can also run our app
without a compilation step with Kivy Launcher. These apps can be released over all
the available platforms as a signed app.
292 12 Packaging app for various platforms

Buildozer is a tool that automates the entire process. In this example, we are
using buildozer version Buildozer 0.40.dev0. It downloads and sets up all the perqui-
sites for Python-for-android, including the Android SDK and NDK, then builds an APK
that can be automatically pushed to the device. Buildozer works only on Linux, and
can be downloaded from the given URL https://github.com/kivy/buildozer, then use
the command sudo python setup.py install to install Buildozer into the system. Finally,
it can be used with command buildozer init. It will create a buildozer.spec file control-
ling the build configuration. This is considered as manifested file in Android app. We
can set variable to control most or all the parameters passed to python-for-android.
buildozer android debug deploy run command is used to build, push, and run the ap-
plication automatically. Some Kivy users may face a problem with it, therefore, some
steps to install kivy successfully are given. Steps for Ubuntu are given as follows:

$sudo apt install python3

$sudo apt install python3-pip
$sudo apt install python3-dev
$sudo apt install virtualenv
$sudo update-alternatives --config python #if have more than one python
version
$sudo update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/python3 python /usr/bin/
python3.7 1
$sudo apt install build-essential
$sudo apt install libssl-dev
$sudo apt install libffi-dev
$sudo apt install libxml2-dev
$sudo apt install libxslt1-dev
$sudo apt install zlib1g-dev
$sudo apt install openjdk-8-jdk
$sudo apt install pkg-config
$sudo apt install zlib1g-dev
$sudo apt install libncurses5-dev
$sudo apt install libncursesw5-dev
$sudo apt install libtinfo5
$sudo apt install cmake
$sudo apt install libffi-dev
$sudo nano $HOME/.bashrc
#in the end of file add this line and press ctr+X (^x) then press yes to save
this file modification
export JAVA_HOME=/usr/lib/jvm/java-8-openjdk-amd64
$source $HOME/.bashrc
$sudo apt install git
$sudo apt install libtool
 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 293

$sudo apt install cython

$sudo apt install autoconf
$sudo apt install autoreconf
$sudo apt install autotools-dev
$sudo apt install android-sdk
$pip install setuptools
$pip install kivy
$pip install python-for-android
$pip install buildozer
$buildozer init # to create buildozer.spec, modify as required
$buildozer -v android debug deploy run #takes long time depends upon our computer

In case of error Aidl not found, we can install it with the following given command
then press “Y” to continue installation:

$~/.buildozer/android/platform/android-sdk/tools/bin/sdkmanager "build-
tools;29.0.0"

We can find APK file as an output in the /bin folder of our Python source code
home folder:

$buildozer android deploy run logcat #to launch application on Android device
$buildozer ios deploy run #to launch application on iOS device

We can also set this line at the default command to do if buildozer is stared without
any arguments:

$buildozer setdefault android debug deploy run logcat > mylog.txt

$buildozer

We can share APK file using web server with other non-connected devices. We can
browse and download APK file using http://<our_ip_address>:8000

$buildozer serve

Sample buildozer.spec file is given here, and we can make changes accordingly:

[app]

# (str) Title of your application

title = My Application
294 12 Packaging app for various platforms

# (str) Package name

package.name = myapp

# (str) Package domain (needed for android/ios packaging)

package.domain = org.test

# (str) Source code where the main.py live

source.dir = .

# (list) Source files to include (let empty to include all the files)
source.include_exts = py,png,jpg,kv,atlas

# (list) List of inclusions using pattern matching

#source.include_patterns = assets/*,images/*.png

# (list) Source files to exclude (let empty to not exclude anything)

#source.exclude_exts = spec

# (list) List of directory to exclude (let empty to not exclude anything)

#source.exclude_dirs = tests, bin

# (list) List of exclusions using pattern matching

#source.exclude_patterns = license,images/*/*.jpg

# (str) Application versioning (method 1)

version = 0.1

# (str) Application versioning (method 2)

# version.regex = __version__ = ['"](.*)['"]
# version.filename = %(source.dir)s/main.py

# (list) Application requirements

# comma separated e.g. requirements = sqlite3,kivy
requirements = python3,kivy

# (str) Custom source folders for requirements

# Sets custom source for any requirements with recipes
# requirements.source.kivy = ../../kivy

# (list) Garden requirements

#garden_requirements =

# (str) Presplash of the application

#presplash.filename = %(source.dir)s/data/presplash.png

# (str) Icon of the application

#icon.filename = %(source.dir)s/data/icon.png
 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 295

# (str) Supported orientation (one of landscape, sensorLandscape, portrait or

all)
orientation = portrait

# (list) List of service to declare

#services = NAME:ENTRYPOINT_TO_PY,NAME2:ENTRYPOINT2_TO_PY

#
# OSX Specific
#

#
# author = © Copyright Info

# change the major version of python used by the app

osx.python_version = 3

# Kivy version to use

osx.kivy_version = 1.9.1

#
# Android specific
#

# (bool) Indicate if the application should be fullscreen or not

fullscreen = 0

# (string) Presplash background color (for new android toolchain)

# Supported formats are: #RRGGBB #AARRGGBB or one of the following names:
# red, blue, green, black, white, gray, cyan, magenta, yellow, lightgray,
# darkgray, grey, lightgrey, darkgrey, aqua, fuchsia, lime, maroon, navy,
# olive, purple, silver, teal.
#android.presplash_color = #FFFFFF

# (list) Permissions
#android.permissions = INTERNET

# (int) Target Android API, should be as high as possible.

#android.api = 27

# (int) Minimum API your APK will support.

#android.minapi = 21

# (int) Android SDK version to use

#android.sdk = 20
296 12 Packaging app for various platforms

# (str) Android NDK version to use

#android.ndk = 17c

# (int) Android NDK API to use. This is the minimum API your app will support,
it should usually match android.minapi.
#android.ndk_api = 21

# (bool) Use --private data storage (True) or --dir public storage (False)
#android.private_storage = True

# (str) Android NDK directory (if empty, it will be automatically downloaded.)

#android.ndk_path =

# (str) Android SDK directory (if empty, it will be automatically downloaded.)

#android.sdk_path =

# (str) ANT directory (if empty, it will be automatically downloaded.)

#android.ant_path =

# (bool) If True, then skip trying to update the Android sdk

# This can be useful to avoid excess Internet downloads or save time
# when an update is due, and you just want to test/build your package
# android.skip_update = False

# (bool) If True, then automatically accept SDK license

# agreements. This is intended for automation only. If set to False,
# the default, you will be shown the license when first running
# buildozer.
# android.accept_sdk_license = False

# (str) Android entry point, default is ok for Kivy-based app

#android.entrypoint = org.renpy.android.PythonActivity

# (str) Android app theme, default is ok for Kivy-based app

# android.apptheme = "@android:style/Theme.NoTitleBar"

# (list) Pattern to whitelist for the whole project

#android.whitelist =

# (str) Path to a custom whitelist file

#android.whitelist_src =

# (str) Path to a custom blacklist file

#android.blacklist_src =

# (list) List of Java .jar files to add to the libs so that pyjnius can access
# their classes. Don't add jars that you do not need, since extra jars can slow
# down the build process. Allows wildcards matching, for example:
 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 297

# OUYA-ODK/libs/*.jar
#android.add_jars = foo.jar,bar.jar,path/to/more/*.jar

# (list) List of Java files to add to the android project (can be java or a
# directory containing the files)
#android.add_src =

# (list) Android AAR archives to add (currently works only with sdl2_gradle
# bootstrap)
#android.add_aars =

# (list) Gradle dependencies to add (currently works only with sdl2_gradle

# bootstrap)
#android.gradle_dependencies =

# (list) add java compile options

# this can for example be necessary when importing certain java libraries
using the 'android.gradle_dependencies' option
# see https://developer.android.com/studio/write/java8-support for further
information
# android.add_compile_options = "sourceCompatibility = 1.8", "target-
Compatibility = 1.8"

# (list) Gradle repositories to add {can be necessary for some android.

gradle_dependencies}
# please enclose in double quotes
# e.g. android.gradle_repositories = "maven { url 'https://kotlin.bintray.
com/ktor' }"
#android.add_gradle_repositories =

# (list) packaging options to add

# see https://google.github.io/android-gradle-dsl/current/com.android.
build.gradle.internal.dsl.PackagingOptions.html
# can be necessary to solve conflicts in gradle_dependencies
# please enclose in double quotes
# e.g. android.add_packaging_options = "exclude 'META-INF/common.kotlin_-
module'", "exclude 'META-INF/*.kotlin_module'"
#android.add_gradle_repositories =

# (list) Java classes to add as activities to the manifest.

#android.add_activites = com.example.ExampleActivity

# (str) OUYA Console category. Should be one of GAME or APP

# If you leave this blank, OUYA support will not be enabled
#android.ouya.category = GAME
298 12 Packaging app for various platforms

# (str) Filename of OUYA Console icon. It must be a 732x412 png image.

#android.ouya.icon.filename = %(source.dir)s/data/ouya_icon.png

# (str) XML file to include as an intent filters in <activity> tag

#android.manifest.intent_filters =

# (str) launchMode to set for the main activity

#android.manifest.launch_mode = standard

# (list) Android additional libraries to copy into libs/armeabi

#android.add_libs_armeabi = libs/android/*.so
#android.add_libs_armeabi_v7a = libs/android-v7/*.so
#android.add_libs_arm64_v8a = libs/android-v8/*.so
#android.add_libs_x86 = libs/android-x86/*.so
#android.add_libs_mips = libs/android-mips/*.so

# (bool) Indicate whether the screen should stay on

# Don't forget to add the WAKE_LOCK permission if you set this to True
#android.wakelock = False

# (list) Android application meta-data to set (key=value format)

#android.meta_data =

# (list) Android library project to add (will be added in the

# project.properties automatically.)
#android.library_references =

# (list) Android shared libraries which will be added to AndroidManifest.xml

using <uses-library> tag
#android.uses_library =

# (str) Android logcat filters to use

#android.logcat_filters = *:S python:D
# (bool) Copy library instead of making a libpymodules.so
#android.copy_libs = 1

# (str) The Android arch to build for, choices: armeabi-v7a, arm64-v8a, x86,
x86_64
android.arch = armeabi-v7a

#
# Python for android (p4a) specific
#

# (str) python-for-android fork to use, defaults to upstream (kivy)

#p4a.fork = kivy
 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 299

# (str) python-for-android branch to use, defaults to master

#p4a.branch = master

# (str) python-for-android git clone directory (if empty, it will be automati-

cally cloned from github)
#p4a.source_dir =

# (str) The directory in which python-for-android should look for your own
build recipes (if any)
#p4a.local_recipes =

# (str) Filename to the hook for p4a

#p4a.hook =

# (str) Bootstrap to use for android builds

# p4a.bootstrap = sdl2

# (int) port number to specify an explicit --port= p4a argument (eg for boot-
strap flask)
#p4a.port =

#
# iOS specific
#

# (str) Path to a custom kivy-ios folder

#ios.kivy_ios_dir = ../kivy-ios
# Alternately, specify the URL and branch of a git checkout:
ios.kivy_ios_url = https://github.com/kivy/kivy-ios
ios.kivy_ios_branch = master

# Another platform dependency: ios-deploy

# Uncomment to use a custom checkout
#ios.ios_deploy_dir = ../ios_deploy
# Or specify URL and branch
ios.ios_deploy_url = https://github.com/phonegap/ios-deploy
ios.ios_deploy_branch = 1.7.0

# (str) Name of the certificate to use for signing the debug version
# Get a list of available identities: buildozer ios list_identities
#ios.codesign.debug = "iPhone Developer: <lastname><firstname> (<hexstring>)"

# (str) Name of the certificate to use for signing the release version
#ios.codesign.release = %(ios.codesign.debug)s

[buildozer]
300 12 Packaging app for various platforms

# (int) Log level (0 = error only, 1 = info, 2 = debug (with command output))
log_level = 2

# (int) Display warning if buildozer is run as root (0 = False, 1 = True)

warn_on_root = 1

# (str) Path to build artifact storage, absolute or relative to spec file

# build_dir = ./.buildozer

# (str) Path to build output (i.e. .apk, .ipa) storage

# bin_dir = ./bin

#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
# List as sections
#
# You can define all the "list" as [section:key].
# Each line will be considered as a option to the list.
# Let's take [app] / source.exclude_patterns.
# Instead of doing:
#
#[app]
#source.exclude_patterns = license,data/audio/*.wav,data/images/original/
*
#
# This can be translated into:
#
#[app:source.exclude_patterns]
#license
#data/audio/*.wav
#data/images/original/*
#

#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Profiles
#
# You can extend section / key with a profile
# For example, you want to deploy a demo version of your application without
# HD content. You could first change the title to add "(demo)" in the name
# and extend the excluded directories to remove the HD content.
#
#[app@demo]
#title = My Application (demo)
 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 301

#
#[app:source.exclude_patterns@demo]
#images/hd/*
#
# Then, invoke the command line with the "demo" profile:
#
#buildozer --profile demo android debug

A Dockerfile is available to use buildozer through a Docker environment with the

following command:

$docker build –-tag=buildozer .

$docker run --volume "$(pwd)":/home/user/hostcwd buildozer --version

Sample Docker file is given as:

# Dockerfile for providing buildozer

#
# Build with:
# docker build --tag=kivy/buildozer.
#
# In order to give the container access to your current working directory
# it must be mounted using the --volume option.
# Run with (e.g. `buildozer --version`):
# docker run \
# --volume "$HOME/.buildozer":/home/user/.buildozer
# --volume "$PWD":/home/user/hostcwd
# kivy/buildozer --version
#
# Or for interactive shell:
# docker run --interactive --tty --rm \
# --volume "$HOME/.buildozer":/home/user/.buildozer
# --volume "$PWD":/home/user/hostcwd
# --entrypoint /bin/bash
# kivy/buildozer
#
# If you get a `PermissionError` on `/home/user/.buildozer/cache`,
# try updating the permissions from the host with:
# sudo chown $USER -R ~/.buildozer
# Or simply recreate the directory from the host with:
# rm -rf ~/.buildozer && mkdir ~/.buildozer
302 12 Packaging app for various platforms

FROM ubuntu:18.04

ENV USER="user"
ENV HOME_DIR="/home/${USER}"
ENV WORK_DIR="${HOME_DIR}/hostcwd" \
SRC_DIR="${HOME_DIR}/src" \
PATH="${HOME_DIR}/.local/bin:${PATH}"

# configures locale
RUN apt update -qq > /dev/null &&
apt install -qq --yes --no-install-recommends \
locales && \
locale-gen en_US.UTF-8
ENV LANG="en_US.UTF-8" \
LANGUAGE="en_US.UTF-8" \
LC_ALL="en_US.UTF-8"

# system requirements to build most of the recipes

RUN apt install -qq --yes --no-install-recommends \
autoconf \
automake \
build-essential \
ccache \
cmake \
gettext \
git \
libffi-dev \
libltdl-dev \
libtool \
openjdk-8-jdk \
patch \
pkg-config \
python2.7 \
python3-pip \
python3-setuptools \
sudo \
unzip \
zip \
zlib1g-dev

# prepares non root env

RUN useradd --create-home --shell /bin/bash ${USER}
# with sudo access and no password
RUN usermod -append --groups sudo ${USER}
 12.1 Adding behavior with mixin class 303

RUN echo "%sudo ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD: ALL" >> /etc/sudoers

USER ${USER}
WORKDIR ${WORK_DIR}
COPY --chown=user:user . ${SRC_DIR}

# installs buildozer and dependencies

RUN pip3 install --user Cython==0.28.6 ${SRC_DIR}

ENTRYPOINT ["buildozer"]

12.1.4 Plyer

Plyer is a platform-independent API to use features commonly found on various

platforms. It provides APIs for devices for sensors such as accelerometer, camera,
compass, GPS, screen brightness, and notifications. These APIs are useful in all de-
vices such as desktop and mobile. We will work on Plyer version 1.4.2. It can be
installed with the help of the following command:

$pip install plyer

After doing all this we can build the app with the help of buildozer, and as a result,
we can perform all the hardware-related operations. The player also supported by
Raspberry Pi. We are not including it for compatibility, but we can expect it shortly.
Compatible sheet for Plyer is given in Table 12.1:

Table 12.1: Various hardware compatibilities.

Platform Windows OS X Linux Android iOS

Accelerometer No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Audio recording Yes Yes No Yes No

Barometer No No No Yes Yes

Battery Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Bluetooth No Yes No Yes No

Brightness No No Yes Yes Yes

Call No No No Yes Yes

Camera (taking picture) No No No Yes Yes

Compass No No No Yes Yes

CPU count Yes Yes Yes No No

304 12 Packaging app for various platforms

Table 12.1: (continued)

Platform Windows OS X Linux Android iOS

Email (open mail client) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Flash No No No Yes Yes

GPS No No No Yes Yes

Gravity No No No Yes Yes

Gyroscope No No No Yes Yes

Humidity No No No Yes No

IR Blaster No No No Yes No

Light No No No Yes No

Native file chooser Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Notifications Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Orientation No No No Yes No

Proximity No No No Yes No

Screenshot Yes Yes Yes No No

SMS (send messages) No No No Yes Yes

Spatial orientation No No No Yes Yes

Speech to text No No No Yes No

Storage Path Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Temperature No No No Yes No

Text to speech Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Unique ID Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Vibrator No No No Yes Yes

Wifi Yes Yes Yes No No

12.2 Building an android APK on OS X

We can build an app on OS X with Python3. A Kivy application can be exported for
any type of platform. Android is one of the major and popular platforms. It will pro-
vide a normal and fully standalone APK file just like we create from Java applica-
tion. This APK file can be published over the Google Play store too. Many tools are
available to do so. For more information, we can refer to its official documentation.
 12.4 Packaging application using Kivy launcher 305

We can package directly with python-for-android, which gives more control, but it
requires us to manually download parts of the Android toolchain. We need to ini-
tialize the configuration file (buildozer.spec) by using the command buildozer init.
Let us see how to build app on OS X:

$ pip install buildozer #to install buildozer using pip

$ sudo pip install https://github.com/kivy/buildozer/archive/master.zip
#latest version from repository
$ brew install autoconf automake
$ pip install colorama appdirs sh jinja2 six

12.3 Package licensing

We can write our licensed APK file for releasing purpose in this channel buildozer
requires Keystore information. We can set these values as environment variables.
We need to provide Keystore path, Keystore password, key alias, and key password:

export P4A_RELEASE_KEYSTORE=$HOME/.keystore
export P4A_RELEASE_KEYSTORE_PASSWD=aaaAAA123
export P4A_RELEASE_KEYALIAS_PASSWD=aaaAAA123
export P4A_RELEASE_KEYALIAS=mykeystore

The generated file will be assigned APK, which can directly be published over the
Google Play Store. Now, we can build APK file with this command:

$python3 -m buildozer -v android release

or
$buildozer -v android release

12.4 Packaging application using Kivy launcher

Kivy launcher is an Android application that runs any Kivy example stored on our
SD card. To install the Kivy launcher, we must visit Kivy launcher page on Google
Play Store then install it by selecting our android phone or APK can be installed in
our phone directly from this URL http://kivy.org/#download
306 12 Packaging app for various platforms

12.5 External libraries

Kivy comes with some predefined external libraries from Python or C Language. Such
as ddsfile, which is used to parse and save DDS files, mydev is used for kernel multi-
touch transformation library and osc is used to open sound control protocols. The osc is
an upgraded version of PyOSC library. GstPlayer is an external library and Kivy does not
provide any support for it. It might change in the future and we should not rely on it for
our code. GstPlayer is a media player implemented specifically for Kivy with gstreamer
1.0. GstPlayer is automatically compiled if we have pkg-config-libs-cflags gstreamer-1.0
working. Kivy is not responsible for the libraries. It does not use Gi at all and is focused
on what we want: the ability to read video and stream the image in a callback or read
an audio file. We do not use it directly but use our core provider instead:
GstPlayer.

12.6 Python application testing

The Kivy and Python being open source, they provide lots of tools for testing purpose.
Some of the tools are from the Python application test (pytest, unittest) and some are
specialized for Kivy application (telenium) only. All the given codes in this book are
valid for both versions of Python, but for the best results, tested environment is Python
3.7. As we know, App class in Kivy is considered as the main entry point into Kivy run
loop. We have to create an instance of our App child class then call run function. In
Kivy application testing, a widely used library is unittest. Unittest tests are expressive,
more readable, easy and without any boiler plate code. It is referred to as “PyUnit” or
Python version of JUnit. Unittest will prevent bugs from coming back unnoticed in the
future. GL context with image compression (GUI) and command line-based testing
(CLI) are the two types of unit testing. Study an example by PyUnit:

import unittest

class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):
def test_upper(self):
self.assertEqual('tarkeshwar'.upper(), 'TARKESHWAR')

def test_isupper(self):
self.assertTrue("TARKESHWAR".isupper())
self.assertFalse("Tarkeshwar".isupper())
def test_split(self):
s = 'Tarkeshwar Barua'
self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['Tarkeshwar', 'Barua'])
with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
 12.6 Python application testing 307

s.split(2)
if __name__ == '__main__':
unittest.main()
---------------------------------output---------------------------------
$python pyunitTestdemo.py
...
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 3 tests in 0.001s
OK
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Only three Python results are possible where OK means tests are passed without any
error, FAIL means test does not pass and raise an AssertionError exception (symbol
A), and ERROR means test raises an exception other than AssertionError (symbol E).
In any unit testing, there are some terms being used. The terms are as follows:

Test fixture – It represents the preparation needed to perform one or more tests
and any associate cleanup actions.

Test case – It is the smallest unit of testing where it checks for a specific response to a
set of code. TestCase is a base class in unittest, which helps to create new test cases.

Test suite – A collection of test cases and test suites is known as a test suite. It is
the process to combine more than one test as a single unit for a test.

Test runner – It is used for running test cases and provides the outcome to the
user. It may be graphical and command line which returns a value.

Pytest is a framework that makes building a simple and scalable test easy. Here,
Python pytest version 5.3.2 is used. Create one folder named with a test at home direc-
tory of the app and install pytest library using pip as given in the following code:

$pip install pytest

$pytest --version
This is pytest version 5.3.2, imported from c:\users\tarkeshwar\appdata
\local\programs\python\python37\lib\sit
e-packages\pytest\__init__.py

$pytest
============================= test session starts =====================
platform win32 -- Python 3.7.6rc1, pytest-5.3.2, py-1.8.1, pluggy-0.13.1
rootdir: C:\Users\Tarkeshwar\PycharmProjects\KiVyPrograms
collected 0 items
============================= no tests ran in 0.60s ==================
308 12 Packaging app for various platforms

Let us see some sample code (sample.py) to test:

def squareTest(x):
return x * x

def test_answer():
assert squareTest(3) == 9

The above given code can be tested with the following command:

$pytest one.py
============================= test session starts ========================
platform win32 -- Python 3.7.6rc1, pytest-5.3.2, py-1.8.1, pluggy-0.13.1
rootdir: C:\Users\Tarkeshwar\PycharmProjects\KiVyPrograms\kivyApplication
Testing
collected 1 item

one.py . [100%]

============================== 1 passed in 0.09s ==========================

$pytest one.py
============================= test session starts ========================
platform win32 -- Python 3.7.6rc1, pytest-5.3.2, py-1.8.1, pluggy-0.13.1
rootdir: C:\Users\Tarkeshwar\PycharmProjects\KiVyPrograms\kivyApplication
Testing
collected 1 item

one.py F = [100%]

=============================== FAILURES =================================

_______________________________ test_answer _______________________________
def test_answer():
> assert inc(3) == 5
E assert 4 == 5
E + where 4 = inc(3)

one.py:6: AssertionError
================================ 1 failed in 0.14s =========================

When kivy app starts, it creates a loop and until the loop continues nothing will be
executed after App().run(), that is why we have to break the loop. We can break the
loop with the help of time.sleep() that will pause our application for a while. Let us
see the sample code for test:
 12.6 Python application testing 309

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.lang import Builder
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.uix.button import Button

Builder.load_string('''
<MyButton>:
text: 'Click Me'
on_release: print('Button Has been clicked!')
<Body>:
MyButton:
''')
class MyButton(Button):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(MyButton, self).__init__(**kwargs)
app = App.get_running_app()
app.my_button = self

class Body(BoxLayout):
pass

class My(App):
def build(self):
return Body()

if __name__ == '__main__':
My().run()

Figure 12.9: Sample Kivy app for testing.

310 12 Packaging app for various platforms

Given is an example of a kivy application test code:

import unittest
import time
from functools import partial
from kivy.clock import Clock
from apptesting.Main import My

class Test(unittest.TestCase):
def pause(*args):
time.sleep(0.000001)
def run_test(self, app, *args):
Clock.schedule_interval(self.pause, 0.000001)
app.my_button.dispatch('on_release')
self.assertEqual('Click Me', app.my_button.text)
app.stop()

def test_example(self):
app = My()
p = partial(self.run_test, app)
Clock.schedule_once(p, 0.000001)
app.run()

if __name__ == '__main__':
unittest.main()

Figure 12.10: Kivy app testing result.

 Summary 311

12.7 Release on the market

Kivy is supported by multitouch devices. It can run on Android phones using the
Kivy Launch. Kivy applications can be published on the Android play store. After
building, we can create a release version. We must run buildozer with the release
parameter, or if using python-for-android we use the release option to build.py.
This creates releasing APK in the bin folder, which must be properly signed by us
and for this, follow the steps given on the URL https://developer.android.com/stu
dio/publish/app-signing.html#signing-manually

12.8 Kivy application testing

The nose was written by Jason Pellerin in 2005 to support the same test by py.test.
Kivy comes with nosetest, and nose is one of the major testing libraries that can be
installed using the following command:

$ pip install nose #to install nose

$ make test #to run test suit

#module name noseTest.py

def square(x):
return x * x

def test_answer():
assert square(10) == 100

$nosetests noseTest.py
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 1 test in 0.001s

OK

Summary

– The behavior can be added locally and globally with the help of BehaviorMixin.
The idea behind these classes is to encapsulate properties and events associated
with the type of widgets. This module implements behaviors that can be mixed in
with existing widgets.
– Packaging could be either 32 bit or 64 bit, which depends on the Python ver-
sion and platforms such as Windows, Linux, Android, and iOS. PyInstaller is
one of the tools that is used for packing.
312 12 Packaging app for various platforms

– Pyinstaller 3.5. uses spec file for configuration for the packaging app. The exe-
cutable file generation process takes some time. After completion of this pro-
cess, we can find executable file in dist folder.
– Python4 Android should be at the class path to the Python for Android installa-
tion, and the current directory is called “testapp,” the given script after the ap-
plication code.
– The testing device could be any physical and virtual devices.
– The default orientation is landscape, but it can be changed by using the com-
mand “--orientation portrait,” and icon can be replaced with “--icon $currdir/tes-
t_icon.png.”
– Before releasing APK over Play Store, we need to sign it first.
– Python-for-android tool is a popular packaging tool for Android. It is only sup-
ported by Linux. Python-for-android supports both Python2 and Python3 ver-
sions. We can package our fully optimized app for multiple architectures.
– Buildozer is one of the tools that automates this entire process. The easiest way
to Android package is Buildozer to make full APK. We can also run our app
without a compilation step with Kivy Launcher. These apps can be released
over all the available platforms as signed or unsigned app.
– Dockerfile can be used to build kivy app with buildozer.
– The Plyer provides APIs for devices for sensors such as accelero meter, camera,
compass, GPS, screen brightness, and notifications. These APIs are useful in all
devices such as desktop and mobile.
– We can package directly with Python-for-android, which can give more control
but it requires us to manually download parts of the Android tool chain. We
need to initialize the configuration file (buildozer.spec) by using the command
buildozer init.
– We can write our licensed APK file for releasing purpose in this channel buil-
dozer requires keystore information. We can set these values as environment
variables. We need to provide keystore path, keystore password, key alias, and
key password.
– Kivy launcher is an Android application that runs any Kivy example stored on
our SD card.
– GstPlayer is a media player implemented specifically for Kivy with gstreamer 1.0.
GstPlayer is automatically compiled if we have pkg-config-libs-cflags gstreamer-
1.0 working. Kivy is not responsible for the libraries.
– We can test our Kivy application using pytest, unittest, nose, and some tests
that are specialized for Kivy application (telenium) only.
– The possible application test results are OK, A, and E, where OK means tests
are passed without any error, FAIL means test does not pass and raise an
AssertionError exception (symbol A), and ERROR means test raises an excep-
tion other than AssertionError (symbol E).
 Key terms 313

– We can break loop with the help of time.sleep() that will pause our application
for a while and only then the application can be tested.
– We can build a release version, we must run buildozer with the release parame-
ter, or if using Python-for-android we use the – release option to build.py. This
creates release APK in the bin folder.
– The nose was written by Jason Pellerin in 2005 to support the same test by py.
test. Kivy comes with nosetest, and nose is one of the major testing libraries.

Key terms

The ButtonBehavior mixin class can be combined with widgets, such as an Image, to
provide alternative buttons that preserve Kivy button behavior. PyInstaller is one of
the tools that is used for packing Kivy application for windows platform and buildozer
and Python-for Android for Android, Linux, iOS, and Mac platforms. This whole build
process can be controlled by buildozer.spec file and the result can be found in dist and
bin folder. While we are testing an app with Android then Developer Option must be
enabled. The process may take some time to generate .APK, and installation of our
app depends on the computer performance. Before releasing APK over Play Store, APK
must be signed. Python-for-android tool is a popular packaging tool for Android. It is
only supported by Linux. Python-for-android supports both Python2 and Python3
versions. We can package our fully optimized app for multiple architectures but
Buildozer is one of the tools that automates this entire process. The easiest way to
Android package is Buildozer to make full APK. We can also run our app without a
compilation step with Kivy Launcher. We can share APK files using a web server to
other non-connected devices. APK file can be shared, browsed, and downloaded using
buildozer command buildozer serve command, and it can be accessedt with the help
of http://<our_ip_address>:8000/. The buildozer can be configured over docker using
docker file. The Plyer provides APIs for devices for sensors such as accelero meter,
camera, compass, GPS, screen brightness, and notifications. These APIs are useful in
all devices such as desktop and mobile. The player is also supported by Raspberry Pi.
We can build app on OS X with Python3. A Kivy application can be exported for any
type of platform. Android is one of the major and popular platforms. It will provide a
normal and fully standalone APK file just like we create from Java application. We can
build license APK by providing keystore value information, which can be set as envi-
ronment variables. We need to provide keystore path, keystore password, key alias,
and key password. The resulting file can be uploaded on the Google Play Store. Kivy
launcher is an Android application that runs any Kivy example stored on our SD card.
Kivy comes with some predefined external libraries from Python or C Language. Such
as ddsfile, which is used to parse and save DDS files, mydev is used for kernel multi-
touch transformation library, and osc is used to open sound control protocols. The uni-
ttest tests are expressive, more readable, easy and without any boiler plate code. It is
314 12 Packaging app for various platforms

referred to as “PyUnit” or Python version of JUnit. Unittest will prevent bugs from com-
ing back unnoticed in the future. GL context with image compression (GUI) and com-
mand line-based testing (CLI) are the two types of unit testing. The terminologies used
in application testing are test fixture, test cases, test suite, and test runner. The Pytest
is another framework that makes building simple and scalable test easy. When kivy
app starts, it creates a loop and until the loop continues, nothing will execute after
App().run() that is why we have to break the loop. We can break a loop with the help
of time.sleep() that will pause our application for a while. The nose supports the same
test by py.test. Kivy comes with nosetest, nose is one of the major testing libraries.

Review questions

1. Which module is responsible for adding behavior to the UI component?

2. List all the packaging tools for various platforms.
3. What does PyInstaller do?
4. What is the role of .spec file in packaging any Python and Kivy app?
5. How do we enable Developer Options in Android devices?
6. What is the role of Python-for-android in building an app?
7. How do we generate signed APK to upload on Google Play Store?
8. What are the components to generate signed APK using Python-for-android?
9. What is buildozer?
10. What is the role of buildozer.spec in packaging app?
11. What will be the output folder of buildozer build package?
12. What is Aidl and how to resolve it (Aidl not found)?
13. How do we share APK file over network?
14. How do we deploy buildozer using Dockerfile?
15. What is the use of Plyer?

Exercise

Tick the correct option

Q.1. Which type of APK file can be published over Google Play Store ____________?
a) Unassigned
b) Unsigned
c) Signed
d) Assigned
 Exercise 315

Q.2. Which tool is not used to package application in OS X ____________?

a) Python-for-android
b) Buildozer
c) Kivy launcher
d) Pytest

Q.3. Which of these is buildozer configuration file ____________?

a) buildozer.spec b) buildozer.conf c) buildozer.ini d) buildozer.txt

Q.4. What is the key component of key store ____________?

a) Key password
b) keystore password
c) key store path
d) All of the above

Q.5. What is Kivy launcher ____________?

a) Android application
b) Python library
c) API
d) .jar file

Q.6. Kivy can use which type of library ____________?

a) jar files
b) c libraries
c) class files
d) All of the above

Q.7. Which libraries cannot be used in Kivy application ____________?

a) Junit
b) Pytest
c) Unittest
d) Telenium

Q.8. Which one is not a possible result in application testing ____________?

a) A
b) OK
c) Okey
d) E

Q.9. What is test suite ____________?

a) It represents the preparation needed to perform one or more tests, and any
associate cleanup actions.
316 12 Packaging app for various platforms

b) A collection of test cases and test suites is known as a test suite. It is the
process to combine more than one test as a single unit for test.
c) It is used for running test cases and provides the outcome to the user. It
may be graphical and command line, which returns a value.
d) It is the smallest unit of testing where it checks for a specific response to a
particular set of code. TestCase is base class in unittest which helps to create
new test cases.

Q.10. Who wrote the nose ____________?

a) Charles Babbage
b) Dennis Richie
c) James Goslin
d) Jason Pellerin

Answers

Q.1. c) Signed
Q.2. d) Pytest
Q.3. a) buildozer.spec
Q.4. d) all of the above
Q.5. a) Android application
Q.6. d) All of the above
Q.7. a) JUnit
Q.8. c) Okey
Q.9. b) A collection of test cases and test suites is known as test suite. It is the
process to combine more than one test as a single unit for test.
Q.10. d) Jason Pellerin

Fill in the blanks

1. The idea behind these classes is to ________________ and ________________

associated with type of widgets.
2. ________________ is one of the tools used for packing in windows.
3. The executable file can be found in ____________ folder.
4. ________________ is a tool that automates the entire process.
5. APK file as an output in the ________________ folder of our Python source code
home folder.
 Exercise 317

Answers

1. encapsulate properties, events

2. PyInstaller
3. /dist
4. buildozer
5. /bin
13 Sample project

13.1 Introduction of git

Software development is not an easy task, and it becomes very difficult while we
are handling a big code and multiple programmers are working on the same proj-
ect. Decision-making is needed, whether updated code should be a part of the pro-
duction environment. Any change can be accepted or rejected at any phase of the
development and releasing process in the environment. Managing code in this is
called version controlling, and to do so, applications such as git, SVN, TFS, and so
on, are used. Git is a very popular and open-source application utility. Git is devel-
oped by Linux Kernel by developer Linus Torvalds. There are plenty of git imple-
mentations available such as http://www.gitgub.com, https://about.gitlab.com/,
https://bitbucket.org/product/, and many more. Most of the git distributions are
free of cost and available with public repository, but some of them charge a small
amount to provide a private repository.

13.2 Implementation of git

Version Control System (VCS) is a software that helps software developers to work
together and maintain a complete history of their work. Some of the functions are
listed as follows:
– It allows developers to work simultaneously.
– It does not allow overwriting each other’s changes.
– Maintains a history of every version.

We can download git from https://git-scm.com/downloads for various platforms.

As we can see in Figure 13.1.
It provides a command line tool as well as a GUI tool. In Linux (Ubuntu) we can
install using sudo apt install git command. Some of the git commands are given as
follows:

$ git config --global user.name "Name Surname"

$ git config --global user.email [email protected]
$ git clone [email protected]:/usr/local/cryo3d/cryo3d.git
$ git add filename [start tracking new/edited filename]
$ git add . (git add -A)[start tracking all changed/new files]
$ git commit -m 'Commit message: what changes were introduced'
$ git add sort.c# adds file to the staging area[bash]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-013
 13.2 Implementation of git 319

Figure 13.1: Git home page.

Figure 13.2: Git download page.

Source: https://git-scm.com/download/win

$ git commit –m “Addedsort operation”# Second commit[bash]

$ git add search.c# adds file to the staging area[bash]$ git commit –m
“Addedsearch operation”
$ git status
320 13 Sample project

13.3 Sample project 1

In the given program, the GUI components and their working with internal code are
displayed. Kv language is a very popular approach to develop the kivy app. Let us
study the following code:

-----------------------------------sample.kv----------------------------
<CustLabel@Label>:
color: 0, 0, 0, 1
<CustomPopup>:
size_hint: .5, .5
auto_dismiss: False
title: "The Popup"
Button:
text: "Close"
on_press: root.dismiss()
SampBoxLayout:
<SampBoxLayout>:
orientation: "vertical"
padding: 10
spacing: 10
# ---------- Holds CheckBox and RadioBox ----------
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
height: 30
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
size_hint_x: .22
CustLabel:
text: "Are you over 18"
size_hint_x: .80
CheckBox:
on_active: root.checkbox_18_clicked(self, self.active)
size_hint_x: .20
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
size_hint_x: .55
CustLabel:
text: "Favorite Color"
color: 0, 0, 0, 1
size_hint_x: .265
 13.3 Sample project 1 321

CheckBox:
group: "fav_color"
value: root.blue
size_hint_x: .05
CustLabel:
text: "Blue"
color: 0, 0, 0, 1
size_hint_x: .15
CheckBox:
group: "fav_color"
value: root.red
size_hint_x: .05
CustLabel:
text: "Red"
color: 0, 0, 0, 1
size_hint_x: .15
CheckBox:
group: "fav_color"
value: root.green
size_hint_x: .05
CustLabel:
text: "Green"
color: 0, 0, 0, 1
size_hint_x: .15
# ---------- Holds Slider & Switch ----------
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
height: 30
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
size_hint_x: .25
CustLabel:
text: str(slider_id.value)
# Define the min, max, starting value and how
# much the value changes with each move
Slider:
id: slider_id
min: -100
max: 100
value: 0
step: 1
322 13 Sample project

BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
size_hint_x: .25
CustLabel:
text: "On / Off"
Switch:
id: switch_id
on_active: root.switch_on(self, self.active)
# ---------- Displays Popup & Spinner ----------
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
height: 30
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
size_hint_x: .25
# When clicked the popup opens
Button:
text: "Open Popup"
on_press: root.open_popup()
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
size_hint_x: .25
Spinner:
text: "First"
values: ["First", "Second", "Third"]
id: spinner_id
on_text: root.spinner_clicked(spinner_id.text)
# ---------- Displays TabbedPanel ----------
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
height: 30
BoxLayout:
orientation: "horizontal"
size_hint_x: .25
TabbedPanel:
do_default_tab: False
TabbedPanelItem:
text: "1st Tab"
Label:
text: "Content of First Panel"
TabbedPanelItem:
text: "2nd Tab"
 13.3 Sample project 1 323

Label:
text: "Content of Second Panel"
TabbedPanelItem:
text: "3rd Tab"
Label:
text: "Content of Third Panel"
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
import kivy
kivy.require("1.9.0")
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout
from kivy.properties import ObjectProperty
from kivy.core.window import Window
from kivy.uix.popup import Popup
# Used to display popup
class CustomPopup(Popup):
pass
class SampBoxLayout(BoxLayout):
# For checkbox
checkbox_is_active = ObjectProperty(False)
def checkbox_18_clicked(self, instance, value):
if value is True:
print("Checkbox Checked")
else:
print("Checkbox Unchecked")
# For radio buttons
blue = ObjectProperty(True)
red = ObjectProperty(False)
green = ObjectProperty(False)
# For Switch
def switch_on(self, instance, value):
if value is True:
print("Switch On")
else:
print("Switch Off")
# Opens Popup when called
def open_popup(self):
the_popup = CustomPopup()
the_popup.open()
# For Spinner
def spinner_clicked(self, value):
324 13 Sample project

print("Spinner Value " + value)

class SampleApp(App):
def build(self):
# Set the background color for the window
Window.clearcolor = (1, 1, 1, 1)
return SampBoxLayout()
sample_app = SampleApp()
sample_app.run()

Figure 13.3: First project.

Sample project 2

The camera is a very important part of the device, and we can do many tasks with
it. In the given project, we are going to shuffle the camera view in various blocks:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.camera import Camera
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
from kivy.uix.slider import Slider
 13.3 Sample project 1 325

from kivy.uix.scatter import Scatter

from kivy.animation import Animation
from kivy.graphics import Color, Rectangle
from kivy.properties import NumericProperty
from random import randint, random
from functools import partial

class Puzzle(Camera):
blocksize = NumericProperty(100)
def on_texture_size(self, instance, value):
self.build()

def on_blocksize(self, instance, value):

self.build()

def build(self):
self.clear_widgets()
texture = self.texture
if not texture:
return
bs = self.blocksize
tw, th = self.texture_size
for x in range(int(tw / bs)):
for y in range(int(th / bs)):
bx = x * bs
by = y * bs
subtexture = texture.get_region(bx, by, bs, bs)
# node = PuzzleNode(texture=subtexture,
# size=(bs, bs), pos=(bx, by))
node = Scatter(pos=(bx, by), size=(bs, bs))
with node.canvas:
Color(1, 1, 1)
Rectangle(size=node.size, texture=subtexture)
self.add_widget(node)
self.shuffle()

def shuffle(self):
texture = self.texture
bs = self.blocksize
tw, th = self.texture_size
count = int(tw / bs) * int(th / bs)
indices = list(range(count))
childindex = 0
while indices:
326 13 Sample project

index = indices.pop(randint(0, len(indices) - 1))

x = bs * (index % int(tw / bs))
y = bs * int(index / int(tw / bs))
child = self.children[childindex]
a = Animation(d=random() / 4.) + Animation(pos=(x, y), t='out_-
quad', d=.4)
a.start(child)
childindex += 1

def on_touch_down(self, touch):

if touch.is_double_tap:
self.shuffle()
return True
super(Puzzle, self).on_touch_down(touch)

class PuzzleApp(App):
def build(self):
root = Widget()
puzzle = Puzzle(resolution=(640, 480), play=True)
slider = Slider(min=100, max=200, step=10, size=(800, 50))
slider.bind(value=partial(self.on_value, puzzle))
root.add_widget(puzzle)
root.add_widget(slider)
return root

def on_value(self, puzzle, instance, value):

value = int((value + 5) / 10) * 10
puzzle.blocksize = value
instance.value = value

PuzzleApp().run()
 13.4 Kivy catalog 327

Figure 13.4: Camera suffeler.

13.4 Kivy catalog

Kivy catalog viewer showcase widgets are available in Kivy and allow interactive edit-
ing of kivy language code to get immediate feedback. We can see two-panel screens
with a menu spinner button and other controls across the top. The left pane contains
kivy code, and the right side is rendered. We can edit the left pane through changes
that will be lost when we use the menu spinner button. The catalog will display doz-
ens of .kv examples controlling different widgets and layouts. Let us see this code:

import kivy
kivy.require('1.4.2')
import os
import sys
from kivy.app import App
from kivy.factory import Factory
from kivy.lang import Builder, Parser, ParserException
from kivy.properties import ObjectProperty
328 13 Sample project

from kivy.uix.boxlayout import BoxLayout

from kivy.uix.codeinput import CodeInput
from kivy.animation import Animation
from kivy.clock import Clock
CATALOG_ROOT = os.path.dirname(__file__)
# Config.set('graphics', 'width', '1024')
# Config.set('graphics', 'height', '768')
'''List of classes that need to be instantiated in the factory from .kv files.
'''
CONTAINER_KVS = os.path.join(CATALOG_ROOT, 'container_kvs')
CONTAINER_CLASSES = [c[:-3] for c in os.listdir(CONTAINER_KVS)
if c.endswith('.kv')]
class Container(BoxLayout):
'''A container is essentially a class that loads its root from a known
.kv file.
The name of the .kv file is taken from the Container's class.
We can't just use kv rules because the class may be edited
in the interface and reloaded by the user.
See :meth: change_kv where this happens.
'''
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(Container, self).__init__(**kwargs)
self.previous_text = open(self.kv_file).read()
parser = Parser(content=self.previous_text)
widget = Factory.get(parser.root.name)()
Builder._apply_rule(widget, parser.root, parser.root)
self.add_widget(widget)
@property
def kv_file(self):
'''Get the name of the kv file, a lowercase version of the class
name.
'''
return os.path.join(CONTAINER_KVS, self.__class__.__name__ + '.kv')
for class_name in CONTAINER_CLASSES:
globals()[class_name] = type(class_name, (Container,), {})
class KivyRenderTextInput(CodeInput):
def keyboard_on_key_down(self, window, keycode, text, modifiers):
is_osx = sys.platform == 'darwin'
# Keycodes on OSX:
ctrl, cmd = 64, 1024
key, key_str = keycode
if text and key not in (list(self.interesting_keys.keys()) + [27]):
 13.4 Kivy catalog 329

# This allows *either* ctrl *or* cmd, but not both.

if modifiers == ['ctrl'] or (is_osx and modifiers == ['meta']):
if key == ord('s'):
self.catalog.change_kv(True)
return
return super(KivyRenderTextInput, self).keyboard_on_key_down(window,
keycode, text, modifiers)
class Catalog(BoxLayout):
'''Catalog of widgets. This is the root widget of the app. It contains
a tabbed pain of widgets that can be displayed and a textbox where .kv
language files for widgets being demoed can be edited.
The entire interface for the Catalog is defined in kivycatalog.kv,
although individual containers are defined in the container_kvs
directory.
To add a container to the catalog,
first create the .kv file in container_kvs
The name of the file (sans .kv) will be the name of the widget available
inside the kivycatalog.kv
Finally modify kivycatalog.kv to add an AccordionItem
to hold the new widget.
Follow the examples in kivycatalog.kv to ensure the item
has an appropriate id and the class has been referenced.
You do not need to edit any python code, just .kv language files!
'''
language_box = ObjectProperty()
screen_manager = ObjectProperty()
_change_kv_ev = None
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
self._previously_parsed_text = ''
super(Catalog, self).__init__(**kwargs)
self.show_kv(None, 'Welcome')
self.carousel = None
def show_kv(self, instance, value):
'''Called when an a item is selected, we need to show the .kv language
file associated with the newly revealed container.'''
self.screen_manager.current = value
child = self.screen_manager.current_screen.children[0]
with open(child.kv_file, 'rb') as file:
self.language_box.text = file.read().decode('utf8')
if self._change_kv_ev is not None:
self._change_kv_ev.cancel()
self.change_kv()
330 13 Sample project

# reset undo/redo history

self.language_box.reset_undo()
def schedule_reload(self):
if self.auto_reload:
txt = self.language_box.text
child = self.screen_manager.current_screen.children[0]
if txt == child.previous_text:
return
child.previous_text = txt
if self._change_kv_ev is not None:
self._change_kv_ev.cancel()
if self._change_kv_ev is None:
self._change_kv_ev = Clock.create_trigger(self.change_kv, 2)
self._change_kv_ev()
def change_kv(self, *largs):
'''Called when the update button is clicked. Needs to update the
interface for the currently active kv widget, if there is one based
on the kv file the user entered. If there is an error in their kv
syntax, show a nice popup.'''
txt = self.language_box.text
kv_container = self.screen_manager.current_screen.children[0]
try:
parser = Parser(content=txt)
kv_container.clear_widgets()
widget = Factory.get(parser.root.name)()
Builder._apply_rule(widget, parser.root, parser.root)
kv_container.add_widget(widget)
except (SyntaxError, ParserException) as e:
self.show_error(e)
except Exception as e:
self.show_error(e)
def show_error(self, e):
self.info_label.text = str(e).encode('utf-8')
self.anim = Animation(top=190.0, opacity=1, d=2, t='in_back') +\
Animation(top=190.0, d=3) +
Animation(top=0, opacity=0, d=2)
self.anim.start(self.info_label)
class KivyCatalogApp(App):
'''The kivy App that runs the main root. All we do is build a catalog
widget into the root.'''
def build(self):
return Catalog()
 13.4 Kivy catalog 331

def on_pause(self):
return True
if __name__ == "__main__":
KivyCatalogApp().run()
------------------------------------test.kv-----------------------------
#:kivy 1.4
#:import KivyLexer kivy.extras.highlight.KivyLexer
<Container>:
canvas.before:
Color:
rgb: 0, 0, 0
Rectangle:
pos: self.pos
size: self.size
<Catalog>:
language_box: language_box
screen_manager: screen_manager
auto_reload: chkbx.active
info_label: info_lbl
orientation: 'vertical'
BoxLayout:
padding: '2sp'
canvas:
Color:
rgba: 1, 1, 1, .6
Rectangle:
size: self.size
pos: self.pos
size_hint: 1, None
height: '45sp'
Spinner:
size_hint: None, 1
width: '108sp'
text: 'Welcome'
values: [screen.name for screen in screen_manager.screens]
on_text: root.show_kv(*args)
Widget:
BoxLayout:
size_hint: None, 1
width: '150sp'
Label:
332 13 Sample project

text: "Auto Reload"

CheckBox:
id: chkbx
active: True
size_hint_x: 1
Button:
size_hint: None, 1
width: '108sp'
text: 'Render Now'
on_release: root.change_kv(*args)
BoxLayout:
id: reactive_layout
orientation: 'vertical' if self.width < self.height else
'horizontal'
Splitter:
id: editor_pane
max_size: (reactive_layout.height if self.vertical else reacti-
ve_layout.width) - self.strip_size
min_size: sp(30) + self.strip_size
vertical: 1 if reactive_layout.width < reactive_layout.height
else 0
sizable_from: 'bottom' if self.vertical else 'right'
size_hint: (1, None) if self.vertical else (None, 1)
size: 400, 400
on_vertical:
mid_size = self.max_size/2
if args[1]: self.height = mid_size
if not args[1]: self.width = mid_size
ScrollView:
id: kr_scroll
KivyRenderTextInput:
catalog: root
id: language_box
auto_indent: True
lexer: KivyLexer()
size_hint: 1, None
height: max(kr_scroll.height, self.minimum_height)
valign: "top"
text: "This box will display the kivy language for what-
ever has been selected"
on_text: root.schedule_reload()
on_cursor: root.schedule_reload()
 13.4 Kivy catalog 333

ScreenManager:
id: screen_manager
Screen:
name: "Welcome"
PlaygroundContainer:
Screen:
name: "Float Layout"
FloatLayoutContainer
Screen:
name: "Box Layout"
BoxLayoutContainer:
Screen:
name: "Anchor Layout"
AnchorLayoutContainer:
Screen:
name: "Grid Layout"
GridLayoutContainer:
Screen:
name: "Stack Layout"
StackLayoutContainer:
Screen:
name: "Buttons"
ButtonContainer:
Screen:
name: "Labels"
LabelContainer:
Screen:
name: "Booleans"
CheckBoxContainer:
Screen:
name: "Progress Bar"
ProgressBarContainer:
Screen:
name: "Media"
MediaContainer:
Screen:
name: "Text"
TextContainer:
Screen:
name: "Popups"
PopupContainer:
334 13 Sample project

Screen:
name: "Selectors"
SelectorsContainer:
Screen:
name: "File Choosers"
FileChooserContainer:
Screen:
name: "Scatter"
ScatterContainer:
Screen:
name: "ReST"
RestContainer:
FloatLayout:
size_hint: 1, None
height: 0
TextInput:
id:info_lbl
readonly: True
font_size: '14sp'
background_color: (0, 0, 0, 1)
foreground_color: (1, 1, 1, 1)
opacity:0
size_hint: 1, None
text_size: self.size
height: '150pt'
top: 0

Figure 13.5: Video game.

 13.5 Creating my own screen 335

13.5 Creating my own screen

We can design our own screen by just extending screen class as given in the code:

from kivy.app import Apps

from kivy.graphics.vertex_instructions import Rectangle
from kivy.lang import Builder
from kivy.uix.screenmanager import Screen, ScreenManager
class MyScreen(Screen):
def __init__(self):
super(MyScreen, self).__init__()
# make the Rectangle here and save a reference to it
with self.canvas.before:
self.rect = Rectangle(source='two.png')
def on_pos(self, *args):
# update Rectangle position when position changes
self.rect.pos = self.pos
def on_size(self, *args):
# update Rectangle size when size changes
self.rect.size = self.size
def CheckEvent(self):
if self.ids.door1.source == "Clicked":
print("Button has been clicked")
# use the saved reference to change the background
self.rect.source = 'one.png'
else:
print("no correct button")
Builder.load_string('''
<MyScreen>:
FloatLayout:
Button:
pos_hint: {"top": .8, "right": .75}
size_hint: .5, .1
text:
"Click Me"
source: "Clicked"
id: door1
on_press:
root.CheckEvent()
''')
class TestApp(App):
def build(self):
336 13 Sample project

sm = ScreenManager()
sm.add_widget(MyScreen())
return sm
TestApp().run()

Figure 13.6: Chess game.

13.6 Project game

In this project, we are going to design a game. Let us see how to do it:

from kivy.app import App

from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.screenmanager import Screen
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
class MenuButton(Button):
pass
class GameScreen(Screen):
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
 13.6 Project game 337

super(GameScreen, self).__init__(**kwargs)
class CellButton(Button):
def __init__(self, row, column):
super(CellButton, self).__init__()
self.text = 'HI'
self.color = 'BLUE'
class Game(Widget):
# grid = ObjectProperty(None)
def __init__(self, **kwargs):
super(Game, self).__init__()
self.difficulty = 'GAME_DIFFICULTY'
self.InitializeGrid
self.ids.grid.add_widget(CellButton(1, 2))
def InitializeGrid(self):
for i in range(6):
self.ids.grid.add_widget(CellButton(1, 2))
def rebuild_background(self):
self.canvas.before.clear()
class MyGameApp(App):
'''The kivy App that runs the main root. All we do is build a catalog
widget into the root.'''
def build(self):
return Game()
if __name__ == "__main__":
MyGameApp().run()
-----------------------------------mygame.kv----------------------------
<GameScreen>:
BoxLayout:
orientation: 'vertical'
canvas:
Color:
rgb: 1,0,1,1
Rectangle:
pos: self.pos
size: self.size
Label:
text: 'Totally better than FlappyBird. Will sell out for millions'
color: 0,1,0,1
width: root.width
valign: 'top'
height: min(root.height, root.width) / 6.
338 13 Sample project

font_name: 'Arial'
font_size: root.height / 12
Game:
size_hint: None, None
size: root.width, root.width
BoxLayout:
size: root.width, root.height
MenuButton:
text: 'button1'
MenuButton:
text: 'button2'
MenuButton:
text: 'button3'
MenuButton:
text: 'button4'
MenuButton:
text: 'button5'
MenuButton:
text: 'button6'
<Game>:
GridLayout:
id: grid
pos:root.pos
size: root.size
cols: 6
rows: 6
canvas:
Color:
rgb: 1,0,0,1
Rectangle:
pos: self.pos
size: self.size
<MenuButton>:
GridLayout:
id: grid
pos:root.pos
size: root.size
cols: 6
rows: 6
canvas:
 13.6 Project game 339

Color:
rgb: 1,0,0,1
Rectangle:
pos: self.pos
size: self.size

Figure 13.7: Game.

Bibliography
www.tutorialspoint.com/kivy
www.developer.android.com/training
www.javatpoint.com/android-tutorials
www.vogella.com/tutorials/android/article.html
https://kivy.org/doc/stable/
https://docs.python.org/3/
https://stackoverflow.com
https://developer.android.com/docs
https://likegeeks.com/kivy-tutorial/
https://riptutorial.com/kivy
https://www.codementor.io/kiok46/beginner-kivy-tutorial-basic-crash-course-for-apps-in-kivy
-y2ubiq0gz
https://pythonprogramming.net/kivy-application-development-tutorial/
https://towardsdatascience.com/python-for-android-start-building-kivy-cross-platform-
applications-6cf867d44612
https://techwithtim.net/tutorials/kivy-tutorial/setup/
https://github.com

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-014
Index
Assignment Expression 3 Continue statement 5
Application Binary Interface 5 Concatenation 33
Asyncio 6 Comments 33
Aarlogic CO5/3 113 Collections 50
Automatic Indentation 18 count() 54
Assignment Operator 24 clear() 55
Auto-type cast 26 center 58
Argumented Function 36 count() 58
Append() 54 Class 65
add() 55 constructor 66
Arrays 60 @classmethod 75
Abstraction 68 @classmethod decorator 82
Abstract class 69 curdir() 89
Access Modifier/Specifier 80 CRUD operations 91
abspath() 89 Creating modules 93
Arrays 99 Cross-platform 109
add_widget() 158, 161 Cython 1, 118
Anchor layout 175 Custom Event 120
Adapter 197 config.ini 140
ActionBar and slider 213 Complex UI Widgets 145
AsyncImage 241 Custom Widgets 146
Accordion 244 Checkbox 215
Animations 268 Custom Label 224
Audio 270 Carousel 228, 234
audit hooks 4 Custom Progress Bar 231
Annotation 276 Canvas 239
Adding behavior with mixin class 282 Creating my own screen 335
Android APK on OS X 304
DRY 17, 101
Booleans 28 Data types 26
Block Indentation 29 def 34
BODMAS 31 dir 34
Built-in Functions 34 Dependency Injection 36
BitTorrent 113 Default values 36
break statement Dissembler 38
byte 56 del() 54
byte code 3 difference() 55,56
byte array 56 Dictionary 58
build() 118 Date and time 61
Behavior Widget 146 Duck typing (Automatic Interfacing) 71
Box layout 167 Decorator 81
Basic view 190 __doc__ 97
Buttons 190 dt argument 230
Buildozer tool 291 Drag and Drop 238
Built-in functions 34
Break and continue statement 49 .exe 13
buildozer.spec 292 editor 14

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110689488-015
344 Index

Functions 34 intersection() 55, 56

Encapsulation 78 issubset() 55, 56
Exception handling 91 Interface 70
Engine 103 Interactive language 2
Event dipatching 112, 119 Integrated Development Environment (IDE) 20
Event Handling 119 Integrated Development and Learning
Environmental Variable 130 Environment (IDLE) 18
Events and properties 202 Installation of Kivy 115
External libraries 306 Inheritance 79
__init__.py 92, 158, 159
Functions 34 input events 112
__future__ 2, 92 Interpreted 1, 2
functional programming 2 Image 201
Function with argument 36 Interacting with another frameworks 256
finally block 5 inspector 261
f-string 5 Implementation of Git 318
float 28
Flow of Execution 36 Java Virtual Machine (JVM) 1
for loop 48 Just In Time (JIT) 1
FIFO 51 JSON 99
frozen set 55 joycursor 261
find() 58
functions 67 Keywords 25
File operation 88 Kivy 109
File Chooser 154 KIVY framework 2
Float layout 170 Kivy Architecture 110
Fonts and properties 204 Kivy Versions 114
frameworks and libraries 1 kvlang 144
Kivy clock 208, 230
Garbage 1 keybinding 261
garbage collection 2 kivy.storage.dictstore.DictStore 262
Guido Van Rossum 2 kivy.storage.jsonstore. JsonStore 262
gitignore 12 kivy.storage.redisstore. RedisStore 262
Graphics 111, 253 Kivy application testing 311
Grid layout 178
Git 318 LICENSE 12
Lambda 39
help 34 Lockers 50
heterogeneous 54 LIFO 51
Lists 51
input 18 ljust() 58
IndentationError 29 lower() 58
Immutable data type 26, 51, 55, 56 Layout 145, 167
Integer 28 List view 190, 196
Indexing 32 Labels 193
If and else condition 45
Iteration 50 Memory management 1
Insert() 54 Marshaling 4
Index() Multiprocessing 7
 Index 345

mobile app development 9 PyGame Library 113

Mutable data types 26, 52, 56, 58 Packaging Application 284
Math Module 30 PyInstaller 284
Map() 39 python-for-android tool 291
Meta programming 81 plyer 303
MetaData 103 package licensing 305
Modules 112, 260 packaging using kivy launcher 305
mixin class 282 python application testing 306
pytest 307
None 29
Nested if-else 47 quit() 15
Natural User Interface (NUI) 109, 130
Network Support 261 Runtime Audit hooks 4
README.md 12
Open Source 1 requirements.txt 12
Object-oriented programming (OOP) 1, 18, 65 returnStatement 37
Operators 31 Reduce() 39
Overriding 73, 76 reverse() 54
Overloading 75 remove() 54, 55
OS module 89 rjust() 58
Object 66, 99 readlines() 88
ORM 103 readline() 88
Orientation Horizontal and Vertical 147 Regular expression 95
run() 118, 121
Positional Only Parameter 3 Relative layout 181
PYTHONPYCACHEPEFIX 4 Recycler view 197
Pickle Protocol 5 4 runTouchApp() 207
pickling 4 Radio Button 224
Parallel file system cache 4 recording 261
Python Version 11 Rotate clock 264
pkg 14 Rotate speed 264
py 14 release on the market 311
pip command 20
pop() 54, 55 Serialization 4
Procedural programming 2, 65 Shared Memory Segment 7
pass 65 setup.py 12
Polymorphism 73 String 28, 57
Packages 93 String operations 31
primitive 99 Slicing 33
pip 117 sort() 54
ParseException 145 set() 54
pos_hint 149, 152 split() 58
padding 158 self 65
Page layout 184 @staticmethod 83
Picker view 190 @staticmethod decorator 83
Popup menu 204 SQLite 3, 101
Pango text provider 204 SQLAlchemy 103
Progress Bar 228 SQL expression Language 103
PyRoute 113 Screen Manager 146
346 Index

size_hint 149 Test Fixture 307

super 158 Test cases 307
__str__ 160 Test Suit 307
Stack layout 182 Test Runner 307
size_hint_min 184
size_hint_max 184 User-defined functions 35
ScrollView 207 Unordered Collection 54, 55, 58
Scatter 237 union() 55, 56
Spinner 243 unicode 57
Switching between two screens 245 User defined exception 92
showborder 261 UIX 112
screen 261 UX Widgets 145
Storage tools 262 unittest 310
schedule_once() 266 Ubuntu Software Center 113
schedule_interval() 266
SoundLoader.load() 270 Vectorcall 3
Variables 24
Types of Python 1 View holder 197
Typing-related Hints 4 Video 271
Type_ast 7 Version Control System 318
test.py 12
Type Casting 38 walrus operator 3
Tuples 51 while loop 48, 49
tzinfo 61 Writing files 89
timedelta 61 Writing Documentation 98
TextInput 206 Wheels 117
TextBox 217 Widgets 145
Toggle Burron 219 Webdebugger 261
Tree view 222
touchring 261 zero-indexed 60
Triggered Event 266
Testing Application with Android Device 285