Entlocring Sysbeny Functions oF Endocrine system 1.Water equilibrium + The endocrine system controls water equilibrium by regulating the solute concentration of the blood. 2. Growth, metabolism, and tissue maturation + The endocrine system controls the growth o¢ many tissues, like the bone and muscle, and the degree ‘oF metabolism of various tissues, which aids in the maintenance oF the normal body temperature and normal mental functions. Maturation of tissues, which appears in the development oF adult features and adult behavior, are also determined by the endocrine system. blood pressure management. + The endocrine system assists in managing the heart rate and blood pressure and aids in preparing the body gor physical motion. Immune system control + The endocrine system helps regulate the production and functions oF immune 5. Reproductive function controls « The endocrine system regulates the development and the ¢unctions of the reproductive systems in males and Females. 6. Ute contractions and milk rel + The endocrine system controls uterine contractions throughout the delivery of the newborn and stimulates milk release ¢rom the breasts in lactating ¢emales. 7. lon management + The endocrine system regulates Na+, K+, and Ca2+ concentrations in the blood. Blood glucose regulator + The endocrine system controls blood glucose levels and other nutrient levels in the blood. 9. Direct gene activation + Being lipid-soluble molecules, the steroid hormones can di¢guse through plasma membranes of their target cells; once inside, the steroid hormone enters the nucleus and binds to a speci¢ic receptor ‘5 DNA, protein ther sites on the ce hen, the hormone-receptor complex binds to speci activating certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA; the mRNA then is translated in the cytoplasm, resulti in the synthesis of new proteins.10. Second messenger system Water-soluble, nonsteroidal hormones-protein, and peptide hormones. are unable to enter the target they bind to receptors situated on the target cell’s plasma membrane and utilize a cells, so inste second messenger system. Anatomy of the Endocrine System Pituitary gland Hypothalamus (secretes many digferent hormones, some (brain region controlling the OF which aggect other glands) pituitary gland) rathyroids egulate level of calcium Thyroid gland (ag¢ects metabolism, among other in the blood) things) ‘Adrenal gi (help trigger the Fight-or-Flight response) (regulates the level o¢ sugar in the blood) ovary (secretes ¢emale sex hormones) (secret Hypothalamus The hypothalamus, which is part of the nervous system, is also considered as @ major endocrine organ because it produces several hormones. It is an important autonomic nervous system and endocrine control center of the brain located ingerior to the thalamus. Mixed gunctions ly endocrine, the function oF others Although the function of some hormont (pancreas and gonads) isPituitary Gland + The pituitary gland is approximately the size oF + The pituitary gland hangs by a stalk From the ingerior surgace of the hypothalamus oF the brain, where it is snugly surrounded by the “Turk’s s idle” oF the sphenoid bone. «It has two functional lobes- the anterior pituitary (glandular tissue) and the posterior pituitary (nervous tissue). Pinen!, Hypothalamus, and Piitory Gland Brain Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary Ingundibulum Posterior Pituitary gland pituitary Spinal cord @ Hormones oF the Anterior Pituitary Growth hormone (GH) Growth hormone is a general metabolic hormone, however, its major effects are directed to the growth of skeletal muscles and long bones of the body; it is a protein-sparing and anabolic hormone ‘that causes amino acids to ize and built into proteins and stimulates most target cells to grow in divid lactin (PRL) Prolactin is a protein hormone structurally similar to growth hormone; its only known target in humans is the breast because, agter childbirth, it stimulates and maintains milk production by the mother’sAdrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) + ACTH regulates the endocrine activity of the cortex portion of the adrenal gland, Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) + TSH, also called thyrotropin hormone ingluences the growth and id gland tivity oF the thyr: jotropic hormones + The gonadotropic hormones regulate the hormonal activity of gonads (ovaries and testes). Follicles-stimulating hormone (FSH) + FSH stimulates gollicle development in the ovaries: as the follicles mature, they produce estrogen ‘and eggs that are readied ¢or ovulation; in men, FSH stimulates sperm development by the testes. Luteinizing hormone (tH) + UH triggers ovulation of an egg From the ovary and causes the ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and some estrogen; in men, LH stimulates testosterone production by the interstitial cells oF the testes. Hormones oF the Posterior Pituitary The posterior pituitary is not an endocrine gland in the strict sense because it does not make the peptide hormones it releases, but it simply acts as a storage area for hormones made by hypothalamic neurons. Oxytocin + Oxytocin is released in signi¢icant amount only during childbirth and in nursing women; it stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle during labor, during sexual relations, and during breastfeeding and also causes milk ejection (let-doun reflex) in a nursing woman. ‘Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) + ADH causes the idneys to ri ibsorb more water From the Forming OF urine; as a result, urine volume decreases and blood volume increases; in larger amounts, ADH also increases blood pressure by causing constriction of the arterioles, so it is sometimes referred to as vasopressin.Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland is a hormone-producing gland that is ¢amiliar to most people primarily because lame their overweight condition on their “glands” (thyroid), many obese individual Thyroi) ond Porothyroid) Glands Thyroid cartilage Ingerior thyroid jands it the base oF the throat, just inferior to the Adam's apple, where it is easily palpated during @ physical examination. + It is a fairly large gland consisting oF two lobes joined by a central mass, or isthmus. + Internally, the thyroid gland is composed of hollow structures called follicles, which store a sticky colloidal material. Types oF thyroid hormones + Thyroid hormone often referred to as thi 's mayor metabolic hormone, is actually two active, iodine-cont , thyroxine or T4, and triiodothyronine or T3. jing hormor + Thyroid hormone controls the rate at which glucose is “burne \d converted to body heat and chemical energy; it is also important For normal tissue growth and development. Thyroxine by the thyroid follicles. += Thyroxine is the mayor hormone secretsTriiodothyronine + Most triiodothyronine is Formed at the target tissues by conversion of the thyroxine to triiodothyronine. Calcitonin + Calcitonin decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited in the bones; calcitonin is made by the s alled parafollicular cells found in the connective tissues between the Follicl arathyroid Glands + The parathyroid glands are mostly tiny masses of glandular tissue. + The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gl + Parathormone The athyroids secrete rathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone, which is the most important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of the blood; PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone (that is, acts to increase blood levels of calcium), whe: s calcitoni stimulates the kidneys and intestines to absorb more calcium. is @ hypocalcemic hormone.; PTH also Adrenal Glands + Although the adrenal gland looks like a single organ, it is structurally and ¢unctionally two endocrine organs in one. Right kidney Glomerulos: Fasciculata Adrenal Cortex Adrenal MedullaHormones oF the Adrenal Cortex + The ‘enal cortex produces three major groups o¢ steroid hormones, which are collectively called corticosteroids— mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones, Mineralocorticoids + The mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone, are produced by the outermost adrenal cortex cell layer; mineralocorticoids are important in regulating the mineral (or salt) content oF the blood, particularly the concentrations of sodium and potassium ions and they also help in gulating the water and electrolyte balance in the body. + Renin, an enzyme produced by the kidneys when the blood pressure drops, also cause the release oF aldosterone by triggering a series oF reactions that ¢orm angiotensin II, a potent stimulator o¢ aldosterone release.. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) «ANP prevents aldosterone release, its goal being to reduce blood volume and blood p Glucocorticoids + The middle cortical layer mainly produces glucocorticoids, which include cortisone and cortisol; Glucocorticoids promote normal cell metabolism and help the body to ist long-term stressors, primarily by increasing blood glucose levels, thus it is sai to be a hyperglycemic hormone; it also reduce pain and in¢lammation by inhibiting some pain-causing molecules called prostaglandins. Sex hormones + Both male and Female sex hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex throughout lige in relatively small amounts; although the bulk of sex hormones produced by the innermost cortex layer are androgens (male sex hormones), some estrogens (female sex hormones), are also formed. Hormones o¢ the Adrenal Cortex Catecholamines + When the medulla is stimulated by sympathetic nervous system neurons, its cells release two si hormones, epinephrine, also called adrenaline, and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), into the bloodstre ollectively, thi to as catecholamin ¢ hormones are regerr+ Basically, the Catecholamines increase heart rate, blood pr ure, and blood gluco: the small passageways of the lungs; the catecholamines of the adrenal medulla prey cope with a brieg or short-term stressful situation and cause the so-called alarm stage of the stress response Pancreatic Islets located close to the stomach in the = The pancre yminal cavity, is a mix Islets og Langerhons Poncrealio Tissne + The islets o¢ Langerhans also call islets, are little masses of hormone-producing Gallbladder Pancreatic duct pancreas tissue that a attered among the enzyme- | producing acinar tissue of the pancr Common bile duct Islet cells A ory pancreatic + Islet cells act as fuel sensors, secreting duct nal papilla Duodenum insulin and glucagon appropriately during ¢ed and Fasting states. + Two important hormones produced by (with exocrine cells) the islet cells are insulin and glucagon. Pancreatic iste (with endocrine cells) Pancreatic duct + Insulin acts on just about all the body cells and increases their ability to transport glucose across their plasma membranes; because insulin sweeps glucose out of the blood, its e¢fect is said to be hypoglycemic. Glucagon + Glucagon acts as an antagonist of insulin; that is, it helps to regulate blood gluco jevels but ing way opposite that oF insulin; its action is basically hyperglycemic and its primary target organ is the liver, which it stimulates to break down stored glycogen into glucose and release the glucose into the blood. Beta cells + High levels of glucose in the blood stimulate the release of insulin ¢rom the beta cells o¢ the islets. Alpha cells + Glucagon’s release by the alpha cells of the islets is stimulated by low blood glucose levels.Pineal Gland + The pineal gland, also called the pineal body, is a small cone-shaped gland. + The pineal gland hangs from the roog o¢ the third ventricle o¢ the brain. + Mel ‘onin is the only hormone that appears to be secreted in substantial amounts by the pineal gland; the levels og melatonin rise and fall during the course of the day and night; peak levels occur at night and make us drowsy as melatonin is believed to be the ep trigger” that plays an important role in establishing the body's day-night cycle | Pineal Gland Pituitary Gland Pons medulla oblongata \\ Spinal cord Cerebellum Thymus Gland + The thymus gland is large in ingants and children and ases in size throughout adulthood. + The thymus gland is located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum. + The thymus produces a hormone called thymosin and othe: that appear to be essential ¢or normal development of a special group of white blood cells (T-lymphocytes, or T cells) and the immune response. Gonads « The Female and male gonads produce sex hormones that are identical to those produced by adrenal cortex cells; the mayor dig ference are the source and relative amount produced.ne Ovaries ized organs. + The gemale gonads are located in the pelvic cavity. + Besides producing ¢emale sex cells, ovaries produce two groups oF steroid hormones, estrogen, and progesterone. Estrog + Alone, the estrogens are responsible gor the development o¢ sex characteristics in women at puberty; acting with progesterone, estrogens promote breast development and cyclic changes in the uterine lining (menstrual cycle). Progesterone + Progesterone acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycl regnancy, it quiets the muscles of the uterus so that an implanted embryo will not be aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation, Hormones oF the Testes + The tes 5 are suspended in a sac, the scrotum, outside the pelvic cavity. + In addition to male sex cells, or sperm, the testes also produce mal sex hormones, or androgens, of which testosterone is the most important. Testosterone + At puberty, testosterone promotes the growth and maturation oF the reproductive system organs to pare the young man For reproduction; it also causes the male's secondary sex characteristics to appear and stimulates male sex drive; Testosterone is also necessary for the continuous production oF Other Hormone-Producing Tisswes ond Organs Placenta + The placenta is a remarkable organ formed temporarily in the uterus oF ‘egnant women. + In addition to its roles as the respiratory, excretory, and nutrition delivery systems For the Fetus, it also produces several proteins and steroid hormones that help to maintain the pregnancy and pave the way or livery of the baby.Human chorionic gonadotropin + During very early pregnancy, @ hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by the developing embryo and then by the fetal part of the placenta; hCG stimulates the ovaries to continue producing estrogen and progesterone so that the lining of the uterus is not sloughed o¢¢ in the menses. Human placental ictogen (hPL) + hPL works cooperatively with estrogen and progesterone in preparing the breasts For lactation. + Relaxin, 5 the mother’ nother placental hormone, cai pelvic ligaments and the pubic symphysis to relax and become more flexible, which eases birth passage. Physiology of the Endocrine System Although hormones have widespread ergects, the major processes they control are reproduct: ag and regulating cellular metabolism ar growth, and development; m ing the body's degens it stres: rs; maintaining electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance o¢ the bloo energy balance. The Chemistry o¢ Hormones + The key to the incredible power of the endocrine glands is the hormones they produce and secrete. + Hormones may be degined chemical substances that are secreted by endocrine cells into the extracellular ¢luids ind regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body. + Although many dig ge nt hormones are produced, nearly all o¢ them can be classi¢ied chemically as either amino acid-based molecules (including proteins, pepti amines) or steroids. + Steroid hormones (made ¢rom cholesterol) include the sex hormones made by the gonads and hormones produced by the adrenal cortex. = Amino acid-t jed hormones All the others are nonsteroidal amino acid derivati Mechanisms oF Hormone Action + Although the blood-borne hormones circulate to all the organs of the body, a given hormone a¢fects only certain tissue cells or organs. + Target cells For a target cell to respond to the hormone, specific protein receptors must be present on its plasma membrane or in its interior to which that hormone can attach; only when this binding occurs can the hormone ingluence the workings of cells, + The hormones bring about their e¢gects on, the body cells primarily by altering cellular activity- that is, by increasing or decreasing the 0F a normal, or usual, metabolic process rather than sti new one.+ Target cells. The ecise chang that follow hormone binding 4 nd on the speci¢ic hormone and the target cell type, but typically one or more oF the Following occurs: Changes in hormone binding 1.Changes in pl ma membrane permeability or electrical state. 2.Synthesis of protein or certain regulatory molecules (such as enzymes) in the cell 3. Activation o1 activation oF enzymes. 4.Stimulation oF mitosis. 5.Promotion of secretory activity. Control o¢ Hormone Release Negative geedback mechanisms + Negative feedback mechanisms are the chief means of regulating blood levels of nearly all hormones. Endocrine gland stimuli + The stimuli that activate the endocrine organs gall into thr humor; major categories hormonal, 4 neural, Hormonal stimuli + The most common stimulus is @ hormonal stimulus, in which the endocrine organs are prodded into action by other hormones; For example, hypothalamic hormones stimulate the anterior Pituitary gland to secrete its hormones, and many anterior pituitary hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones into the blood. Humoral stimuli + Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients may also stimulate hormone reli this is regerred to as humoral stimul ‘or example, the release oF thyroid hormone (PTH) by cells of the parathyroid glands is prompted by decreasing blood calcium levels. Neural stimuli + In isolated cases, nerve ¢ibers stimulate hormone relea: and the target cells are said to respond to neural stimuli; a classic example is sym thetic nervous system stimulation o¢ the adrenal medulla to rel fe norepinephrine and epinephrine during p iods oF stress.