EEE202 POWER AND INSTALLATION

Types of Electrical plants used for Power

Generation.
There are various types of electrical power plants used for power generation. Some of the most
common types include:

1. Thermal Power Plants

These plants generate electricity by burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas to
produce steam that drives a turbine connected to a generator.

The basic equation for a thermal power plant can be represented as:

Qin = Wt + Qout

where:
• Qin represents the heat input to the power plant, typically in the form of fuel
combustion.
• Wt represents the work output of the power plant, which is the mechanical energy
converted into electricity.
• Qout represents the heat output or waste heat from the power plant, which is typically
released into the environment through cooling systems.

Figure 1. Thermal Power Plant

1
The Characteristics of a thermal power Plant
Thermal power plants, which utilize fossil fuels or biomass to generate heat and produce
electricity, have the following characteristics:

1. Fuel Combustion: Thermal power plants burn fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, or natural
gas) or biomass to produce heat. The combustion process releases energy by breaking
down the fuel molecules and generating high temperatures.
2. Heat Generation: The primary purpose of a thermal power plant is to generate heat.
This heat is typically produced by burning the fuel in a combustion chamber or boiler.
The heat generated is used to convert water into steam.
3. Steam Generation: The heat produced by fuel combustion is used to convert water into
steam in a boiler. The steam is generated at high pressure and temperature by
transferring the heat energy from the combustion process to the water.
4. Turbine Operation: The high-pressure steam generated in the boiler is directed towards
a turbine. The steam's pressure and temperature cause the turbine blades to rotate,
converting the thermal energy of the steam into mechanical energy.
5. Electricity Generation: The rotating turbine is connected to a generator. As the turbine
spins, it drives the generator, which converts the mechanical energy into electrical
energy. The generator consists of coils of wire that rotate within a magnetic field,
inducing an electric current.
6. Cooling Systems: Thermal power plants require cooling systems to dissipate excess
heat and maintain operational efficiency. Common cooling methods include water-
based cooling towers, river or ocean water cooling, or air-cooled condensers.
7. Transmission and Distribution: The generated electricity is sent through transformers
to increase the voltage for efficient transmission over long distances. Substations then
distribute the electricity to homes, businesses, and industries through a network of
power lines.
8. Environmental Impacts: Thermal power plants have environmental considerations due
to the combustion of fossil fuels, which can release pollutants such as carbon dioxide
(CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter. Efforts are
made to minimize emissions and implement pollution control technologies.
9. Efficiency: Thermal power plants typically have high thermal efficiencies, which
represent the amount of input energy converted into useful electrical energy. Modern
plants incorporate advanced technologies to maximize efficiency and reduce fuel
consumption.
10. Scalability: Thermal power plants can be built in various sizes, ranging from small-
scale distributed generation systems to large-scale centralized plants. This scalability
allows for flexibility in meeting different electricity demands.

2. Hydroelectric Power Plants

Also known as hydroelectric dams, these plants harness the energy of flowing or falling water
to generate electricity. Water is channelled through turbines, which drive generators to produce
electricity.

2
 Figure 2. Hydro Power Plant

The characteristics of a Hydropower plant

Hydropower plants, which generate electricity by harnessing the energy of flowing or falling
water, have the following characteristics:

1. Water Source: Hydropower plants rely on a consistent and reliable water source, such
as a river, dammed reservoir, or natural waterfall. The availability and flow of water
determine the plant's power generation capacity.
2. Dam or Diversion Structure: Many hydropower plants utilize a dam or diversion
structure to control and regulate the flow of water. Dams create reservoirs by
impounding water, while diversion structures redirect the natural flow of water to the
plant's turbines.
3. Penstock: The water is directed from the dam or diversion structure through a large pipe
called a penstock. The penstock conveys the water under high pressure to the turbine.
4. Turbine Operation: The high-pressure water from the penstock enters the turbine,
causing the turbine blades to rotate. Hydropower plants typically use different types of
turbines, such as Francis, Pelton, or Kaplan turbines, depending on the specific design
and head (height) of the water source.
5. Generator: The rotating turbine is connected to a generator. As the turbine spins, it
drives the generator, which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
generator consists of coils of wire that rotate within a magnetic field, inducing an
electric current.
6. Grid Connection: The electricity generated by the hydropower plant is transmitted
through transformers to increase the voltage for efficient transmission over long
distances. Substations then distribute the electricity to homes, businesses, and industries
through a network of power lines, connecting it to the electrical grid.
7. Reservoir Management: Hydropower plants with dams often have reservoirs, which
provide water storage. Reservoir management involves controlling the water level and

3
 release rates to balance power generation, flood control, irrigation, and environmental
considerations.
8. Environmental Impact: Hydropower plants can have both positive and negative
environmental impacts. They offer clean and renewable energy generation without
direct greenhouse gas emissions. However, they can affect aquatic ecosystems, fish
migration, and alter river flow patterns. Proper design and operation aim to mitigate
these impacts.
9. Scalability: Hydropower plants can vary in size, ranging from small-scale run-of-river
systems to large-scale hydroelectric dams. The size of the plant depends on factors such
as available water resources, local geography, and electricity demand.
10. Long Lifespan: Hydropower plants are known for their long operational lifespan, often
exceeding 50 years. Regular maintenance and upgrades are required to ensure efficient
and reliable operation.
3. Nuclear Power Plants
These plants use nuclear reactions, specifically nuclear fission, to generate heat. The heat is
then used to produce steam, which drives a turbine connected to a generator.

Figure 3: Nuclear power plant

The characteristics of a nuclear power plant

Nuclear power plants, which generate electricity through nuclear reactions, have the
following characteristics:

1. Nuclear Fission: Nuclear power plants utilize nuclear fission, a process where the
nucleus of an atom is split into two smaller nuclei, releasing a significant amount of
energy. The most commonly used fuel in nuclear power plants is uranium-235 or
plutonium-239.
2. Nuclear Reactor: The heart of a nuclear power plant is the nuclear reactor, where
controlled nuclear fission reactions take place. The reactor core contains fuel rods,
which house the fuel material. The fuel rods are arranged in a way to sustain a self-
sustaining chain reaction.

4
 3. Control Systems: Nuclear power plants incorporate sophisticated control systems to
maintain the stability and safety of the nuclear reactions. Control rods made of
materials like boron or cadmium are inserted or withdrawn into the reactor core to
regulate the fission process by absorbing or releasing neutrons.
4. Heat Generation: The nuclear fission reactions release an immense amount of heat.
This heat is transferred to a coolant, usually water or a liquid metal like sodium or
helium, circulating through the reactor core. The coolant absorbs the heat energy,
preventing the fuel rods from overheating.
5. Steam Generation: The high-temperature coolant transfers its heat energy to a
secondary system, typically through a heat exchanger. In the secondary system, the
heat is used to generate steam from water, similar to thermal power plants.
6. Turbine Operation: The steam produced in the secondary system drives a turbine. The
turbine blades are rotated by high-pressure steam, converting the thermal energy into
mechanical energy.
7. Generator: The rotating turbine is connected to a generator. As the turbine spins, it
drives the generator, converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
generator produces electricity through the electromagnetic induction principle.
8. Cooling Systems: Nuclear power plants require cooling systems to remove excess
heat and maintain the reactor's safe operating temperature. Depending on the design,
they may use cooling towers, heat exchangers, or bodies of water (such as rivers or
oceans) to dissipate the heat.
9. Safety Systems: Nuclear power plants incorporate multiple layers of safety systems
and protocols to ensure safe operation and prevent accidents. These include
emergency shutdown systems, containment structures, backup power supplies, and
radiation monitoring systems.
10. Waste Management: Nuclear power plants produce radioactive waste as a by product
of nuclear reactions. Proper waste management is essential to handle and store this
waste safely, either through temporary on-site storage or long-term disposal solutions.
11. Environmental Considerations: While nuclear power plants do not emit greenhouse
gases during electricity generation, they present environmental concerns related to the
mining and processing of uranium, radioactive waste management, and the potential
for accidents or radioactive releases.

4. Wind Power Plants:

Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical power, which is then used
to generate electricity. Multiple wind turbines are often grouped together in wind farms to
increase power generation.

5
 Figure 4: Wind power plant

The characteristics of wind power plant

Wind power plants, which harness the kinetic energy of wind to generate electricity, have the
following characteristics:

1. Wind Turbines: The primary component of a wind power plant is the wind turbine.
Wind turbines consist of large rotor blades mounted on a tall tower. The blades capture
the energy of the wind and convert it into rotational motion.
2. Rotor and Nacelle: The rotor, comprising multiple blades, is connected to a central hub.
The hub is attached to a nacelle, which houses the machinery that converts the rotational
energy into electricity. The nacelle contains components such as the gearbox, generator,
and control systems.
3. Wind Measurement: Wind power plants require careful site selection to ensure adequate
wind resources. Prior to installation, wind measurements and assessments are
conducted to determine the wind speed, direction, and consistency at the proposed site.
4. Wind Speed Regulation: Wind turbines are equipped with systems to regulate the rotor
speed based on the wind conditions. Pitch control adjusts the angle of the blades to
optimize their performance and prevent damage during strong winds. Additionally, yaw
control aligns the turbine with the wind direction.
5. Generator and Power Conversion: The rotational motion of the wind turbine's rotor
drives a generator located inside the nacelle. The generator converts the mechanical
energy from the rotating blades into electrical energy through the process of
electromagnetic induction.

6
6. Grid Connection: The electricity generated by wind power plants is transmitted through
transformers to increase the voltage for efficient transmission over long distances.
Substations connect the wind power plant to the electrical grid, facilitating the
distribution of electricity to consumers.
7. Wind Farm Layout: Wind power plants often consist of multiple wind turbines arranged
in a specific pattern known as a wind farm. The layout is carefully planned to optimize
energy capture while considering factors such as wind direction, spacing between
turbines, and land availability.
8. Wind Resource Variability: The energy production of wind power plants is dependent
on the availability and variability of wind resources. Wind speed and direction can
change over time, affecting the plant's electricity output. Wind forecasting and grid
integration strategies are employed to manage this variability.
9. Environmental Impact: Wind power plants are considered environmentally friendly due
to their low carbon emissions and minimal water consumption during operation.
However, they can have visual impacts, noise considerations, and potential effects on
bird and bat populations. Proper planning and design aim to mitigate these impacts.
10. Scalability and Modularity: Wind power plants can be scalable and modular, allowing
for flexible installation and expansion. They can range from small-scale onshore
turbines to large-scale offshore wind farms, depending on the available wind resources
and electricity demand.
11. Maintenance and Service: Wind power plants require regular maintenance to ensure
optimal performance and longevity. Maintenance activities include inspection,
cleaning, lubrication, and component replacements as needed. Service teams are
responsible for troubleshooting and resolving any operational issues.

5. Solar Power Plants

Solar power plants use photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight directly into electricity. These
plants can consist of large-scale solar arrays or concentrated solar power systems that use
mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight onto a small area.

Figure 5: Solar power plant

7
The characteristics of Solar power plant
Solar power plants, which generate electricity by converting sunlight into electrical energy,
have the following characteristics:

1. Solar Panels: Solar power plants utilize arrays of solar panels, also known as
photovoltaic (PV) panels, to capture sunlight. These panels are made up of multiple
interconnected solar cells, typically made of silicon or other semiconductor materials.
2. Sunlight Absorption: Solar panels are designed to absorb photons from sunlight. When
sunlight strikes the solar cells, the photons transfer their energy to the electrons in the
semiconductor material, causing them to be released and create an electric current.
3. Inverter: The direct current (DC) electricity produced by the solar panels is converted
into alternating current (AC) electricity using an inverter. AC electricity is the standard
form of electricity used in power grids and most electrical appliances.
4. Transformer and Substation: The AC electricity from the inverter is passed through a
transformer to increase the voltage for efficient transmission. It is then sent to a
substation, where it is further regulated and integrated into the power grid.
5. Grid Connection: Solar power plants are typically connected to the electrical grid. The
electricity generated by the solar power plant is transmitted through power lines to reach
consumers and fulfill their electricity demand.
6. Tracking Systems: Some solar power plants incorporate tracking systems that allow the
solar panels to follow the movement of the sun throughout the day. This maximizes the
solar panels' exposure to sunlight, optimizing their energy production.
7. Balance of System (BOS): Solar power plants include various components beyond the
solar panels themselves. These include wiring, mounting structures, monitoring
systems, and protection devices collectively known as the balance of system (BOS).
8. Storage Systems (Optional): Some solar power plants may include energy storage
systems, such as batteries, to store excess electricity generated during peak sunlight
hours. The stored energy can be used when sunlight is not available, such as during the
night or periods of low sunlight.
9. Environmental Benefits: Solar power plants offer numerous environmental benefits.
They generate electricity without producing greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to
the reduction of carbon dioxide and other pollutants that contribute to climate change.
10. Scalability: Solar power plants can be built in various sizes, from small-scale
installations on rooftops or in communities to large utility-scale solar farms. Their
scalability allows for flexibility in meeting different electricity demands.
11. Maintenance: Solar power plants generally have low maintenance requirements.
Regular cleaning of the solar panels to remove dust and debris, as well as occasional
inspections and repairs, are necessary to ensure optimal performance.
12. Long Lifespan: Solar panels typically have a long operational lifespan, often lasting 25
to 30 years or more with proper maintenance. This makes solar power plants a durable
and reliable source of electricity.

6. Geothermal Power Plants

Geothermal plants generate electricity by utilizing the natural heat from the Earth's core.
They extract steam or hot water from underground reservoirs and use it to power turbines
connected to generators.

8
 Figure: 6 Geothermal power plant

The characteristics of Geothermal power plant

Geothermal power plants, which generate electricity by utilizing heat from the Earth's interior,
have the following characteristics:

1. Geothermal Resource: Geothermal power plants require access to a geothermal

resource, which is typically hot water or steam trapped beneath the Earth's surface. This
resource is naturally occurring in certain areas with geothermal activity, such as
geothermal reservoirs or hot springs.
2. Well System: Geothermal power plants use wells to extract the geothermal fluid from
the underground reservoir. Production wells bring the hot water or steam to the surface,
while reinjection wells return the cooled fluid back into the reservoir to maintain its
long-term sustainability.
3. Heat Extraction: The extracted geothermal fluid contains heat energy. This heat is
transferred to a working fluid, such as isobutane or pentane, in a heat exchanger. The
heat causes the working fluid to vaporize and expand, driving a turbine.
4. Turbine Operation: The expanding vapor from the working fluid rotates a turbine. The
turbine blades are driven by the high-pressure vapor, converting the thermal energy into
mechanical energy.

9
5. Generator: The rotating turbine is connected to a generator. As the turbine spins, it
drives the generator, converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
generator produces electricity through electromagnetic induction.
6. Reinjection System: After the heat is extracted from the geothermal fluid, it is reinjected
into the underground reservoir through reinjection wells. This helps sustain the
resource's long-term viability by maintaining the pressure and temperature of the
reservoir.
7. Power Grid Connection: The electricity generated by the geothermal power plant is
transmitted through transformers to increase the voltage for efficient transmission. It is
then connected to the electrical grid for distribution to consumers.
8. Environmental Benefits: Geothermal power plants are considered a clean and
renewable energy source. They produce minimal greenhouse gas emissions during
operation and have a smaller environmental footprint compared to fossil fuel-based
power plants.
9. Scalability: Geothermal power plants can vary in size, ranging from small-scale
installations for localized electricity generation to large utility-scale plants. The size
and capacity depend on the available geothermal resource and the electricity demand
in the area.
10. Resource Limitations: Geothermal power plants require access to geothermal resources,
which are limited to specific geologically active regions. The availability and quality
of the resource can impact the feasibility and efficiency of the power plant.
11. Environmental Considerations: Although geothermal power plants have fewer
environmental impacts compared to fossil fuel-based plants, they can still have
localized effects. These include the potential for subsidence, groundwater
contamination, or release of geothermal gases containing hydrogen sulphide or other
volatile compounds. Proper management and monitoring are important to mitigate
these impacts.
12. Long Lifespan: Geothermal power plants generally have long operational lifespans,
often exceeding 30 years with proper maintenance. The longevity of the power plant
contributes to its reliability and economic viability.

7. Biomass Power Plants

Biomass plants generate electricity by burning organic materials such as wood, agricultural
waste, or dedicated energy crops. The combustion process produces steam that drives a
turbine and generates power.

10
 Figure 7: Biomass Power Plant

The characteristics of Biomass plants

Biomass power plants, which generate electricity by burning organic materials, have the
following characteristics:

1. Biomass Feedstock: Biomass power plants use various organic materials, collectively
referred to as biomass, as their fuel source. Biomass can include agricultural residues
(such as crop residues and animal manure), forest residues, dedicated energy crops (like
switchgrass or miscanthus), wood pellets, or organic waste from industries or
municipalities.
2. Combustion Process: Biomass is burned in a combustion chamber or boiler to release
heat energy. This process typically involves controlled combustion, where oxygen is
supplied to the biomass to facilitate the burning process. The heat generated from
combustion is used to produce steam.
3. Steam Generation: The heat energy from biomass combustion is transferred to water,
which is converted into high-pressure steam. The steam is produced in a boiler and used
to drive a steam turbine.
4. Turbine Operation: The high-pressure steam from the boiler enters a steam turbine,
causing the turbine blades to rotate. The turbine converts the thermal energy of the
steam into mechanical energy.
5. Generator: The rotating turbine is connected to a generator. As the turbine spins, it
drives the generator, converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
generator produces electricity through electromagnetic induction.
6. Emissions Control: Biomass power plants incorporate emission control systems to
minimize air pollution. These systems can include electrostatic precipitators,

11
 baghouses, or flue gas scrubbers to remove particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and other pollutants before they are released into the atmosphere.
7. Ash Handling: Biomass combustion produces ash as a by product. Ash handling
systems are implemented to collect and properly dispose of the ash, ensuring
environmental compliance and preventing potential pollution.
8. Fuel Storage and Handling: Biomass power plants require storage facilities for biomass
feedstock. The feedstock is often processed and prepared before being fed into the
combustion system, requiring proper handling, storage, and transportation systems.
9. Grid Connection: The electricity generated by biomass power plants is transmitted
through transformers to increase the voltage for efficient transmission. It is then
connected to the electrical grid for distribution to consumers.
10. Renewable Energy Source: Biomass power plants are considered renewable energy
sources since biomass feedstock can be replenished through sustainable practices. This
helps reduce reliance on fossil fuels and contributes to lower greenhouse gas emissions
compared to traditional fossil fuel power plants.
11. Co-generation and Heat Utilization: Biomass power plants can incorporate co-
generation systems, where excess heat generated during the power generation process
is utilized for other purposes, such as district heating or industrial processes. This
increases the overall efficiency and usefulness of the biomass plant.
12. Feedstock Availability and Sustainability: Biomass power plants' viability depends on
the availability and sustainability of biomass feedstock. It is important to ensure
responsible sourcing and management of biomass resources to avoid deforestation,
depletion of natural resources, and competition with food production.
8. Tidal Power Plants
Tidal power plants harness the kinetic energy of tides and ocean currents to generate
electricity. Turbines are placed underwater and are driven by the flow of water during tidal
cycles.

12
 Figure 8: Tidal Power plant

The characteristics of a Tidal Power plant

Tidal power plants, which generate electricity using the kinetic energy of tidal currents, have
the following characteristics:

1. Tidal Range: Tidal power plants are located in areas with significant tidal ranges, where
there is a noticeable difference in water levels between high tide and low tide. These
locations typically have strong tidal currents, which are essential for efficient power
generation.
2. Barrage or Tidal Stream Devices: Tidal power plants can utilize two main types of
devices: barrages or tidal stream devices. Barrages are large structures built across
estuaries or bays, forming a dam-like barrier. Tidal stream devices, on the other hand,
are submerged turbines or rotors placed in the path of tidal currents.
3. Tidal Turbines: Tidal power plants that use tidal stream devices incorporate turbines or
rotors that are submerged underwater. As the tidal currents flow through the turbines,
they rotate, generating mechanical energy.
4. Generator: The rotating turbines in tidal power plants are connected to generators. The
mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy as the turbines spin, producing
electricity through electromagnetic induction.

13
 5. Grid Connection: The electricity generated by tidal power plants is transmitted through
power lines and transformers to increase the voltage for efficient transmission. It is then
connected to the electrical grid for distribution to consumers.
6. Predictable and Renewable Energy Source: Tidal power is a predictable and renewable
energy source since tidal patterns can be accurately forecasted years in advance. Tidal
currents are driven by gravitational forces from the moon and the sun, making them a
reliable and sustainable source of energy.
7. Environmental Impact: Tidal power plants have a relatively low environmental impact
compared to conventional power plants. They do not produce direct greenhouse gas
emissions during operation and do not consume fuel. However, tidal power plants can
affect marine ecosystems, including changes in water flow, sediment distribution, and
potential impact on marine wildlife.
8. Scalability: Tidal power plants can be built at various scales, ranging from smaller
installations to large-scale projects. The size and capacity depend on the available tidal
resource and the electricity demand in the area.
9. Maintenance Challenges: Tidal power plants require regular maintenance due to the
harsh marine environment. Maintenance activities include inspections, repairs, and
cleaning to ensure optimal performance and longevity of the tidal devices.
10. Site Suitability: Tidal power plants require careful site selection to ensure optimal
energy extraction. Factors such as tidal range, currents, water depth, and seabed
conditions are considered during the site assessment and planning process.
11. Grid Integration: Tidal power plants need to integrate with the existing electrical grid
infrastructure to supply electricity reliably and efficiently. Coordination with grid
operators and implementation of appropriate grid connection systems are crucial for
seamless integration.
12. Research and Development: Tidal power technology is still in the early stages of
development compared to other renewable energy sources. Ongoing research and
development efforts focus on improving efficiency, reducing costs, and addressing
environmental concerns to enhance the commercial viability of tidal power generation.
9. Wave Power Plants
Wave power plants capture the energy from ocean waves and convert it into electricity.
Various technologies, such as oscillating water columns or submerged buoys, are used to
harness wave energy.

14
 Figure 9: Wave power Plant

The characteristics of Wave power plants

Wave power plants, also known as wave energy converters (WECs), generate electricity by
harnessing the energy from ocean waves. They have the following characteristics:

1. Wave Energy Conversion Technologies: Wave power plants utilize various

technologies to convert the energy from ocean waves into electricity. These
technologies can include point absorbers, attenuators, oscillating water columns, and
overtopping devices.
2. Floating or Fixed Structures: Wave power plants can be designed as floating or fixed
structures depending on the chosen technology. Floating devices are typically moored
or anchored to the seabed, while fixed devices are installed on offshore structures or
nearshore installations.
3. Wave Absorption: Wave energy converters capture the kinetic energy of ocean waves
as they pass through or interact with the device. The motion or pressure changes caused
by the waves are converted into mechanical energy.
4. Power Take-off Systems: The mechanical energy from wave absorption is transferred
to a power take-off system, which includes mechanisms such as hydraulic systems,
pneumatic systems, or mechanical linkages. These systems convert the mechanical
energy into rotational motion or hydraulic pressure.
5. Generator: The rotational motion or hydraulic pressure is connected to a generator. As
the device moves or pressure fluctuates, the generator converts the mechanical energy
into electrical energy through electromagnetic induction.

15
6. Grid Connection: The electricity generated by wave power plants is transmitted through
power lines and transformers to increase the voltage for efficient transmission. It is then
connected to the electrical grid for distribution to consumers.
7. Renewable Energy Source: Wave power is a renewable energy source, as ocean waves
are continuously generated by wind patterns and tidal forces. Wave energy conversion
provides a predictable and sustainable source of electricity.
8. Environmental Impact: Wave power plants have relatively low environmental impact
compared to conventional power plants. However, potential effects on marine
ecosystems, including changes in water flow, sediment movement, and disturbance to
marine life, need to be carefully assessed and mitigated.
9. Site Selection: Selecting suitable locations for wave power plants is crucial. Areas with
consistent wave patterns, optimal wave energy densities, and manageable
environmental impacts are preferred. Site assessment considers factors such as wave
height, period, direction, and seabed conditions.
10. Maintenance Challenges: Wave power plants require regular maintenance due to
exposure to harsh marine conditions. Maintenance activities include inspection, repair,
and replacement of components to ensure optimal performance and durability.
11. Scalability: Wave power plants can be designed and installed at various scales, ranging
from individual devices to arrays of multiple devices. The size and capacity depend on
the available wave resource and the electricity demand in the area.
12. Research and Development: Wave power technology is still in the early stages of
development compared to other renewable energy sources. Ongoing research and
development efforts focus on improving device efficiency, durability, cost-
effectiveness, and minimizing environmental impacts to enhance the commercial
viability of wave power generation.

10.Combined Heat and Power Plants

Also known as cogeneration plants, these facilities simultaneously produce electricity and
useful heat from the same energy source. The waste heat produced during electricity
generation is used for heating or other industrial processes.

16
 Figure 10: Combined Heat and Power plant

The Characteristics of Combined Heat and Power Plants

Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plants, also known as cogeneration plants, generate both
electricity and usable heat in a single integrated system. They have the following
characteristics:

1. Simultaneous Power and Heat Generation: CHP plants are designed to produce both
electricity and heat in one process. The heat generated as a by product of electricity
generation is captured and utilized for various heating purposes, such as space heating,
water heating, or industrial processes.
2. Fuel Efficiency: CHP plants offer higher fuel efficiency compared to separate
electricity and heat generation systems. By utilizing the waste heat that would otherwise
be wasted in conventional power plants, CHP plants achieve overall fuel utilization
efficiencies of up to 90% or more, depending on the specific system.
3. Combined Power and Heat Systems: CHP plants typically employ a prime mover, such
as a gas turbine, steam turbine, or reciprocating engine, to generate electricity. The
prime mover is coupled with a heat recovery system that captures the waste heat from
the exhaust gases or cooling processes.
4. Generator: The prime mover in a CHP plant drives a generator, which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The electricity generated can be used on-site
or fed into the electrical grid for distribution.
5. Heat Recovery Systems: CHP plants incorporate heat recovery systems to capture and
utilize the waste heat generated during electricity generation. Heat recovery methods
can include steam generators, heat exchangers, or absorption chillers, depending on the
specific plant configuration and application.
6. District Heating or Industrial Heat Integration: The captured heat in a CHP plant is
typically utilized for space heating, domestic hot water, or industrial processes. In
district heating systems, the heat is distributed through a network of pipes to provide

17
 heating to nearby buildings or residential areas. In industrial applications, the captured
heat can be used directly in manufacturing processes.
7. Efficiency and Energy Savings: CHP plants offer significant energy savings and
increased overall system efficiency compared to separate generation of electricity and
heat. The integrated system allows for better utilization of the fuel source and reduces
losses that occur during transmission and distribution.
8. Environmental Benefits: CHP plants contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions
and environmental impacts by maximizing the use of primary energy sources. The
combined generation of electricity and heat helps to lower the reliance on separate
power plants and heating systems, resulting in a more sustainable energy solution.
9. Scalability: CHP plants can vary in size and capacity, ranging from small-scale systems
in individual buildings or institutions to large-scale installations serving industrial
complexes or entire communities. The scale depends on the energy demands and the
availability of fuel sources in the specific location.
10. Reliability and Resilience: CHP plants offer enhanced reliability and resilience in
energy supply. By generating electricity on-site, they can provide a continuous power
supply even during grid outages or disruptions.
11. System Flexibility: CHP plants can be designed to operate in different modes,
depending on the energy demands and cost-effectiveness. They can operate as baseload
plants, providing continuous power and heat, or as peak-load plants, supplementing the
grid during periods of high electricity demand.
12. Economic Considerations: The economic viability of CHP plants depends on factors
such as fuel costs, electricity and heat prices, available incentives, and the specific
energy requirements of the application. Economic feasibility studies are conducted to
evaluate the financial benefits and return on investment of implementing a CHP system.

Electrical power transmission

Electrical power transmission refers to the process of transmitting electrical energy from power
generation sources to distribution networks or end consumers over long distances. It involves
the transport of high-voltage electric power from power plants to substations or distribution
centres, where the voltage is then reduced for local distribution.

1. High-Voltage Transmission

Electrical power is transmitted at high voltages, typically in the range of hundreds of

kilovolts (kV) to several hundreds of kilovolts (kV). The high-voltage transmission allows
for efficient transfer of electricity over long distances, reducing power losses due to
resistance in transmission lines.

18
 Figure 11: High Voltage transmission lines

Examples of high voltage transmission voltages

Examples of high-voltage transmission voltages used in electrical power transmission systems
include:

1. Extra High Voltage (EHV): EHV transmission typically refers to voltages in the range
of 220 kilovolts (kV) to 400 kV. It is commonly used for long-distance transmission
over hundreds of kilometres.
2. Ultra High Voltage (UHV): UHV transmission involves voltages higher than EHV,
typically in the range of 800 kV to 1200 kV. UHV transmission is employed for
extremely long-distance transmission, such as interregional or international
connections.
3. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC): HVDC transmission involves the use of direct
current (DC) rather than alternating current (AC). HVDC systems can transmit
electricity over long distances with lower losses compared to AC transmission. Voltage
levels in HVDC systems can vary, but they can range from several hundreds of kilovolts
(kV) to several hundreds of kilovolts (kV), depending on the specific project.
19
4. Very High Voltage (VHV): VHV refers to voltages above the EHV range, typically
between 400 kV and 800 kV. It is employed in some power transmission systems to
achieve efficient long-distance power transmission.
5. Super grid or Super High Voltage (SHV): Super grid or SHV refers to the concept of
creating a continental or intercontinental power transmission network that operates at
extremely high voltages, typically above 1000 kV. The idea is to facilitate the large-
scale transfer of renewable energy across vast distances.
2. Transmission Lines
Transmission lines are the physical infrastructure used to carry electric power over long
distances. These lines consist of conductors, usually made of aluminium or copper,
supported by towers or poles. The conductors are insulated to prevent electrical leakage
and maintain safety.

3. Substations
Substations are intermediate points along the transmission system where voltage levels are
modified or controlled. They receive high-voltage power from generating stations and step
it down to lower voltage levels suitable for distribution. Substations also serve as points for
switching, protection, and control of the power flow.

Figure 12: High Voltage substation

4. Transformers
Transformers are vital components in the transmission system. They are used to step up or
step down the voltage levels to facilitate efficient power transmission and distribution.
Step-up transformers increase the voltage at the generating station for long-distance
transmission, while step-down transformers reduce the voltage at substations for local
distribution.

20
 Figure 13. High voltage transformer

5. AC and DC Transmission
Electrical power can be transmitted using alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). AC
transmission is the most commonly used method, as it allows for easy voltage transformation
and is well-suited for long-distance transmission. DC transmission is used in specific cases
where there are long undersea or underground cable connections or when there is a need for
power transmission between asynchronous grids.

Comparison of AC and DC Transmission

The transmission of electric power over long distances was developed at the beginning of the
twentieth century. Since then, it has made rapid progress in its design and methods of operation,
which has resulted in greater reliability and continuity.

The electric power can be transmitted either by means of an AC or DC system. Each system
has its own merits and demerits. It is desirable to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
the two methods to make the comparison of AC and DC transmission systems.
Advantages of DC Transmission System
1. It requires only two conductors for transmission as compared to three conductors in an AC
system. It is also possible to transmit power through only one conductor by using earth as a
returning conductor causing much saving in conductor material (copper or aluminium).
2. Inductance, capacitance, phase displacement, and surge problems are eliminated in DC
transmission.

21
3. There is no skin effect in DC. Therefore, the entire cross-section of the line conductor is
utilized. Thus, the conductor offers less resistance.
Since there is no inductance and capacitance, the voltage drop in a DC transmission line is less
than an AC line for the same sending end voltage and load. Therefore, a DC transmission line
has better voltage regulation.
5. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation (in case of DC system is
70% (1/√2 times) of that in the AC system. Hence, a DC line requires less insulation.
6. There is less corona loss in a DC line, which reduces the interference with communication
circuits.
7. There are no stability problems and synchronizing difficulties in the DC transmission.

Disadvantages of the DC Transmission System

1. Electric power cannot be generated at high voltages in the DC system due to commutating
difficulties.
2. For the transmission of power at high voltages, the DC voltages cannot be stepped up.
3. The DC switchgear (i.e., circuit breakers) has its own limitations.
Nowadays, a high-voltage AC transmission system (3-phase, 3-wire) is mostly employed. To
make the comparison of AC and DC transmission systems following advantages and
disadvantages of a high-voltage AC transmission system should be kept in mind:

Advantages of High Voltage AC Transmission System

1. The AC power can be generated at high voltages (33 kV or 11 kV).
2. The AC voltage can be stepped up easily and efficiently to the economic limit for
transmission by transformers. It can also be stepped down by transformers to any value as per
requirement for distribution and utilization.
3. The maintenance of AC switchgear is easy and cheaper.

Disadvantages of High Voltage AC Transmission System

1. It requires more conductor material (copper or aluminium).
2. The construction of an AC transmission line is more complicated than the DC transmission
line.
3. Due to the skin effect, the effective resistance of the AC line is more, which increases the
losses and correspondingly decreases the efficiency of transmission.
4. Due to inductance and capacitance, the voltage drop in the AC line is more than the DC line
for the same sending end voltage and load. This makes the voltage regulation poor.
5. The AC transmission lines have more corona loss, which creates interference in
communication circuits.

Comparison of AC and DC Transmission Systems

A 3-phase, 3-wire AC system is employed for the transmission of electric power because, in
this case, power at high voltage can be generated, and the voltage can be stepped up and stepped
down very easily and efficiently by using transformers.
However, in the above discussion, it is clear that high-voltage DC transmission is superior to
high-voltage AC transmission.
Therefore, it is preferred to adopt a high voltage. This can be achieved by using rectifiers and
inverters to convert AC into DC and vice-versa easily and efficiently. The present-day trend is
towards AC for generation and distribution and high voltage DC for transmission.
The 3-phase AC power is generated at the generating station, and voltage is stepped up by
transformer T1, located at the sending end. Then AC is converted into high-voltage DC by
rectifiers, and power is transmitted. Then at the receiving station, DC is converted into AC by

22
inverters, and a transformer T2 steps down the voltage as per requirement for the distribution
of electric power.

6. Power Grids
Electrical power transmission is part of a larger interconnected power grid system. Power
grids connect multiple power generation sources, transmission lines, substations, and
distribution networks to ensure a reliable and efficient supply of electricity. Power grids
enable the transfer of electricity between regions, balancing power generation and demand.

7. Grid Stability and Control

Power transmission systems require sophisticated control and monitoring systems to
maintain grid stability. These systems manage power flow, monitor voltage levels, and
implement protection measures to prevent overloading or disturbances that could lead to
power outages.
8. Grid Expansion and Upgrades
Power transmission infrastructure requires periodic expansion and upgrades to meet
growing electricity demand, accommodate new power generation sources, and improve the
efficiency and reliability of the system. This includes the construction of new transmission
lines, upgrading substations, and implementing advanced technologies for grid
management.

Single Phase Transmission Line

A single-phase transmission line is a power transmission line that carries alternating current
(AC) with a single phase. In a single-phase system, the voltage waveform oscillates between
positive and negative values in a single direction, creating a sinusoidal wave.

Here are some key characteristics and considerations of single-phase transmission lines:

1. Voltage and Current: In a single-phase system, the transmission line carries a single
voltage waveform and a corresponding current. The voltage and current are sinusoidal
and have the same frequency. The voltage is typically expressed as line-to-neutral
voltage (Vln) or line-to-line voltage (Vll), depending on the specific configuration.
2. Application: Single-phase transmission lines are commonly used for residential and
small commercial applications, where the power demand is relatively lower compared
to large-scale industrial applications. They are used to distribute electricity from
distribution substations to residential areas, supplying power to homes, small
businesses, and light commercial loads.
3. Wire Configuration: Single-phase transmission lines typically use two or three
conductors. In a two-conductor configuration, one conductor carries the phase voltage,
and the other conductor is the neutral conductor. In a three-conductor configuration,
two conductors carry the phase voltage, and the third conductor is the neutral conductor.
4. Line Voltage and Current: The line voltage of a single-phase transmission line is the
voltage between the two conductors or the line-to-line voltage (Vll). The line current is
the current flowing through the conductors. The magnitude of the voltage and current
depends on the power demand and the length of the transmission line.
5. Power Factor: Power factor is an important consideration in single-phase transmission
systems. It represents the ratio of real power (active power) to the apparent power in

23
 the system. Power factor affects the efficiency of power transmission and the quality of
power delivery. Utilities and consumers aim to maintain a power factor close to unity
to minimize power losses and optimize the use of electrical infrastructure.
6. Limitations: Single-phase transmission lines have some limitations compared to three-
phase transmission systems. They have higher line losses, lower power transfer
capability, and reduced efficiency over longer distances. Three-phase transmission
systems are more commonly used for large-scale power transmission due to their
superior performance and ability to deliver higher power capacities.
Three-phase transmission line
A three-phase transmission line is a power transmission line that carries three separate
alternating currents (AC) with a specific phase relationship. It is the most common and widely
used configuration for power transmission and distribution systems worldwide. In a three-
phase system, the three currents and voltages are evenly spaced apart, creating a balanced and
efficient power delivery.

Here are some key characteristics and considerations of three-phase transmission lines:

1. Three Phases: A three-phase transmission line consists of three conductors, each

carrying a separate phase of alternating current. The phases are typically denoted as A,
B, and C or by the use of symbols such as R (for Red), Y (for Yellow), and B (for Blue).
Each phase is shifted in time by 120 degrees relative to the other phases, creating a
balanced system.
2. Voltage and Current: The voltages in a three-phase system can be expressed as line-to-
neutral voltages (Vln) or line-to-line voltages (Vll), depending on the specific
configuration. The currents in the three conductors are also balanced and evenly
distributed. The magnitude of the voltages and currents depends on the power demand
and the characteristics of the transmission system.
3. Power Transfer Capability: Three-phase transmission lines offer several advantages
over single-phase systems, including higher power transfer capability. The balanced
nature of the system allows for efficient power transmission and delivery over long
distances. Three-phase systems can handle larger power loads and are commonly used
for industrial, commercial, and large-scale residential applications.
4. Power Factor: Power factor is an important consideration in three-phase transmission
systems. It represents the ratio of real power (active power) to the apparent power in
the system. Maintaining a high-power factor close to unity helps optimize the use of
electrical infrastructure, minimize power losses, and ensure efficient power delivery.
5. Balancing and Load Distribution: Three-phase systems allow for balanced load
distribution among the phases. This means that the electrical loads are evenly
distributed across the three phases, minimizing unbalanced currents and reducing the
strain on the transmission lines. Balancing loads across the phases helps maintain
system stability and efficiency.
6. Synchronous Generation: Three-phase transmission lines are closely associated with
synchronous generation, where power is generated by synchronous generators.
Synchronous generators are commonly used in power plants to produce electricity at a
frequency and voltage that matches the grid's three-phase system.
7. Interconnections: Three-phase transmission lines can be interconnected to form
regional or national power grids. These interconnected grids allow for the exchange of
electricity between different regions and facilitate power sharing, load balancing, and
backup support in case of emergencies or outages.

24
Synchronous generation
Synchronous generation refers to the process of producing electrical power using synchronous
generators, also known as alternators or synchronous machines. In a synchronous generation,
the generator operates in synchronism with the power system, generating electricity at a
frequency and voltage that matches the grid's requirements.

Here are some key characteristics and considerations of synchronous generation:

1. Synchronous Generator: A synchronous generator is a rotating machine that converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy. It consists of a rotor, which rotates at a
specific speed, and a stator, which contains the stationary windings. The rotor is
typically driven by a prime mover, such as a steam turbine, gas turbine, or hydro
turbine.
2. Synchronism: Synchronous generators operate in synchronism with the power system.
This means that the rotor rotates at a speed precisely synchronized with the frequency
of the grid, ensuring that the generated voltage and frequency match the requirements
of the connected power system.
3. Frequency and Voltage Control: Synchronous generators play a crucial role in
maintaining the frequency and voltage stability of the power system. By adjusting the
mechanical power input to the generator, the generator can regulate the electrical output
to match the load demand and maintain a stable grid frequency. Voltage control is
achieved through excitation control, which regulates the field current supplied to the
generator's rotor windings.
4. Power Factor Control: Synchronous generators can also control the power factor of the
generated electricity. The power factor represents the ratio of real power (active power)
to apparent power and is a measure of the efficiency of power transfer. By adjusting the
excitation level, synchronous generators can provide leading or lagging reactive power
to help maintain a desirable power factor in the power system.
5. Grid Integration: Synchronous generators are designed to be interconnected with the
power grid. They are typically connected to the grid through a synchronous condenser
or a transmission line, allowing the generated power to be delivered to consumers.
Synchronous generators contribute to the overall power generation mix and help meet
the electricity demand of homes, businesses, industries, and other consumers.
6. Grid Stability: Synchronous generators provide inherent stability to the power system
due to their ability to synchronize with the grid. They help maintain grid stability by
contributing to the inertia of the system, which helps counteract rapid frequency
changes during disturbances or fluctuations in the power demand.
Synchronous Generator
A synchronous generator is a synchronous machine that converts mechanical power into AC
electric power through the process of electromagnetic induction.
Synchronous generators are also referred to as alternators or AC generators. The term
"alternator" is used since it produces AC power. It is called a synchronous generator because
it must be driven at synchronous speed to produce AC power of the desired frequency.
A synchronous generator can be either single-phase or poly-phase (generally 3-phase).

25
Construction of Synchronous Generator or Alternator
An alternator consists of two main parts viz.
• Stator – The stator is the stationary part of the alternator. It carries the armature
winding in which the voltage is generated. The output of the alternator is taken
from the stator.
• Rotor – The rotor is the rotating part of the alternator. The rotor produces the
main field flux.
Stator Construction of Alternator
The stator of the alternator includes several parts, viz. the frame, stator core, stator or armature
windings, and cooling arrangement.
• The stator frame may be made up of cast iron for small-size machines and of
welded steel for large-size machines.
• The stator core is assembled with high-grade silicon content steel laminations.
These silicon steel laminations reduce the hysteresis and eddy-current losses in
the stator core.
• The slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core. A 3-phase armature
winding is put in these slots.
• The armature winding of the alternator is star connected. The winding of each
phase is distributed over several slots. When current flows through the
distributed armature winding, it produces an essential sinusoidal space
distribution of EMF.

Figure 14: Motor Stator

Rotor Construction of Alternator
The rotor of the alternator carries the field winding which is supplied with direct current
through two slip rings by a separate DC source (also called exciter). The exciter is generally a
small DC shunt generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
For the alternator, there are two types of rotor constructions are used viz. the salient-pole
type and the cylindrical rotor type.
Salient Pole Rotor
The term salient means projecting. Hence, a salient pole rotor consists of poles projecting out
from the surface of the rotor core. This whole arrangement is fixed to the shaft of the alternator
as shown in the figure. The individual field pole windings are connected in series such that

26
when the field winding is energized by the DC exciter, the adjacent poles have opposite
polarities.

Figure: 15 Salient Pole Rotor

The salient pole type rotor is used in the low and medium speed (from 120 to 400 RPM)
alternators such as those driven by diesel engines or water turbines because of the following
reasons −
• The construction of a salient pole-type rotor cannot be made strong enough to
withstand the mechanical stresses to which they may be subjected at higher
speed.
• If the salient field pole-type rotor is driven at high speed, then it would cause
windage loss and would tend to produce noise.
Low-speed rotors of the alternators possess a large diameter to provide the necessary space for
the poles. As a result, the salient pole-type rotors have large diameters and short axial lengths.
Cylindrical Rotor
The cylindrical rotors are made from solid forgings of high-grade nickel-chrome-molybdenum
steel.
• The construction of the cylindrical rotor is such that there are no-physical poles
to be seen as in the salient pole rotor.
• In about two-thirds of the outer periphery of the cylindrical rotor, slots are cut at
regular intervals and parallel to the rotor shaft.
• The field windings are placed in these slots and is excited by DC supply. The
field winding is of distributed type.
• The unslotted portion of the rotor forms the pole faces.
• It is clear from the figure of the cylindrical rotor that the poles formed are non-
salient, i.e., they do not project out from the rotor surface.
•

27
 Figure 16: Cylindrical Rotor
The cylindrical type of rotor construction is used in high-speed (1500 to 3000 RPM)
alternators such as those driven by steam turbines because of the following reasons −
• The cylindrical type of rotor construction provides greater mechanical strength
and permits more accurate dynamic balancing.
• It gives noiseless operation at high speeds because of the uniform air gap.
• The flux distribution around the periphery of the rotor is nearly a sine wave and
hence a better EMF waveform is obtained.
A cylindrical rotor alternator has a comparatively small diameter and long axial length. The
cylindrical rotor alternators are called turbo-alternators or turbogenerators. The alternator
with a cylindrical rotor has always horizontal configuration installation.
Working Principle and Operation of Alternator
An alternator or synchronous generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction,
i.e., when the flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. When
the armature winding of the alternator is subjected to the rotating magnetic field, the voltage
will be generated in the armature winding.
When the rotor field winding of the alternator is energized from the DC exciter, the alternate
N and S poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in the anticlockwise
direction by a prime mover, the armature conductors placed on the stator are cut by the
magnetic field of the rotor poles. As a result, the EMF is induced in the armature conductors
due to electromagnetic induction. This induced EMF is alternating because the N and S poles
of the rotor pass the armature conductors alternatively.
The direction of the generated electromotive force (EMF) can be determined using Fleming's
right-hand rule. According to this rule, if you point the thumb of your right hand in the direction
of the motion of a conductor, and the magnetic field lines are represented by the fingers of your
right hand, then the direction of the generated EMF is given by the direction in which your
palm faces.

The frequency of the generated EMF is a measure of how often the polarity of the voltage
changes per unit of time. It is given by:

Frequency = Number of cycles / Time

28
The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz), which represents the number of cycles per second. The
frequency of the generated EMF depends on various factors such as the speed of the rotating
machine, the number of poles in the generator, and the grid frequency (in the case of
synchronous generators).

Typical three-wire distribution system

A typical three-wire distribution system is a common configuration for delivering electrical
power to residential and small commercial consumers. It consists of three conductors: two live
or "hot" wires and one neutral wire.

Here are the key components and characteristics of a typical three-wire distribution system:

1. Live or "Hot" Wires: The two live or hot wires, often referred to as Phase A and Phase
B, carry the alternating current (AC) to the consumer's premises. The voltage between
each live wire and the neutral wire is known as the line-to-neutral voltage (Vln). In a
three-phase system, the voltage between the two live wires is known as the line-to-line
voltage (Vll).
2. Neutral Wire: The neutral wire serves as a reference point for the electrical circuit and
completes the return path for the current. It is typically grounded at the service entrance
to ensure electrical safety. The neutral wire carries the unbalanced current resulting
from the load differences between the two live wires.
3. Voltage Levels: The voltage levels in a three-wire distribution system can vary
depending on the region and electrical standards. In many countries, the typical line-to-
neutral voltage for residential and small commercial consumers is 120 volts or 240
volts, while the line-to-line voltage is higher, often 240 volts or 415 volts, depending
on the specific system.
4. Distribution Transformers: Distribution transformers are used to step down the voltage
from the higher voltage levels used in transmission systems to the lower voltage levels
suitable for distribution. They are typically located at distribution substations and
provide power to the three-wire distribution network.
5. Service Entrance: The service entrance is the point where the electrical service is
connected to the consumer's premises. It includes the connection between the utility's
distribution lines and the consumer's main distribution panel, where circuit breakers or
fuses protect the electrical circuits.
6. Load Distribution: In a three-wire distribution system, the loads should be balanced
between the two hot wires to ensure the currents in the live wires are equal, which
minimizes unbalanced currents in the neutral wire. Balancing the loads helps prevent
voltage fluctuations and reduces strain on the distribution system.
Types of AC Power Distribution Systems
According to the phases and wires involved, an AC distribution system can be classified as -

1. Single-phase, 2-wire system

2. Single-phase, 3-wire system
3. Two-phase, 3-wire system
4. Two-phase, 4-wire system
5. Three-phase, 3-wire system
6. Three-phase, 4-wire system

29
Single Phase, 2-Wire Distribution
This system may be used for very short distances. The following figure shows a single phase
two wire system with - fig (17) one of the two wires earthed, and fig. (18) the mid-point of
the phase winding is earthed.

Figure:17 Single phase two wire distribution

Single Phase, 3-Wire System
This system is identical in principle to a 3-wire dc distribution system. The neutral wire is
centre-tapped from the secondary winding of the transformer and earthed. This system is also
called as split-phase electricity distribution system. It is commonly used in North America for
residential supply.

Figure:18 Single phase three wire system

Two-Phase, 3-Wire System

In this system, the neutral wire is taken from the junction of two-phase windings whose
voltages are in quadrature with each other. The voltage between the neutral wire and either of
the outer phase wires is V. Whereas, the voltage between outer phase wires is √2V. As
compared to a two-phase 4-wire system, this system suffers from voltage imbalance due to
unsymmetrical voltage in the neutral.

30
 Figure 19: Two phase three wire system

Two-Phase, 4-Wire System

In this system, 4 wires are taken from two-phase windings whose voltages are in quadrature
with each other. Mid-point of both phase windings are connected together. If the voltage
between the two wires of the same phase is V, then the voltage between two wires of
different phase would be 0.707V.

Figure :20 Two phase four wire system

Three-Phase, 3-Wire Distribution System

Three-phase systems are very widely used for AC power distribution. The three phases may
be delta-connected or star connected with star point usually grounded. The voltage between
two phases or lines for a delta connection is V, where V is the voltage across a phase
winding. For a star connection, the voltage between two phases is √3V.

Figure 21: Three phase three wire distribution system

31
Three-Phase, 4-Wire Distribution System
This system uses star connected phase windings and the fourth wire or neutral wire is taken
from the star point. If the voltage of each winding is V, then the line-to-line voltage (line
voltage) is √3V and the line-to-neutral voltage (phase voltage) is V. This type of distribution
system is widely used in India and many other countries. In these countries, the standard
phase voltage is 230 volts and the line voltage is √3x230 = 400 volts. Single-phase residential
loads, single-phase which run on 230 volts, etc. are connected between any one phase and the
neutral. Three-phase loads like three-phase induction motors are put across all three phases
and the neutral.

Figure 22: Three phase four wire distribution system

Classification on the Basis of Connection Scheme

The distribution system can be classified according to its connection scheme or topology as
follows -

1. Radial system
2. Ring main system
3. Interconnected system

Two- wire service and typical consumer circuits

A two-wire service is a simplified electrical distribution system that consists of two conductors:
one live or "hot" wire and one neutral wire. This configuration is commonly used in older
residential and small commercial buildings where a lower capacity electrical service is
sufficient.

Here are the key components and characteristics of a two-wire service:

1. Live or "Hot" Wire: The live or hot wire carries the alternating current (AC) from the
electrical service entrance to the consumer's premises. The voltage between the live
wire and the neutral wire is known as the line-to-neutral voltage (Vln). In a two-wire
system, there is no second live wire or phase as in a three-phase system.
2. Neutral Wire: The neutral wire serves as a return path for the current and completes the
electrical circuit. It is typically grounded at the service entrance for safety purposes.
The neutral wire carries the unbalanced current resulting from the load differences
between the live wire and the neutral.

32
 3. Voltage Levels: The voltage levels in a two-wire system can vary depending on the
region and electrical standards. In many countries, the line-to-neutral voltage for
residential and small commercial consumers is typically 120 volts or 230 volts,
depending on the specific electrical system.
4. Consumer Circuits: In a two-wire service, typical consumer circuits include lighting
circuits, general-purpose outlets, and some low-power appliances. These circuits are
connected between the live wire and the neutral wire. It's important to note that certain
high-power appliances, such as electric stoves or air conditioners, may require a
dedicated circuit with a separate grounding conductor.
5. Load Considerations: Due to the limitations of a two-wire service, it has a lower
capacity compared to a three-wire service. The load considerations for a two-wire
service must take into account the available capacity to avoid overloading the system
and causing electrical issues. It is essential to balance the loads across the circuits to
prevent voltage drops and ensure safe operation.

Figure 23: Typical consumer unit installation

Power line parameters in an a.c supply

In an AC power supply, several parameters describe the characteristics of the power line. These
parameters are essential for understanding and analysing the behaviour of the power system.
Here are some commonly used power line parameters:

1. Voltage (V): Voltage is the potential difference between two points in the power line,
typically measured in volts (V). It represents the electrical pressure or force that drives
the current flow in the circuit.
2. Current (I): Current is the flow of electric charge in the power line, typically measured
in amperes (A). It represents the rate at which electric charges move through the circuit.
3. Power (P): Power is the rate at which electrical energy is consumed or produced in the
power line, typically measured in watts (W). It is the product of voltage and current,

33
 expressed as P = VI. Power can be further categorized into real power (active power),
reactive power, and apparent power.
4. Frequency (f): Frequency is the number of complete cycles per second of the alternating
current in the power line, typically measured in hertz (Hz). In most regions, the standard
frequency for AC power systems is 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
5. Impedance (Z): Impedance is the total opposition to the flow of alternating current in
the power line. It includes both resistance (R) and reactance (X). Impedance is
measured in ohms (Ω) and affects the flow of current and the voltage drop in the power
line.

6. Power Factor (PF): Power factor is the ratio of real power (active power) to apparent
power in an AC circuit. It represents the efficiency of power transfer and is a measure
of how effectively the circuit uses the supplied electrical power. Power factor ranges
from 0 to 1, with 1 being ideal (no reactive power).
7. Line Losses: Line losses refer to the power dissipated as heat during the transmission
and distribution of electrical power. Line losses occur due to resistance in the power
lines and result in a reduction in the amount of power available to consumers.

Electrical Building Services

In electrical building services, the wiring regulations refer to the specific guidelines and
standards that govern the installation, design, and maintenance of electrical wiring systems in
buildings. These regulations ensure the safety, reliability, and efficiency of electrical supply
within buildings. While the exact regulations may vary depending on the country or region,
there are generally recognized standards that are widely followed.

Here are some key aspects covered by wiring regulations:

1. Wiring System Design

The regulations specify requirements for the design of electrical wiring systems, including
the selection and sizing of conductors, cables, and protective devices. They address
considerations such as voltage drop, current-carrying capacity, circuit protection, and
circuit layout.
2. Cable Selection and Installation
The regulations provide guidelines for selecting appropriate cables based on factors such
as voltage, current, environmental conditions, and installation methods. They also define
the correct installation practices, including cable routing, securing, and protection against
mechanical damage.
3. Circuit Protection
Wiring regulations outline requirements for the installation of protective devices, such as
circuit breakers and fuses, to protect against overcurrent, short circuits, and electrical faults.
These devices are crucial for ensuring the safety of occupants and preventing damage to
electrical equipment.
4. Earthing and Bonding
The regulations cover the provision of earthing and bonding systems to ensure proper
grounding of electrical installations. This helps protect against electrical shock, prevents
the buildup of static charges, and provides a low-resistance path for fault currents.
5. Electrical Distribution and Consumer Units
The regulations address the installation and design of electrical distribution systems,
including consumer units or distribution boards. These guidelines specify requirements for
34
 the selection and installation of distribution equipment, circuit breakers, and residual
current devices (RCDs) for protection against electric shock.
6. Special Installations
Wiring regulations often include specific requirements for special installations or locations,
such as hazardous areas, swimming pools, medical facilities, outdoor installations, and
commercial kitchens. These regulations address additional safety measures and
considerations specific to these installations.
7. Testing and Inspection
The regulations typically require periodic testing and inspection of electrical installations to
verify compliance, ensure safety, and identify potential faults or deficiencies. These tests may
include insulation resistance tests, continuity tests, and functional checks.

35
 Figure 24: Typical domestic earthing diagram

Uses of circuit breakers and fuses

Circuit breakers and fuses are both protective devices used in electrical systems to prevent
damage caused by overcurrent, short circuits, and electrical faults. They serve the same
fundamental purpose of interrupting the flow of electrical current under abnormal conditions,

36
but they differ in their operating mechanisms and applications. Here are the uses of circuit
breakers and fuses:

Uses of Circuit Breakers:

1. Overcurrent Protection: Circuit breakers are primarily used for overcurrent protection.
They automatically detect excessive current flowing through a circuit and trip (open)
to interrupt the current flow, thereby preventing damage to the circuit and connected
equipment.
2. Short Circuit Protection: Circuit breakers provide protection against short circuits,
which occur when a low-resistance path is formed between two conductors. The high
current resulting from a short circuit can cause severe damage to the circuit and pose a
fire hazard. Circuit breakers quickly interrupt the current flow to prevent such incidents.
3. Overload Protection: Circuit breakers offer protection against prolonged overloads. An
overload occurs when the current flowing through a circuit exceeds its designed
capacity for an extended period. Circuit breakers can sense these sustained high currents
and trip to protect the circuit from overheating and potential damage.
4. Reusability: Circuit breakers are reusable devices. After tripping due to an overcurrent
or fault, they can be manually or automatically reset to restore the electrical supply once
the problem is resolved. This reusability makes circuit breakers convenient for ongoing
protection and maintenance of electrical systems.

Figure 25: Typical Three phase Circuit breaker diagram

37
 Figure 26: Typical single phase circuit breaker diagram

Uses of Fuses:

1. Overcurrent Protection: Fuses are commonly used for overcurrent protection in

electrical circuits. Like circuit breakers, they respond to excessive current by melting a
fusible element within the fuse. This opens the circuit and interrupts the current flow,
safeguarding the circuit and connected devices.
2. Short Circuit Protection: Fuses provide protection against short circuits, just like circuit
breakers. When a short circuit occurs, the high current causes the fusible element in the
fuse to melt, opening the circuit and preventing further damage.
3. Single-Use Protection: Fuses are typically single-use devices. Once the fusible element
melts and the circuit is interrupted, the fuse must be replaced with a new one. This
ensures that the faulty circuit is repaired, and the protection is restored.
4. Inexpensive Protection: Fuses are generally more cost-effective compared to circuit
breakers, making them suitable for certain applications where budget considerations are
crucial.

38
 Figure 27: Types of Fuses.

Illumination
The principles of lighting design and illumination requirements
The principles of lighting design and illumination revolve around creating visually
comfortable, functional, and aesthetically pleasing lighting environments. They consider
various factors such as the purpose of the space, the activities performed in the space, the visual
needs of occupants, energy efficiency, and the integration of lighting with architectural
elements. Here are some key principles of lighting design and illumination:

1. Adequate Illumination: The primary objective of lighting design is to provide sufficient

illumination for the intended tasks and activities within a space. This involves
determining the appropriate light levels based on the visual requirements of the
occupants and the specific tasks performed in the space.
2. Uniformity: Achieving uniform lighting distribution throughout a space helps minimize
visual discomfort, shadows, and glare. Uniformity ensures that light levels are
consistent across the area, allowing occupants to perceive objects and details accurately.
3. Contrast: Proper use of contrast in lighting design can enhance visual perception and
create a sense of depth and dimension. Balancing light and shadow helps distinguish
objects, textures, and architectural features, contributing to a visually appealing
environment.

39
 4. Task Lighting: Task lighting focuses on providing specific illumination for particular
tasks or activities, such as reading, cooking, or working at a desk. Task lighting should
be appropriately positioned and directed to minimize shadows and ensure optimal
visibility for the specific task at hand.
5. Ambient Lighting: Ambient lighting provides general illumination to create a
comfortable overall lighting level in a space. It establishes the basic lighting conditions
without specific focus on any particular area. Ambient lighting can be achieved through
a combination of natural light, overhead fixtures, and indirect lighting sources.
6. Accent Lighting: Accent lighting is used to highlight specific objects, architectural
features, or focal points in a space. It adds visual interest and creates a sense of drama.
Accent lighting can be achieved through spotlights, track lighting, or decorative fixtures
to draw attention to desired areas or objects.
7. Color Rendering: Lighting design should consider color rendering, which is the ability
of lighting to accurately represent colors. Proper color rendering ensures that objects
and spaces are perceived as intended, allowing for accurate visual assessment and a
more visually pleasing environment.
8. Energy Efficiency: Energy efficiency is an essential consideration in lighting design.
Selecting energy-efficient light sources, such as LED or CFL bulbs, and implementing
lighting controls, such as dimmers or occupancy sensors, can help reduce energy
consumption and operational costs.
9. Human-Centric Lighting: Human-centric lighting focuses on enhancing well-being,
productivity, and circadian rhythm by aligning lighting design with the natural patterns
of daylight. It involves adjusting lighting intensity, color temperature, and timing to
mimic the qualities of natural light throughout the day.
10. Aesthetics and Architectural Integration: Lighting design should harmonize with the
architectural elements and overall aesthetics of a space. The choice of fixtures, their
placement, and the quality of light should complement the design intent, enhancing the
visual appeal and atmosphere of the space.

Illumination Requirements
Illumination requirements refer to the specific guidelines and standards that dictate the
minimum recommended light levels for different tasks, activities, and environments. These
requirements are established to ensure adequate visibility, safety, and visual comfort in various
settings. Illumination requirements take into account factors such as the nature of the task, the
age and visual abilities of occupants, and the specific environment. Here are some examples of
illumination requirements in different contexts:

1. General Office Spaces: Illumination requirements for general office spaces typically
range from 300 to 500 lux (lumens per square meter). This level of illumination ensures
comfortable visibility for typical office tasks, such as reading documents, working on
computers, and moving around the space.
2. Educational Facilities: Educational facilities, such as classrooms and lecture halls,
require higher illumination levels to facilitate learning and visual engagement.
Recommended illumination levels in these spaces may range from 500 to 750 lux,
depending on the specific activities conducted.
3. Industrial Workspaces: In industrial settings, illumination requirements are often higher
to ensure the safe and efficient performance of tasks. Illumination levels in
manufacturing facilities, warehouses, and assembly lines may vary based on the nature

40
 of the work but generally range from 300 to 1,000 lux or more, depending on the
specific visual requirements and safety considerations.
4. Retail Spaces: Retail environments, such as stores and shopping malls, often require
higher illumination levels to create an appealing and visually stimulating atmosphere.
Illumination requirements can vary depending on the type of merchandise but typically
range from 500 to 1,000 lux or higher in display areas and customer service areas.
5. Outdoor Areas: Illumination requirements for outdoor areas, such as parking lots,
streets, and public spaces, aim to ensure visibility and safety during nighttime.
Standards vary by location, but recommended levels typically range from 10 to 50 lux
for general outdoor areas and may increase to 100 lux or more for specific task areas,
such as pedestrian walkways.
6. Healthcare Facilities: Illumination requirements in healthcare facilities, such as
hospitals and clinics, consider the need for accurate visual assessment, patient comfort,
and task-specific lighting. Illumination levels may vary depending on the specific area,
with recommended levels ranging from 200 to 1,000 lux or higher in examination
rooms, operating theatres, and critical care areas.

Example of Basic Illumination Calculations for a Hall

Let's assume we have a rectangular hall with the following dimensions:

Length = 10 meters Width = 8 meters Height = 4 meters
To perform a basic illumination calculation, we will need to consider the desired illuminance
level for the hall. Let's assume we aim for an illuminance level of 300 lux, which is commonly
used in many indoor environments.
The basic illumination calculation can be done using the following formula:
Illuminance (lux) = (Total Luminous Flux (lumens)) / (Area (square meters))
First, we need to calculate the area of the hall:
Area = Length x Width Area = 10m x 8m Area = 80 square meters
Next, we can calculate the required total luminous flux using the formula:
Total Luminous Flux = Illuminance x Area
Total Luminous Flux = 300 lux x 80 square meters Total Luminous Flux = 24,000 lumens
Therefore, to achieve an illuminance level of 300 lux in the hall, we would need a lighting
system that provides a total luminous flux of 24,000 lumens.

41
 Figure: 28 Example of a Good lighting

Control and distribution in buildings considering intake.

In the context of building services, control, and distribution systems play a crucial role in
managing the intake and distribution of various utilities within a building. Here's an overview
of control and distribution systems related to different utilities:

42
 1. Electrical Control and Distribution:
• Electrical control systems: These systems include switches, relays, and control
panels that allow the control and monitoring of electrical circuits and devices
within a building. They enable functions such as turning lights on/off,
controlling motorized equipment, and managing power distribution.
• Electrical distribution systems: These systems distribute electrical power
throughout the building from the main electrical intake. They typically include
circuit breakers or distribution boards to divide the electrical supply into various
circuits for different areas or functions within the building.
2. Water Control and Distribution:
• Water control systems: These systems involve valves, pumps, and control
mechanisms to regulate the flow of water within a building. They may include
water pressure control systems, flow control devices, and automated controls to
ensure adequate water supply and pressure management.
• Water distribution systems: These systems distribute water from the main water
intake to different areas within the building. They include piping networks,
fittings, and fixtures that deliver water to sinks, toilets, showers, and other water
outlets.
3. HVAC Control and Distribution:
• HVAC control systems: These systems control heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) equipment within a building. They involve thermostats,
sensors, dampers, and control panels to regulate temperature, humidity, and
airflow.
• HVAC distribution systems: These systems distribute conditioned air or water
throughout the building to maintain desired thermal comfort. They consist of
ductwork or piping networks that deliver heated or cooled air/water to various
spaces within the building.
4. Gas Control and Distribution:
• Gas control systems: These systems manage the flow and distribution of natural
gas or other gases within a building. They include gas control valves, regulators,
and safety devices to ensure safe operation and control of gas appliances.
• Gas distribution systems: These systems distribute gas from the main gas intake
to specific areas or appliances within the building. They comprise gas piping
networks, fittings, and connectors to deliver gas to gas-fired appliances such as
boilers, stoves, and water heaters.

Basic mathematical formulas of control and distribution in buildings for

intake
When it comes to control and distribution systems in buildings for intake, there are various
mathematical formulas used to calculate and assess different aspects of these systems. Here are
some basic mathematical formulas commonly used in building services engineering:

1. Power (P) Calculation:

• Power (P) = Voltage (V) × Current (I) This formula calculates the electrical
power in watts (W) based on the voltage and current.
2. Ohm's Law:
• Voltage (V) = Current (I) × Resistance (R) This formula relates the voltage,
current, and resistance in an electrical circuit.

43
 3. Electrical Load Calculation:
• Electrical Load (W) = Voltage (V) × Current (I) This formula calculates the
electrical load in watts based on the voltage and current.
4. Power Factor (PF) Calculation:
• Power Factor (PF) = Real Power (P) / Apparent Power (S) This formula
calculates the power factor, which is the ratio of real power to apparent power.
5. Apparent Power (S) Calculation:
• Apparent Power (S) = Voltage (V) × Current (I) This formula calculates the
apparent power in volt-amperes (VA) based on the voltage and current.
6. Voltage Drop Calculation:
• Voltage Drop (V) = Current (I) × Resistance (R) × Length (L) / Cross-sectional
Area (A) This formula calculates the voltage drop that occurs along a conductor
based on the current, resistance, length, and cross-sectional area.
7. Circuit Breaker Sizing:
• Circuit Breaker Size (A) ≥ Load Current (I) + Safety Margin This formula
determines the appropriate circuit breaker size by considering the load current
and adding a safety margin.
8. Conduit Sizing:
• Conduit Size = (Number of Cables × Cable Diameter) + Fill Factor This formula
calculates the conduit size required based on the number of cables and their
diameter, considering the fill factor.
Control and distribution in buildings considering diversity.
In the context of building services, control and distribution systems may also take into account
the concept of diversity. Diversity refers to the variation in demand or load among different
building services or areas within a building. It recognizes that not all services or areas have the
same simultaneous demand or usage patterns.

Control and distribution systems in buildings can be designed to accommodate diversity in

order to optimize the efficiency and capacity of the building's utilities. Here's how diversity
relates to control and distribution in buildings:

1. Electrical Diversity:
• Electrical control and distribution systems can consider the diversity of
electrical loads in different areas or systems within a building. For example,
lighting loads, HVAC loads, and power loads may have different usage patterns
and peak demands. By understanding and accounting for this diversity, the
electrical distribution system can be designed to handle the combined peak
loads without overloading the system.
2. Water Diversity:
• Water control and distribution systems can be designed with an understanding
of the diverse water demand patterns in different areas of a building. Areas with
higher water usage, such as bathrooms and kitchens, may have simultaneous
peak demands at different times. By considering this diversity, the water
distribution system can be designed to ensure adequate water supply and
pressure without undersizing or oversizing the pipes and equipment.
3. HVAC Diversity:
• HVAC control and distribution systems can account for the diversity in heating
and cooling demands in different areas or zones within a building. Spaces with
varying thermal loads, occupancy levels, or usage patterns may require different

44
 heating or cooling capacities at different times. By incorporating zoning,
variable speed control, or energy management strategies, HVAC systems can
adapt to the diverse demands and optimize energy efficiency.
4. Gas Diversity:
• Gas control and distribution systems can consider the diversity in gas demand
for various appliances or systems within a building. Gas-fired equipment, such
as boilers, water heaters, or kitchen appliances, may have different usage
patterns or simultaneous demands. Properly sizing the gas distribution system
and regulating the gas supply based on the diversity of these demands can ensure
efficient and reliable operation.

Basic mathematical formulas of control and distribution in buildings for

diversity.
When considering diversity in control and distribution systems in buildings, there are no
specific mathematical formulas that universally apply to all scenarios. The calculations and
formulas used depend on the specific building services, the nature of diversity being
considered, and the design requirements. However, I can provide some general concepts and
mathematical formulas that are commonly used in building services engineering:

1. Diversity Factor (DF):

• The diversity factor represents the ratio of the sum of individual loads to the
maximum demand. It is used to account for the diversity in simultaneous usage
of different services or areas within a building.
• Diversity Factor (DF) = Sum of Individual Loads / Maximum Demand
2. Diversified Load:
• The diversified load is the result of multiplying the individual loads by their
respective diversity factors. It represents the adjusted load that considers the
diversity in usage patterns.
• Diversified Load = Individual Load * Diversity Factor
3. Load Factor:
• The load factor is a measure of the average power demand relative to the
maximum demand over a specific period. It is used to assess the utilization of
electrical or HVAC systems.
• Load Factor = Average Power Demand / Maximum Demand
4. Power Demand:
• Power demand is the rate at which electrical power is consumed by equipment
or systems within a building.
• Power Demand = Voltage * Current
5. Voltage Drop:
• Voltage drop is the reduction in voltage that occurs as current flows through
electrical conductors. It is important to calculate and control voltage drop to
ensure proper operation of electrical equipment.
• Voltage Drop = (Resistance * Length * Current) / Cross-sectional Area

45
46